AC6 Reviewer

Module 8: Cells and Batteries

Alessandro Volta
 invented the battery in 1800
 named his invention “Voltaic Pile”

Michael Faraday
 proved that charge and energy held by the battery was indeed limited and exhaustible in 1834

Voltaic Cell by Alessandro Volta

 uses chemical reaction to produce electrical energy.
 One anode and cathode are made opposite to each other. At anode, oxidation occurs and
reduction occurs at cathode. A salt bridge is created in between to complete the circuit. The
parts where oxidation and reduction occur are called half cells. An external circuit is used to
conduct the flow of electrons.

Daniel Cell by John Fredric Daniel

 was popular in earlier centuries as source of electricity.
 a container divided into two compartments. The gap was made by a membrane permeable to
ions. In one of the components, Zinc electrolyte was dipped in a Zinc sulfate solution. In the
other compartment, a copper electrode in a copper sulfate solution was dipped.The cell was
capable of delivering current until it runs out of Zinc or Copper sulfate.

Lead acid battery by Gaston Plante

 became popular due to the rechargeable feature of the battery
 allowed recharging by reversing the flow of current back to the battery.

Leclanche battery by Carl Gessner

 dry design which didn’t have any liquid electrolyte

Depth of discharge or DOD

 indication of the amount of energy or charge depleted

State of Charge or SOC

 the amount of energy or charge left in the battery

Battery Equivalent Circuit

 batteries possess and exhibit internal resistance which results in lower output as current
increases.
 internal resistance of a battery increases with the age of the battery and the frequency and
magnitudes of the DOD. This is the reason why the terminal voltage of a battery declines with
the age of the battery.

Battery Voltage Regulation

 Voltage regulation of a battery is an indication of how much voltage drop is encountered in a
battery application, or in a battery circuit, when a battery is supporting a load.

Different Types of Batteries

1. Primary Cell (Non-rechargeable Batteries)
 those which cannot be used again once their stored energy is being used fully.
 cannot restore energy by any external source. This is the reason primary cells are also called
disposable batteries.
 The non-rechargeable batteries are many types: Zinc-Carbon Battery (Heavy Duty’), Alkaline,
Lithium Cells, Silver Oxide Cells, and Zinc Air Cells.
2. Secondary Cell (Rechargeable Batteries)
 can be use again and again by plugging them into charge and get multiple uses before the
battery needs to be replaced.
 initial cost of rechargeable batteries is commonly more than disposable batteries
 The rechargeable or secondary batteries are mainly of three types: Lead Acid, Lithium Ion (Li-
ion), Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni-MH), and Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd).
3. Reserve cell
 also known as stand-by battery.
 electrolyte remains inactive in solid state until the melting point is reached.
 Reserve cells are further classified into categories: Water Activated Batteries, Heat Activated
Batteries, Electrolyte Activated Batteries, and Gas Activated Batteries
4. Fuel cell
 active materials are fed from outside source.
 are capable of producing electrical energy as long as active materials are fed to the electrodes.
 four basic elements of the fuel cells are namely anode, cathode, electrolyte and catalyst.

Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel Connection of Batteries

Series Connection of Batteries

 If we connect the positive (+) terminal of battery to negative (-) and negative to positive terminal,
then the batteries configuration would be in series.
 current is same in each wire or section while voltage is different
 battery discharge slowly in series connection as compared to parallel batteries connection.

Parallel Connection of Batteries

 If we connect the positive terminal (+) of battery to positive and negative (-) to negative terminal.
Then the batteries configuration would be in parallel.
 voltage will be same in each wire or section, while current will be different

Series-Parallel Connection of Batteries

 If we connect two pairs of two batteries in series and then connect these series connected
batteries in parallel, then this configuration of batteries would be called series-parallel
connection of batteries.

Module 9: Inductors and Capacitors

Capacitor and Capacitance

 is a charge storage device, capable of storing charge in DC and AC applications.
 energy is stored in form of separation of charges, resulting in a potential difference
 Formulas:
Inductor and Inductance
 energy is stored in the magnetic field that is produced through the flow of electric current.
 Formula

Module 10: Alternating Current Circuits

Alternating Current (AC)

 an electric current that reverses direction cyclically
 Frequency - number of times an alternating current repeats a full cycle per second
 Amplitude - the maximum the current reaches in either direction
 sine wave - waveform of an alternating current power circuit
 AC Waveform is defined as one that varies in both magnitude and direction in more or less an
even manner with respect to time making it a “Bi-directional” waveform. An AC function can
represent either a power source or a signal source with the shape of an AC waveform generally
following that of a mathematical sinusoid being defined as: A(t) = A max *sin(2πƒt).

Sinusoidal Waveform or Sine Waves

 time-varying waveform with the most common of all
 most common periodic signal waveforms that are used in Electrical and Electronic Engineering

AC Waveform Characteristics
 The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage or current
against time
 Constantly changing its polarity every half cycle alternating between a positive maximum value
and a negative maximum value respectively with regards to time with a common example of this
being the domestic mains voltage supply we use in our homes.
 The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself from
start to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of the waveform for sine waves, or the
Pulse Width for square waves.
 The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second time
period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, (ƒ = 1/T) with the unit of frequency being
the Hertz, (Hz).
 The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured in volts or
amps.
 AC waveforms can also take the shape of either Complex Waves, Square Waves or Triangular
Waves

Mathematical and Geometric Representation of Complex AC Entities

a) Polar or Phasor form

I = I m ∠θ°
b) Rectangular Form
Real component + “imaginary” or “reactive” component
Example: 8.66 + j5
c) Sinusoidal or Trigonometric Form
V = V(t) = V m Sin(ωt + θ)
d) Exponential Form
I = Imejθ

Module 11: Voltage and Current Relation in RLC circuits

Resistor in AC circuit
 When working with AC alternating voltages and currents it is usual to use only “rms” values to
avoid confusion. The rms or “root mean squared” value of an AC waveform is the effective or DC
value equivalent for an AC waveform.

Inductor in AC Circuit
 AC voltage is applied across an inductor the flow of current through it behaves very differently to
that of an applied DC voltage.
 Inductive Reactance, which is given the symbol X L , is the property in an AC circuit which
opposes the change in the current. In a purely inductive AC circuit the current I L “LAGS” the
applied voltage by 90°, or (π/2 rads).
 the inductive reactance (X L ) depends upon the inductance (L) of the coil and the frequency (f)
of the AC waveform.

Capacitor in AC Circuit
 When capacitors are connected across a direct current DC supply voltage they become charged
to the value of the applied voltage, acting like temporary storage devices and maintain or hold
this charge indefinitely as long as the supply voltage is present.
 if we apply an alternating current or AC supply, the capacitor will alternately charge and
discharge at a rate determined by the frequency of the supply.
 in a purely capacitive circuit the alternating voltage lags the current by 90° or we can say current
leads the voltage by 90°.

series RLC circuit

 In the RLC circuit, voltage V is the applied voltage, I is the common current for all the three
elements, f is the frequency, and R, L, and C represent the values for resistance, inductance,
and capacitance, respectively, of the three components in the circuit.
 The impedance Z of a series RLC circuit is defined as opposition to the flow of current due
circuit resistance R, inductive reactance, XL and capacitive reactance, XC . If the inductive reactance is
greater than the capacitive reactance i.e XL > XC , then the RLC circuit has lagging phase angle and if
the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance i.e XC > XL then, the RLC circuit have
leading phase angle and if both inductive and capacitive are same i.e XL = XC then circuit will behave
as purely resistive circuit.

parallel RLC Circuit

 the resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in parallel across a voltage supply.
 applied voltage remains the same across all components and the supply current gets divided just
like what we discuss in DC circuit.
 all the components are connected in parallel; so the voltage across each element is same.

Formulas:

Module 12: Conductance, Susceptance and Admittance in AC Circuit

Conductance
 component of admittance in-phase with the applied voltage
 the R component of admittance
 represented by G and the unit of conductance is Mho or Siemens.

Susceptance
 component of admittance which has an angle of 90 degree with applied voltage is or B
component of admittance
 represented by B and the unit of susceptance is also Mho or Siemens.
 is the reciprocal of a pure reactance, X, and is given the symbol B.
 has the opposite sign to reactance so Capacitive susceptance B C is positive, (+ve) in value while
Inductive susceptance B L is negative, (-ve) in value.
Admittance
 is the reciprocal of impedance given the symbol, Y.
 it is a complex quantity consisting of a real part and an imaginary part. The real part is the
reciprocal of quantity consisting of a real part and an imaginary part. The real part is the
reciprocal of resistance and is called Conductance, G, while the imaginary part is the reciprocal
of reactance and is called Susceptance, symbol B and expressed in complex form as: Y = G ± jB.

Formulas: