Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 293–300

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Engineering Research

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-engineering-research

Improving geotechnical properties of soil of hillock slope using crushed

recycled concrete aggregates ]]
]]]]]]
]]

⁎,1
Shriful Islam , Junaidul Islam, Nur Md. Robiul Hoque, Khairul Hasan
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With the massive expansion of urbanization worldwide, a huge volume of construction and demolition waste
Soil improvement (CDW) generation has become a common issue along with CDW from controlled demolition and earthquakes,
Recycled concrete aggregate which causes a tremendous headache for environmentalists. Moreover, sliding and failure of the slope of hil­
Hillock locks, hills, roads, and earthen dams raise concerns for geotechnical engineers. Among the several methods of
RCA column
improving the geotechnical behaviour of soil of the slopes, this research utilized CDW-based recycled concrete
Permeability
aggregates (RCA) to improve slopes of two hillocks named GK and BH. The crushed RCA was applied in various
percentages, 5–35 %, in the soil mass and as a circular column to observe the improvement of the soil's geo­
technical properties that largely influence slope stability. RCA column, a sustainable alternative to the sand,
stone, or other natural materials column, can work as a vertical drain with an improved permeability of slope
geo-material to improve infiltration. The soil samples with 30 % RCA mixed and RCA columns inserted into the
soil mass resulted in lower consolidation settlement, compressibility index, and higher shear strength para­
meters. Moreover, 30 % RCA column increased the permeability by 6 and 7-times for the hillocks GK and BH,
respectively, which reduces the chance of excess pore water pressure (PWP) development that can trigger the
failure of a slope. Improving soil properties with recycled concrete aggregates can be a sustainable way to solve
weak soil and failure issues of low-permeable low-height natural hillocks.

Introduction proper construction methods. Artificial activities like unconscious cut­

ting of hills, cultivation, deforestation, etc. weaken the slope of hills,
Hillocks or hills hold great sources of natural beauty in the hilly which can lead to catastrophic failure [4,5]. The soil type and strength,
terrain zone of a country. In Bangladesh, hilly terrain makes up 12 % of stratification, discontinuities, seepage of water through the slopes,
the country's total land area. Most of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, a few groundwater level, and slope geometry are the primary elements in­
spots in southern Habiganj, and the southern and eastern edges of fluencing the slope stability of the hills and hillocks situated in Ban­
Moulavi Bazar, and Sylhet are surrounded by northern and eastern gladesh, namely Chittagong and Sylhet regions [6–8]. Excessive cutting
Tertiary hills. The northern and eastern hill ranges are composed pri­ of slopes of the hills and other natural events like earthquakes and
marily of long, linear ridges that normally run north-south along rainfall cause heartrending events in Sylhet and Chittagong.
Bangladesh's eastern border [1]. However, hillocks often get damaged Many researchers used different methods for stabilizing slopes by
due to the shallow slide, also known as slope failure, which is one of the improving soil properties of slopes [9], using vertical drains in the slope
several landslide types and is harmful in steeper mountainous areas as [10,11], growing herbs and grass on the slope [12], controlling soil
well as for low-height hillocks, roadways, and earth dams [2]. There are erosion of slope by fine and coarse roots [13]. Badhon et al. [14] im­
many hills and hillocks in the south-eastern and north-eastern part of proved the shear strength parameter of soil with vetiver roots, which
Bangladesh. The slopes of these hills and hillocks have lasted naturally also reduced the erosion of soil. Koda & Osinski [15] presented several
for many years. They may collapse for various reasons, such as changes soil reinforcing methods to be applied for slope stabilization of a
in landscape, earthquake, excess water pressure, heavy rainfall, loss of landfill, especially by constructing berms with ballast, garbage, and soil
shear strength, changes in stress, and weathering [3]. Due to rapid residues. Mizal-Azzmi et al. [16] concerned with stope stability and
urbanization, people settle in the hills and hillocks without following focussed mainly on new and prevailing remedial practises and

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (S. Islam).
1
ORCID: 0000-0002-8148-4750

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jer.2023.100139
Received 21 March 2023; Received in revised form 24 June 2023; Accepted 26 June 20232307-1877/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of
Kuwait University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Islam, J. Islam, N.Md. R. Hoque et al. Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 293–300

Fig. 1. Used samples of different materials: a) GK, b) BH, and c) RCA.

geotechnical methodologies to slope protection in the residential area. interface shear strength up to a certain point before remaining constant.
Mulia & Prasetyorini [17] worked on slope soil stabilization by main­ As the normal load increased, the geosynthetic and RCA sandwich in­
taining conservation function through reforestation that also helped terface's interaction coefficient decreased [28]. Yun et al. [29] observed
reduce surface runoff and enabled more water seepage into the the hydraulic conductivity as well as cations exclusion rate from the soil
groundwater aquifer. Sun et al. [11] presented a better siphon drainage to be increased as the CDW content increased due to the calcium ions
system with an inclined borehole piercing the deeper portion of the present in the CDW. These findings imply that the use of previously
slope to address the drawbacks of the conventional approach. The dumped CDW can minimize both the amount of trash and the pro­
outcomes of Sun et al. [11] showed that the difference in elevation duction of hydrogen sulphide [29].
between the groundwater table and the orifice manageable with an Above mentioned research improved soil by different ways using
inclined pipe to be small compared to the height of water column re­ construction and demolition waste or recycled concrete aggregates,
garding local atmospheric pressure. Ramkrishnan et al. [18] modelled while this research utilized sand-sized recycled concrete aggregates
soil slopes with different geometries in a container with fixed water (RCA) to improve the geotechnical properties of slope’s soil of two
input to replicate groundwater flow using sand drain. The optimum hillocks of Shahjalal University of Science and Technology (SUST),
PWP levels were established for each slope both with and without Sylhet, Bangladesh, to evaluate the results after adding the RCA. The
loads. The tests were then repeated for a predetermined amount of time two hillocks are: the hillock beside Bangabandhu Hall (BH), named BH
after installing vertical sand drains down the slope. hillock, and Gazi Kalo (GK) hillock. Other hillocks, or slopes with si­
Moreover, construction and demolition waste generation at a very milar soil properties as the hillocks GK and BH can also be treated with
high rate is becoming a great concern for environmental activists as it is RCA. Moreover, the RCA particles are applied in the slope’s soil as a
responsible for about 33 % of global total solid waste production and is uniform mix in different percentages and RCA columns to evaluate the
expected to be even more in the future [19]. In recent times, researchers improvements of soil properties that can improve the stability of the
have been more interested in utilizing CDW as RCA in different geo­ slopes. Apart from most of the researchers, RCA particle size is crushed
technical applications such as soil improvement [20–23]. Prajapati & and sieved to sand size as it closes to the grain size of the studied soil to
Rangwala [24] presented the effectiveness of using CDW as a reinfor­ maintain similarity between applied RCA and the soil of the hillocks.
cing material for backfilling soil in retaining walls. For distinct CDW
and soil proportions, different geotechnical properties of the soil and Materials and methods
CDW, such as compaction and shear strength parameters, were ana­
lysed and compared, mainly focusing on the potential use of CDW as a Materials and sample preparation
backfill material with soil in retaining wall. Kumar & Bhushan [25]
effectively used recycled concrete demolition waste as backfill for earth The soil samples were collected from the hillocks of BH and GK from
retaining walls. Rahardjo et al. [26] used fine sand to create the fine- Shahjalal University of Science and Technology Campus, Sylhet. Firstly,
grained sheet for capillary barrier system (CBS), while RCA was used to the field density and moisture content of the samples were tested. The
create the coarse-grained layer. Gravels or granite chips are frequently soil samples were then oven-dried at 60 ⁰C for at least 24 h and crushed
used in the construction of the coarse-grained layer. Nonetheless, cru­ using a wooden hammer. Again, the recycled concrete aggregates
shed RCAs were employed as the coarse-grained layer due to a lack of (RCA) were prepared as same as soil but pulverized using a stone
resources and a concern for environmental sustainability, and the hy­ hammer after collecting from a demolished building site in Sylhet city.
draulic property criteria were satisfactory for crushed RCAs to be re­ Fig. 1 shows the soil samples and prepared RCA materials used in this
used as a material in the coarse-grained layer of a CBS [26]. Zhang et al. research.
[27] performed unconfined compressive strength and flexural strength
experiments on soil and soil-CDW samples at 7, 14, and 28 days to Mixing of materials
assess the development of strength. According to the test results, adding
more Portland cement and sodium sulfate significantly improved the After preparing the soil samples and RCA particles, the soil was
mechanical behaviour; however, adding too much CDW waste and mixed with RCA in different percentages to compare the test results of
polypropylene fibers deteriorated soil strength. Ouria et al. [28] applied different geotechnical parameters. The samples were tested on prepared
RCA as a coarse-grained material to increase the pull-out capability of soil samples and soil-RCA mixed samples, where the mixing ratios of
geosynthetics by at least 50 % of the pull-out capacity of sand, de­ RCA to soil were taken as 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, 20 %, 25 %, 30 %, and 35 %
pending on the geosynthetics, RCA layer depth and the degree of ap­ of soils dry weight. After adding the desired amount of RCA percentages
plied stress. The sandwich layer's thickness increased together with the into the soil, the soil-RCA was mixed properly so that RCA particles

294
S. Islam, J. Islam, N.Md. R. Hoque et al. Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 293–300

uniformly spread throughout the soil sample. Direct shear test

Direct shear device was used to determine the cohesion (c) and the
Test for geotechnical characterization of soil angle of friction (φ) of the soil samples and soil-RCA mixed samples
following ASTM D3080 [39]. After the experiment was run several
The field density test of the soil samples was done in the field while times for various vertical stresses, a plot of the vertical (normal) stress
sampling in different locations. According to ASTM D1556 [30], the test vs. shear stress was drawn for each test. A straight-line approximation
procedure was conducted to determine the field density of soils using of Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope was drawn in normal stress vs. shear
sand cone method. The natural water content of each soil sample was stress plot, and subsequently the values of c and φ of the samples were
determined by following ASTM D2216 [31]. The water pycnometer of determined.
250 ml capacity was used to determine the specific gravity of the soil
following ASTM D854 [32]. Series of sieve analysis tests were carried
SEM analysis test
out to find the grain size distribution of the soil following ASTM D6913
[33]. After analyzing the percentage of gravel, sand, silt, and clay
The soil samples from hillocks GK and BH, RCA aggregates, and 30
particles, the soil sample of all hillocks was classified according to
% RCA-soil mixed samples were dried at 40⁰ C for 48 h. The Philips
USDA [34]. A laboratory compaction test was performed according to
XL30 SFEG SEM electron microscope analysis system was used in the
ASTM D698 [35].
laboratory of Atomic Energy Centre, Dhaka, Bangladesh to conduct
SEM analysis on parallel specimens. The scanning specimen was first
inflated to a vacuum state before the test, and then its surface was gold-
Permeability test
plated. The accelerating voltage of 30 kV was used to operate the mi­
croscope. SEM images enabled the visualization of the morphological
The soil samples were taken for permeability test using the constant
and spatial structure of the investigated materials. The scanned spe­
head method following ASTM D2434 [36] for sandy and silty soil
cimen was then positioned for microstructural inspection at x500,
samples and falling head test following ASTM D5856 [37] for clay type
x1000, and x1500 times magnification.
soil samples. The soil sample of the constant head test contained about
8–9 % of disturbed soil particles passed through sieve No. 200. On the
other hand, the falling head test samples were carried out in a com­ Results and discussions
pacted condition at MDD following ASTM D698 [35]. After completing
multiple tests of samples from each location, the average value of k was Geotechnical index properties
calculated for different soil samples in different conditions.
Field density of the soil sample was calculated during sampling in
the field from different locations. The field density of the soil sample
Consolidation test from the hillock of Gazi Kalu (GK) is 1.68 g/cm3, while the sample of
Bangabandhu Hall (BH) has a field density of 1.56 g/cm3. Average
The soil and RCA mixed soil samples were tested obtain the con­ moisture contents of the soil samples from GK and BH hillocks are 19.3
solidation behavior using incremental loading conditions according to % and 16.4 %, respectively. The specific gravity of the soil sample from
ASTM D2435M [38]. The initial height and diameter of the sample is GK is 2.74, while that of BH is 2.68. Fig. 3 describes the particle size
20 mm and 75 mm, respectively. The settlement of the samples was distribution of the materials used in this research. The soil sample of GK
monitored continuously during the testing period for d stress of 6.11 contains 8.57 % clay, 81.93 % silt, and 9.5 % sand, whereas the sample
kPa, 12.22 kPa, 24.45 kPa, 48.9 kPa, 97.8 kPa, and 195.6 kPa with each of BH has 55.3 % clay, 19.8 % silt, and 24.9 % sand. According to USDA
loading step maintained for 24-hr. Compressibility index, Cc was cal­ [34], the GK hillock sample is silty soil with a portion of sand and clay,
culated from the test data to observe the consolidation characteristics of while that of BH is clayey soil with silt and sand. The dry density of
the soil. After observing the settlement and compressibility index of different soil samples in different water content obtained in the com­
RCA mixed samples, the optimum RCA content was applied to prepare a paction test is shown in Fig. 4. The maximum dry density (MDD) of the
triangular patterned circular RCA column in the soil in oedometer cell, GK hillock is 1.72 g/cm3 with an optimum moisture content (OMC) of
followed by Islam et al. [21] as shown in Fig. 2. 19.3 %, while the hillock of BH has an MDD of 1.69 g/cm3 with an OMC

Fig. 2. Consolidation mold with circular RCA columns in triangular grid pattern a) schematic diagram, b) sample prepared in the laboratory.

295
S. Islam, J. Islam, N.Md. R. Hoque et al. Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 293–300

Fig. 3. Grain size distribution of soil samples and RCA.

Fig. 4. Compaction characteristics of soil samples and with RCA.

of 19.8 %. As described in Fig. 4, the OMC of the soil sample decreased percentages was applied in soil samples, the coefficient of permeability,
with the addition of RCA, while the MDD increased with the increase in k was significantly increased. For the soil sample of GK with 5 % RCA,
RCA content in the soil-RCA mixture. For 30 % RCA in the soil mix, the k value was found as 1.56E-07 m/s. Further addition of RCA content
MDD is found as 1.84 g/cm3 and 1.82 g/cm3, and OMC is 14.1 % and in soil samples increases the permeability of the soil and becomes
14.3 % for the samples of hillocks GK, and BH, respectively. The RCA 1.90E-07 m/s, 2.20E-07 m/s, 2.65E-07 m/s, 3.12E-07 m/s, 3.70E-07 m/
particles interact with the soil and fill the voids inside, which results in s, and 3.76E-07 m/s for 10 % RCA, 15 % RCA, 20 % RCA, 25 % RCA, 30
greater dry density, while the lower water absorption rate of granular % RCA, and 35 % RCA, respectively, in the soil-RCA mixture. Again, the
RCA particles causes lessening the OMC of the RCA mixed soil sample of hillock BH also shows an increase in k-value with the increase in RCA
both hillocks. contents in the soil and becomes 1.02E-07 m/s, 1.45E-07 m/s, 1.85E-
07 m/s, 2.27E-07 m/s, 2.85E-07 m/s, 3.20E-07 m/s, and 3.28E-07 m/s
Coefficient of permeability for the samples containing 5 % RCA, 10 % RCA, 15 % RCA, 20 % RCA,
25 % RCA, 30 % RCA, and 35 % RCA, respectively. The lower rate of
The coefficient of permeability, k, was found for different soil seepage of water during heavy rainfall can be dangerous for the slope
samples in the permeability test (shown in Table 1). The k value of the containing clay soil due to the generation of excess PWP in the soil [40].
sample of hillock GK is 1.50 × 10−7 m/s, is in the typical range of silty So, increasing the coefficient of permeability is a crucial need for the
clay, while the soil sample of hillock BH has k value of 9.90 × 10−8 m/s, stability of a slope. Additionally, the triangular patterned circular RCA
which was previously classified as clay. As shown in Fig. 5, the soil column (with 30 % RCA) inserted soil sample showed a higher coeffi­
sample of BH is slightly impervious, while the GK sample stays in be­ cient of permeability as 9.57E-07 m/s and 7.70E-07 m/s for the samples
tween BH and soil-RCA mixtures. When the RCA in different of GK and BH, respectively. Again, the clayey soil has a lower water

296
S. Islam, J. Islam, N.Md. R. Hoque et al. Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 293–300

Table 1
Geotechnical properties of soil samples with different percentages of RCA.

Soil sample Settlement (mm) Compression index, Cc Coefficient of permeability, k Cohesion, c Angle of friction, φ
(m/sec) (kPa) (°)

GK BH GK BH GK BH GK BH GK BH

Original soil 4.07 4.13 0.372 0.384 1.50E-07 9.90E-08 47.1 57.3 20 17.6
Soil-5 % RCA 3.98 4.05 0.347 0.367 1.56E-07 1.02E-07 39.4 52.4 21.9 19.7
Soil-10 % RCA 3.85 3.96 0.338 0.354 1.90E-07 1.45E-07 34.3 46.5 23.7 21.5
Soil-15 % RCA 3.74 3.81 0.321 0.341 2.20E-07 1.85E-07 30.4 40.6 25.2 22.9
Soil-20 % RCA 3.67 3.72 0.318 0.332 2.65E-07 2.27E-07 26.6 35.5 26.8 23.9
Soil-25 % RCA 3.52 3.63 0.295 0.315 3.12E-07 2.85E-07 23.6 31.1 28.1 25.3
Soil-30 % RCA 3.43 3.47 0.287 0.297 3.70E-07 3.20E-07 21.1 27.4 29.6 26.4
Soil-35 % RCA 3.54 3.61 0.292 0.307 3.76E-07 3.28E-07 21.3 27.7 29.5 26.1
Soil-RCA column 2.87 2.93 0.195 0.213 9.57E-07 7.70E-07

1.01E-06 9.57E-07 1.2

a)
Coefficeient of permeability, k (m/s)

7.70E-07 1.1
8.10E-07

1
6.10E-07

0.9

Void ratio, e
4.10E-07 3.70E-07
3.20E-07
0.8

2.10E-07
1.50E-07
9.90E-08 0.7

1.00E-08
GK hillock BH hillock 0.6
GK GK-5% RCA GK-10% RCA
GK BH 30% RCA RCA column GK-15% RCA GK-20% RCA GK-25% RCA
GK-30% RCA GK-35% RCA GK-RCA column
Fig. 5. Permeability results of different samples. 0.5
1 10 100 1000
Stress, σ (kPa)
infiltration rate and greater PWP, which decreases the stability of
1.2
slopes. In comparison, soil with a higher permeability value infiltrates
most of the water and doesn’t allow the generation of excess PWP which b)
ensures a greater stability of slope during rainfall or in saturated con­ 1.1

ditions [41]. The coefficient of permeability of soil that contains CDW

or RCA usually climbs greater than that of natural soil [42,43]. Rahman 1
et al. [44] and Abdulnafaa et al. [45] found similar behaviors of soil in
increasing k-value with the increase in CDW content in the soil. Ab­ 0.9
dulnafaa et al. [45] explained the rises in k-value and the reason is the
Void ratio, e

presence of more non-cohesive materials in the soil-CDW mixtures, and

0.8
hence water moves through it more quickly. As the RCA column pro­
vides a vertical drainage for water to drain from the soil, it increases the
value of k when it is inserted into a mass of soil; hence, water can pass 0.7

through a shorter radial distance to the column when a grid-patterned

CDW column is provided in the soil [21]. Since the RCA mixed soil 0.6
samples and RCA column inserted soil sample shows improvement in
BH BH-5% RCA BH-10% RCA
BH-15% RCA BH-20% RCA BH-25% RCA

permeability, it will help slopes of the hillock to infiltrate quickly and

BH-30% RCA BH-35% RCA BH-RCA column
0.5
reduce excess PWP that leads to sliding of slopes [40,41]. 1 10 100 1000
Stress, σ (kPa)

Fig. 6. Variations of void ratio of the samples with applied stress in different
Consolidation behavior
loading stages of consolidation test: (a) GK samples, and (b) BH samples.

Consolidation settlement and compressibility characteristics of soil

samples collected from two hillocks are presented in Table 1. Fig. 6 shows respectively, in the soil-RCA mixture. Further addition of RCA in the soil
the changes in void ratio (e) of the samples against applied stress in various increases the settlement slightly. BH samples show a consolidation settle­
loading stages in consolidation tests. The consolidation settlement for the ment of 4.05 mm, 3.96 mm, 3.81 mm, 3.72 mm, 3.63 mm, and 3.47 mm in
soil sample of GK and BH after the completion of primary consolidation in presence of 5 % RCA, 10 % RCA, 15 % RCA, 20 % RCA, 25 % RCA, and 30
all loading stages was obtained as 4.07 mm and 4.13 mm, respectively. Due % RCA, respectively, in the soil. As same as the GK sample, BH sample
to the addition of RCA in soil samples in different percentages, the samples showed a little higher settlement in presence of 35 % RCA with 3.61 mm
become more resistant against loading; hence, consolidation settlement settlement, while the 30 % RCA in the soil showed the lowest settlement for
becomes lower [46]. The GK samples shows a settlement of 3.98 mm, both hillocks. Meanwhile, the RCA column inserted soil sample gave the
3.85 mm, 3.74 mm, 3.67 mm, 3.52 mm, and 3.43 mm in presence of 5 % least settlement value for both hillocks as 2.87 mm and 2.93 mm for GK and
RCA, 10 % RCA, 15 % RCA, 20 % RCA, 25 % RCA, and 30 % RCA, BH, respectively. The compression index, Cc, for the GK and BH soil sample

297
S. Islam, J. Islam, N.Md. R. Hoque et al. Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 293–300

Fig. 7. Variations of shear strength parameters of samples with the changes in RCA percentages in the soil-RCA mixtures.

was obtained as 0.372 and 0.384, respectively. With the addition of RCA up Shear strength parameters
to 30 %, both samples showed a decreasing trend in Cc value with the
increase in RCA in the soil-RCA mixture. The sample of GK hillock gives a Cc The shear strength parameters found in the direct shear test are pre­
value of 0.347, 0.338, 0.321, 0.318, 0.295, 0.287, and 0.292, and that of BH sented in Table 1. The cohesion (c) and angle of friction (φ) value obtained
gives a Cc value of 0.367, 0.354, 0.341, 0.332, 0.315, 0.297, and 0.307 in for the soil sample of the hillock GK were found as 47.1 kPa and 20⁰, re­
presence of 5 % RCA, 10 % RCA, 15 % RCA, 20 % RCA, 25 % RCA, 30 % spectively, while that of BH sample were 57.3 kPa, and 17.6⁰, respectively.
RCA, and 35 % RCA, respectively, in the soil sample. Column of recycled After adding RCA to the soil samples, the c-value of both samples reduces,
concrete gives adequate resistance against load and lessens soil collapsibility and the φ-value increases as the RCA materials are mostly cohesionless.
[47], as RCA boosts up bearing capacity, strength, and stiffness of soil in a Fig. 7 shows the cohesion and angle of friction of soil samples in presence of
remarkable way [48]. different RCA content. With the increase in RCA in the soil samples up to 30

Fig. 8. SEM image of different samples: a) RCA, b) Soil GK, c) Soil BH, d) Soil GK + 30 % RCA, and e) Soil BH + 30 % RCA.

298
S. Islam, J. Islam, N.Md. R. Hoque et al. Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 293–300

Table 2
Quantitative elements data of the soil samples in SEM-EDS tests.

Soil BH Soil GK RCA RCA + Soil BH RCA+ Soil GK

wt% Symbol wt% Symbol wt% Symbol wt% Symbol wt% Symbol

13.94 B 8.34 C 9.57 C 6.21 C

37.36 O 58.19 O 16.65 C 50.02 O 55.91 O
10.79 Al 10.06 Al 62.94 O 10.39 Al 5.39 Al
24.27 Si 17.3 Si 17.33 Si 20.72 Si 27.62 Si
3.81 K 1.68 K 2.94 Ca 1.92 K 0.65 K
1.06 Ti 0.43 Ti 0.13 Fe 0.48 Ca 0.07 Ca
8.78 Fe 4 Fe 3.27 Ti 1.94 Ti
3.63 Fe 2.21 Fe
100 100 100 100

%, cohesion value for both soil samples decrease and further increase in Conclusion
RCA does not produce much changes in the cohesion value of the samples.
The angle of friction of the samples of hillocks GK and BH increased with The study analyzed the geotechnical properties of the soil samples of
the addition of RCA up to 30 % and further increase in RCA in the samples two hillocks in both natural conditions and after adding recycled con­
doesn’t provide significant changes in φ value. For GK, the angle of friction crete aggregates in different percentages as well as inserting RCA
was found as 21.9⁰, 23.7⁰, 25.2⁰, 26.8⁰, 28.1⁰, 29.6⁰, and 30.4⁰, while the BH column in the soil. According to the test results, RCA improved the
gave φ value as 19.7⁰, 21.5⁰, 22.9⁰, 23.9⁰, 25.3⁰, 26.4⁰, 27.2⁰ in presence of geotechnical properties of soil samples that can largely improve the
5 % RCA, 10 % RCA, 15 % RCA, 20 % RCA, 25 % RCA, 30 % RCA, and 35 stability of the hillocks. Based on the results of the experimental ana­
% RCA, respectively, in the soil. The angle of friction contributes to the lyses, the following broad conclusions can be made:
stability of the slope in a large way; the more the angle of friction a soil
sample has, the slope becomes more stable. On the other hand, the cohesion • The maximum dry density of soil from both hillocks increases with
of clay soil lessens the stability of a slope [49]. Based on the shear strength the addition of RCA, while the optimum moisture content decreases.
parameters of the soil samples of both hillocks, decreased cohesion and • The coefficient of permeability, k increased significantly for both hil­
increased angle of internal friction make the slope more stable against locks after adding RCA up to 30 %. Moreover, RCA columns in the soil
loading [49]. mass increased the permeability of the samples by 6 and 7 times com­
pared to the soil samples of hillocks GK and BH, respectively, without
RCA.
SEM discussions in justifications to the soil improvement • The consolidation settlement and compression index of the soil
samples were remarkably reduced by adding RCA in the soil and by
Observing the interactions between soil and additive as a result of soil inserting RCA column in the soil of both hillocks. RCA lessened the
improvement through SEM analysis is crucial in addition to physical and compressibility of the soil against loading, and more importantly the
mechanical investigations [50]. Fig. 8(a)–(e) depict the scanning electron soil is more resistant with RCA columns.
microscope (SEM) photos of the soil sample of both hillocks, recycled • RCA particles make the soil less cohesive and more permeable,
concrete aggregates (RCA), and soil sample with 30 % RCA. As can be which will help improve stability of hillocks during rainfall and in
observed, RCA has a somewhat uniform and sparkly surface, but an uneven saturated condition. For both hillocks, cohesion becomes the least
surface compared to the original soil sample of GK and BH, which has an with 30 % RCA, while the angle of friction becomes the highest.
irregular surface with non-spherical grains and pores. Moreover, the soil
sample of both hillocks with 30 % RCA has a comparable appearance to the Ethics approval and consent to participate
original soil sample, having fewer surface voids and appearing firmer. The
interaction between the soil samples and RCA is visibly noticed in the Not applicable.
sample of stabilized RCA-soil mixture. RCA particles positioned in between
the soil particles and make the soil denser, that results in a higher dry Funding
density of the samples with the rise in RCA than the original soil samples. In
addition to that, the quantitative elemental data from SEM-EDS tests pre­ This research was funded by SUST Research Center (Project ID: AS/
sented in Table 2 suggests that soil GK, and soil BH went through changes in 2020/1/17), Shahjalal University of Science and Technology (SUST),
weight percentages of elements after the interaction when being mixed with Sylhet.
RCA particles. As the RCA particles appears in between the soil particles and
being distributed around the soil mass, the soil become more permeable Data Availability
since sand sized RCA particles seemed to be more porous than that of soil
particles, after improvement with RCA, the soil sample contained more non- Data included in article/supplementary material/referenced in ar­
cohesive porous materials than original soil samples; so, there was an in­ ticle.
crease in permeability [51], which can be observed in the results of per­
meability test described in Section 3.2. A mechanical experiment indicates Declaration of Competing Interest
that the clay and additive reaction, causing the pores between the particles
to close, as seen by the rise in soil's strength parameter tests can also be The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relation­
related to the images after improvement in Fig. 8(d), and (e) in compared to ships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Shriful
the images before improvement in Fig. 8(b), and (c) [52]. Meanwhile, the Islam reports financial support was provided by Shahjalal University of
increased contact area in soil samples after the addition of RCA improved Science and Technology (SUST), Sylhet. Shriful Islam reports a relationship
compaction and interconnection, which subsequently enhanced the soil's with Shahjalal University of Science and Technology (SUST), Sylhet that
strength after improvement [53]. includes: employment and funding grants.

299
S. Islam, J. Islam, N.Md. R. Hoque et al. Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 293–300

References [27] G. Zhang, et al., Combined utilization of construction and demolition waste and
propylene fiber in cement-stabilized soil, Buildings 12 (350) (2022) 1–17, https://
[1] S.I. Huq, J.U.M. Shoaib, The Soils of Bangladesh, Springer,, Madison, USA, 2013. doi.org/10.3390/buildings12030350
[2] M.A. Rahman, N. Tabassum, M.R. Islam, Different aspects of slope failures con­ [28] A. Ouria, E. Heidarli, S. Karamzadegan, Utilization of recycled concrete aggregates
sidering large deformation: application of smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), as coarse material sandwich to improve the pullout strength of geosynthetics in a
Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 6 (37) (2021), https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-020- fine sand, Int. J. Geosynth. Gr. Eng. 8 (55) (2022) 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1007/
00405-9 s40891-022-00401-2
[3] N. Sultana, Analysis of landslide-induced fatalities and injuries in Bangladesh: [29] S. Yun, D. Ryu, J. Khim, Evaluation of the recyclability of construction and de­
2000-2018, Cogent Soc. Sci. 6 (1) (2020), https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886. molition waste fines as a garden substrate and soil amendment agent: a case study
2020.1737402 from the Republic of Korea, J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 22 (2020) 479–487,
[4] A.S.M.M. Kamal, F. Hossain, M.Z. Rahman, B. Ahmed, P. Sammonds, Geological https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-019-00941-2
and soil engineering properties of shallow landslides occurring in the Kutupalong [30] ASTM D1556, Standard Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by
Rohingya Camp in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, Landslides 19 (2) (2022) 465–478, the Sand-cone Method1, ASTM international,, West Conshohocken, PA, 2000.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01810-6 [31] ASTM D2216, Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Determination of Water
[5] K.S. Sajinkumar, G. Sankar, V.R. Rani, P. Sundarajan, Effect of quarrying on the (Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock by Mass, ASTM international,, West
slope stability in Banasuramala: an offshoot valley of Western Ghats, Kerala, India, Conshohocken, PA, 2019.
Environ. Earth Sci. 72 (7) (2014) 2333–2344, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665- [32] ASTM D854, Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water
014-3143-7 Pycnometer, ASTM international,, 2006.
[6] S. Islam, F. Hoque, River bank erosion of the Surma river due to slope failure, Int. J. [33] ASTM D6913, Standard Test Methods for Particle-size Distribution (gradation) of
Res. Innov. Earth Sci. 1 (2) (2014) 54–58. Soils Using Sieve Analysis1, ASTM international,, West Conshohocken, PA, 2009.
[7] N.K. Kokutse, A.G.T. Temgoua, Z. Kavazović, Slope stability and vegetation: con­ [34] USDA, 2nd ed..,, Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making
ceptual and numerical investigation of mechanical effects, Ecol. Eng. 86 (November and Interpreting Soil Surveys 436 United States Dept. of Agriculture,, Washington
2004) (2016) 146–153, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.11.005 DC, 1999.
[8] C. Harris, J.S. Smith, M.C.R. Davies, B. Rea, An investigation of periglacial slope [35] ASTM D698, Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of
stability in relation to soil properties based on physical modelling in the geo­ Soil Using Standard Effort, ASTM international,, West Conshohocken, PA, 2007.
technical centrifuge, Geomorphology 93 (3–4) (2008) 437–459, https://doi.org/10. [36] ASTM D2434, Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant
1016/j.geomorph.2007.03.009 Head) 1, ASTM international,, West Conshohocken, PA., 2000.
[9] I.W. Arya, I.W. Wiraga, I.G.A.G. Suryanegara, Effect of cement injection on sandy [37] ASTM D5856, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity of
soil slope stability, case study: slope in Petang district, Badung regency, J. Phys. Porous Material Using A Rigid-wall, Compaction-mold Permeameter, ASTM inter­
Conf. Ser. 953 (1) (2018), https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/953/1/012103 national,, West Conshohocken, PA., 2015.
[10] D.-G. Lin, S.-H. Hung, C.-Y. Ku, H.-C. Chan, Evaluating the efficiency of subsurface [38] ASTM D2435M, Standard Test Method for One-dimensional Consolidation
drainages for Li-Shan landslide in Taiwan, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss. 1 Properties of Soils Using Incremental Loading, ASTM international,, West
(January) (2016) 1–22, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2015-309 Conshohocken, PA, 2011.
[11] H. Yue Sun, D. Fei Wang, Y. Quan Shang, Y. Liang Cai, Z. Lei Wei, An improved [39] ASTM D3080, Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
siphon drainage method for slope stabilization, J. Mt. Sci. 16 (3) (2018) 701–713, Consolidated Drained Conditions, ASTM international,, West Conshohocken, PA,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-018-5171-3 2011.
[12] M.T. Löbmann, C. Geitner, C. Wellstein, S. Zerbe, The influence of herbaceous ve­ [40] T. Okamoto, S. Matsuura, J.O. Larsen, S. Asano, K. Abe, The response of pore water
getation on slope stability – a review, Earth-Sci. Rev. 209 (August) (2020) 103328, pressure to snow accumulation on a low-permeability clay landslide, Eng. Geol. 242
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103328 (April) (2018) 130–141, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.06.002
[13] B. Reubens, J. Poesen, F. Danjon, G. Geudens, B. Muys, The role of fine and coarse [41] S. Yu, X. Ren, J. Zhang, H. Wang, J. Wang, W. Zhu, Seepage, deformation, and
roots in shallow slope stability and soil erosion control with a focus on root system stability of sandy and clay slopes with different permeability anisotropy char­
architecture: a review, Trees - Struct. Funct. 21 (4) (2007) 385–402, https://doi. acteristics affected by reservoir water level fluctuations, Water 12 (201) (2020),
org/10.1007/s00468-007-0132-4 https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010201
[14] F.F. Badhon, M.S. Islam, M.A. Islam, Contribution of vetiver root on the improve­ [42] M.A. Rahman, M.A. Imteaz, A. Arulrajah, J. Piratheepan, M.M. Disfani, Recycled
ment of slope stability, Indian Geotech. J. 51 (4) (2021) 829–840, https://doi.org/ construction and demolition materials in permeable pavement systems: geo­
10.1007/s40098-021-00557-0 technical and hydraulic characteristics, J. Clean. Prod. 90 (2014) 183–194, https://
[15] E. Koda, P. Osinski, Improvement of slope stability as a result of combining diverse doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.042
reinforcement methods, Architectura 11 (1) (2012) 3–14. [43] M.A. Rahman, M.A. Imteaz, A. Arulrajah, M.M. Disfani, S. Horpibulsuk, Engineering
[16] N. Mizal-Azzmi, N. Mohd-Noor, N. Jamaludin, Geotechnical approaches for slope and environmental assessment of recycled construction and demolition materials
stabilization in residential area, Procedia Eng. 20 (2011) 474–482, https://doi.org/ used with geotextile for permeable pavements, J. Environ. Eng. 141 (9) (2015)
10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.190 04015019, https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)ee.1943-7870.0000941
[17] A.Y. Mulia, L.A. Prasetyorini, Slope stabilization based on land use methods in [44] M.A. Rahman, M. Imteaz, A. Arulrajah, M.M. Disfani, Suitability of recycled con­
Ambang sub river basin, Procedia Environ. Sci. 17 (2013) 240–247, https://doi. struction and demolition aggregates as alternative pipe backfilling materials, J.
org/10.1016/j.proenv.2013.02.034 Clean. Prod. 66 (2013) 75–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.005
[18] R. Ramkrishnan, V. Karthik, M.S. Unnithan, R. Kiran Balaji, M. Athul Vinu, [45] M. Abdulnafaa, M. Awad, A. Cabalar, N. Akbulut, B. Ozufacik, Hydraulic con­
A. Venugopalan, Stabilization of seepage induced soil mass movements using sand ductivity and undrained shear strength of clay-construction and demolition solid
drains, Geotech. Eng. Geotech. Eng. J. SEAGS AGSSEA 48 (4) (2017) 129–137. waste materials mixtures, Soils Rocks 44 (2) (2021) 1–9, https://doi.org/10.28927/
[19] M.A.T. Alsheyab, Recycling of construction and demolition waste and its impact on SR.2021.062221
climate change and sustainable development, Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2021), [46] J. Muktinutalapati, A. GuhaRay, A. Kar, Experimental analysis of strength and
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03217-1 deformation behavior of soils reinforced with building-derived materials, Indian
[20] E. Asprone, D. Bilotta, I. Capasso, B. Caputo, D. Flora, A. Liguori, S. Lirer, Re-use of Geotech. J. 50 (3) (2020) 372–382, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-019-00367-5
construction and demolition waste for geotechnical applications, Proc. XVI [47] S.J. Feng, Z.M. Shi, Y. Shen, L.C. Li, Elimination of loess collapsibility with appli­
ECSMGE Geotech. Eng. Infrastruct. Dev. 8 (2015) 2589–2594 doi: 10.1680/ cation to construction and demolition waste during dynamic compaction, Environ.
ecsmge.60678. Earth Sci. 73 (9) (2014) 5317–5332, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3783-7
[21] S. Islam, J. Islam, N.M. Robiul Hoque, Improvement of consolidation properties of [48] M. Naeini, A. Mohammadinia, A. Arulrajah, S. Horpibulsuk, M. Leong, Stiffness and
clay soil using fine-grained construction and demolition waste, Heliyon 8 (10) strength characteristics of demolition waste, glass and plastics in railway capping
(2022) e11029, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11029 layers, Soils Found. 59 (6) (2019) 2238–2253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.
[22] U. Aqil, F. Tatsuoka, T. Uchimura, T.N. Lohani, Y. Tomita, K. Matsushima, 2019.12.009
Strength and deformation characteristics of recycled concrete aggregate as a [49] Y. Chen, H. Lin, R. Cao, C. Zhang, Slope stability analysis considering fifferent
backfill material, Soils Found. 45 (5) (2005) 53–72, https://doi.org/10.3208/ contributions of shear strength parameters, Int. J. Geo- Mech. 21 (3) (2021) 1–9,
sandf.45.5_53 https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001937
[23] A. Sharma, R.K. Sharma, Strength and drainage characteristics of poor soils stabi­ [50] N. Ural, The significance of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis on the
lized with construction demolition waste, Geotech. Geol. Eng. 38 (5) (2020) microstructure of improved clay: an overview, Open Geosci. 13 (1) (2021)
4753–4760, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01324-3 197–218, https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2020-0145
[24] A. Prajapati, H. Rangwala, Utilization of recycled construction and demolition [51] Z. Song, D. Zhang, Y. Mao, Y. Mu, K. Zhang, Q. Zhang, Behavior of lime-stabilized
waste in backfill soil, Int. J. Geosynth. Gr. Eng. 8 (5) (2022) 1–7, https://doi.org/ red bed soil after cyclic wetting-drying in triaxial tests and SEM analysis, Adv.
10.1007/s40891-022-00410-1 Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/4230519
[25] A.R. Kumar, J.Y.V.S. Bhushan, Slope stability analysis of recycled concrete fine [52] N. Ural, C. Karakurt, A.T. Cömert, Influence of marble wastes on soil improvement
aggregate stabilized and blended soils, Int. J. Innov. Technol. Explor. Eng. 9 (5) and concrete production, J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 16 (3) (2014) 500–508,
(2020) 991–994, https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.e2730.039520 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0200-3
[26] H. Rahardjo, V.A. Santoso, E.C. Leong, Y.S. Ng, C.P.H. Tam, A. Satyanaga, Use of [53] A.S.A. Rashid, N. Latifi, C.L. Meehan, K.N. Manahiloh, Sustainable improvement of
recycled crushed concrete and Secudrain in capillary barriers for slope stabilization, tropical residual soil using an environmentally friendly additive, Geotechnol. Geol.
Can. Geotech. J. 50 (6) (2013) 662–673, https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2012-0035 Eng. 35 (6) (2017) 2613–2623, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-017-0265-1

300