SECTION A

1. Discuss the historical developments of social psychology.

*Historical Developments in Social Psychology**

Social psychology, the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations,
has a rich history that has evolved over the years. To gain a comprehensive understanding of this field,
it's essential to explore its historical developments, which can be divided into several distinct periods,
each marked by key trends and contributions. This 900-word summary will take you through these
historical developments, providing insights into the evolution of social psychology.

**The Early Years (1908 - 1939):**

The origins of social psychology can be traced back to the early 20th century. During this period, the
prevailing belief was that social behavior was primarily governed by innate tendencies or instincts.
Researchers were just beginning to explore the intricacies of human interaction and its impact on
behavior. Notable figures like William McDougall, in his book "An Introduction to Social Psychology,"
and E.A. Ross, with "Social Psychology," laid the foundational groundwork for early social
psychological research.

One significant milestone in this period was the introduction of the concept of the Social Facilitation
Effect by Floyd Allport. This phenomenon highlighted the value of experimentation in understanding
social behaviors. The work of researchers like Sherif, who examined social norms and conformity, and
Kurt Lewin, who delved into the dynamics of leadership and group processes, began to shape the
field's direction. It was during this time that social psychology transitioned from a speculative domain
to one that relied on empirical research.

**Youth (1940s - 1960s):**

The period spanning the 1940s to the 1960s marked a significant expansion of the scope of social
psychology. Researchers began to shift their focus from instincts to the idea that human behavior was
more thoughtful and purposive. Kurt Lewin's experimental work became pivotal in establishing social
psychology as a scientifically rigorous field. This era marked the maturation of social psychology, with
research aimed at understanding the influence of groups and group membership on individual
behavior.
Moreover, cognitive psychology, which emphasized the role of cognition in human behavior, started
to gain influence. This was a turning point for the field, as it began to recognize that social behaviors
were influenced by individual cognitive processes. Notable theories from this period included Leon
Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, which became a significant contribution to social
psychology. Researchers increasingly explored the relationship between personality traits and social
behaviors.

**A Maturing Field (1970s - 1980s):**

The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a rapid expansion of social psychology, with the field maturing and
expanding into various areas of research. Concepts such as attribution, which explored how
individuals infer the causes of others' behaviors, gained prominence. Researchers also delved into
gender differences and environmental psychology. This period saw a shift toward understanding how
cognition played a pivotal role in social behaviors.

Furthermore, the concept of middle-range theories, initially developed by Robert Merton, became
crucial in explaining specific aspects of social behavior. This approach allowed for a more focused and
practical understanding of social psychological phenomena. Researchers studied the relationship
between personality traits and social behaviors, exploring the impact of cognitive processes on social
actions.

**1990s and Beyond:**

The 1990s marked the continuation of two significant trends in social psychology. First, the cognitive
perspective, which had gained influence in the preceding decades, continued to shape the field's
direction. Researchers began to examine how affective states played a role in determining social
behaviors, and the cognitive perspective became more deeply integrated into the study of social
psychology.

Second, there was a growing interest in the practical applications of social psychology. Researchers
sought to apply the field's findings to address real-world issues and challenges. Social psychology was
increasingly seen as a valuable resource for addressing societal problems and improving various
aspects of life.

The multicultural perspective also gained prominence during this period, focusing on the study of
universal and cultural social behaviors. This approach acknowledged the role of culture in shaping
social behaviors and recognized the need for a more inclusive understanding of social psychology.

**Current Trends:**

In the contemporary landscape of social psychology, several noteworthy trends have emerged.
Evolutionary social psychology has gained attention, examining how evolutionary processes have
shaped human social behaviors. Researchers investigate how our evolutionary history has influenced
the development of various social traits and behaviors.

The changing world, particularly due to technological advancements, has presented new areas of
study in social psychology. The advent of digital technology and its impact on human interaction and
social behaviors has become a significant area of research. Social psychologists explore how
technology, social media, and online interactions affect human behavior, relationships, and identity.

The neurocognitive perspective has also gained prominence, with researchers examining the neural
underpinnings of social behaviors. This approach delves into the cognitive and neural processes that
underlie social cognition, emotions, and decision-making. It offers insights into how the brain
processes social information and how these processes influence our behaviors and interactions.

In conclusion, the field of social psychology has evolved significantly over the years, moving from
early explorations of innate tendencies to the study of complex social behaviors influenced by
cognition, culture, and evolving societal dynamics. Social psychology remains a dynamic and
influential discipline, continually adapting to the changing world and expanding its scope to address
contemporary issues and challenges. With a strong foundation in its historical developments, social
psychology continues to provide valuable insights into human behavior in social contexts.

2. Explain the attribution theory and its applicability in education.

Attribution theory, developed by Weiner in 1980 and expanded upon in 1992, has significant
implications for academic motivation. This theory suggests that learners are primarily motivated by
the positive outcomes that allow them to feel good about themselves. It integrates cognitive and self-
efficacy theories by highlighting that a learner's self-perception influences how they interpret success
or failure, ultimately shaping their future behavior.

Attribution theory posits that people's explanations for success or failure can be categorized based on
three sets of characteristics:

1. Internal vs. External Causes: Success or failure can be attributed to factors believed to
originate either within the individual (internal) or in the environment (external).
2. Stable vs. Unstable Causes: The causes can be seen as either stable, where the outcome is
likely to remain consistent when the same behavior is repeated, or unstable, where the
outcome may vary on different occasions.
3. Controllable vs. Uncontrollable Causes: Causes can be categorized as controllable if
individuals believe they can alter them, or uncontrollable if they perceive little control over
these factors.

These attributions significantly impact a person's motivation and future effort. Attribution theory is
based on the assumption that individuals interpret their environment to maintain a positive self-
image. This means that when learners succeed academically, they tend to attribute their success to
their own efforts or abilities. Conversely, when they fail, they are more likely to attribute it to external
factors beyond their control, such as poor teaching or bad luck. This determine the effort they invest
in future endeavors.

In the context of education, there are four factors related to attribution theory that influence
motivation: ability, task difficulty, effort, and luck. These factors can be analyzed based on the
categories mentioned earlier:

1. Ability: Ability is considered relatively internal and stable, and individuals have limited control
over it.
2. Task Difficulty: Task difficulty is viewed as an external and stable factor, largely beyond a
learner's control.
3. Effort: Effort is seen as internal and unstable, and learners have substantial control over it.
4. Luck: Luck is an external and unstable factor over which learners have minimal control.

A learner's perception plays a crucial role in how these attributions affect their motivation. For
instance, a learner might consider themselves a "lucky person," essentially categorizing luck as an
internal and stable characteristic. This perception might be similar to what attribution theory calls an
"ability" or personality trait.

Furthermore, a learner may believe they exerted significant effort when, in reality, they did not, or they
might perceive an objectively easy task as challenging.

To foster persistence in academic tasks, several conditions should be met:

1. Attribution of Success: Students should attribute their academic successes to internal,

unstable factors over which they have control, such as effort, or internal, stable factors that
can sometimes be disrupted by external factors, like ability occasionally affected by bad luck.
2. Attribution of Failure: When students encounter failure, they should attribute it to internal,
unstable factors, like insufficient effort, over which they have control.
3. Avoiding Overemphasis on Ability: It is not beneficial for students to attribute their
successes entirely to ability, as this might lead them to believe that additional effort is
unnecessary. The ideal attribution for success is a combination of competence and hard work.
4. Persistence After Failure: When students fail, they should be encouraged to persist by
attributing their failure to a lack of appropriate effort. It is crucial to help students believe that
they can still succeed if they give their best effort.
 5. Defining Effort Correctly: Effort should be defined as devoting effective academic learning
time to a task, rather than simply working harder or spending more time on ineffective
activities.
6. Improving Effort: Students should believe that they can improve their efforts and see the
connection between increased effort and academic success.
7. Avoiding Excessive Competition: Highly competitive grading and evaluation systems can
reduce motivation, particularly if success depends on factors beyond the learner's control.
8. Evaluating Effort: Effort should be factored into evaluations to reinforce the connection
between hard work and academic success.
9. Internal Locus of Control: It is beneficial for students to believe that their behavior, rather
than external circumstances, leads to success or failure, fostering an internal locus of control.

Attribution theory, with these conditions and principles, can be harnessed to motivate students more
effectively in an educational setting. Encouraging attributions that lead to higher motivation and
productivity can positively impact a student's academic journey.

3.Discuss the different factors that affect helping behavior.

The factors that influence helping behavior, also known as prosocial behavior, are multifaceted and
complex. Prosocial behavior refers to actions that benefit others, and it can be influenced by a wide
range of factors. In this summary, we will explore various factors that affect helping behavior,
including physical attractiveness, similarity and kinship, religiosity, the victim's perspective, personal
experience, the identifiable victim effect, attributions concerning the victim's responsibility, positive
friend influence, gender, age, personality, and the effects of positive moods.

1. Physical Attractiveness: Physical attractiveness plays a significant role in influencing helping

behavior. Attractive individuals are more likely to receive help than unattractive ones. This
phenomenon is partly due to societal biases and the expectation of better outcomes for attractive
people. Additionally, physical attractiveness is considered a major factor in the development of
prosocial behavior in children.

2. Similarity and Kinship: People are more inclined to engage in prosocial behavior towards
individuals who are similar to them or belong to their in-group. This extends to kinship, where
individuals are more likely to help family members. Proximity and familiarity with others can also
influence the likelihood of helping behavior.
3. Religiosity: Religiosity and humanitarian values are positively correlated with prosocial behavior.
People who are more religious tend to engage in more giving and helping behaviors. Religious beliefs
often promote values of compassion and altruism.

4. Victim's Perspective: Taking the perspective of the victim can enhance empathy and altruistic
behavior. Studies have shown that individuals who are primed to consider the victim's viewpoint are
more likely to engage in helping behavior. This suggests that empathy and perspective-taking play a
crucial role in prosocial actions.

5. Personal Experience: Personal experiences, especially those related to victimization or witnessing

others in need, can impact helping behavior. Individuals who have experienced similar situations are
often more empathetic and willing to help others facing similar challenges.

6. Identifiable Victim Effect: People tend to give more to identifiable victims than to statistical or
unidentifiable ones. The presence of a specific victim, along with visual or personal information about
them, increases the likelihood of prosocial behavior. Charities often use this effect in their campaigns
to encourage donations.

7. Attributions Concerning Victim's Responsibility: The perception of a victim's responsibility for

their situation can influence helping behavior. People are more likely to help victims they consider
"deserving" or whose needs arise from external causes rather than internal factors. This reflects the
role of sympathy in motivating prosocial actions.

8. Positive Friend Influence: Friends can significantly impact prosocial behavior. Children who have
prosocial friends are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors themselves. Friendships can serve as
a socializing influence, promoting kindness and altruism.

9. Gender: Gender differences exist in prosocial behavior. Females tend to engage in prosocial
behaviors more frequently than males. This difference is consistent across various ratings from
parents, teachers, and peers. Men and women may express prosocial behavior differently, with men
often demonstrating chivalrous or heroic acts, while women exhibit nurturing behaviors.

10. Age: Age also plays a role in prosocial behavior. Older adolescents may place less importance on
prosocial values compared to younger ones. However, certain forms of prosocial behavior, such as
moral reasoning and perspective-taking, tend to increase with age, while others, like helping and
displaying sympathy, may not show the same linear pattern of development.
11. Personality: Individual differences in personality traits are linked to prosocial behavior. Traits such
as sociability, low shyness, extroversion, and agreeableness are associated with higher levels of
prosociality. However, the interaction between personality and contextual variables can also influence
prosocial behavior.

12. Effects of Positive Moods: Positive moods have a notable impact on helping behavior.
Individuals in good moods are more likely to engage in prosocial actions. This "feel good, do good"
phenomenon occurs because positive moods promote empathy, extend the duration of the mood,
and increase self-attention, aligning behavior with personal values and beliefs.

In summary, helping behavior is influenced by a myriad of factors, ranging from physical

attractiveness and similarity to religiosity, personal experiences, and even the effects of positive
moods. These factors interact with each other and with individual personality traits, ultimately shaping
the extent to which individuals engage in prosocial actions. Understanding these influences can aid in
promoting and fostering a more compassionate and altruistic society.

1. Physical Attractiveness (150 words): Physical attractiveness significantly influences helping

behavior. Research indicates that physically attractive individuals are more likely to receive assistance
from others. This bias is rooted in societal perceptions and expectations that attractive people lead
better lives. This phenomenon is particularly pronounced in children, where it can shape the
development of prosocial behaviors.

2. Similarity and Kinship (150 words): Prosocial behavior is often directed towards those who are
perceived as similar or likable. Additionally, kinship, particularly family relationships, plays a crucial
role in influencing acts of kindness. There's a sense of duty, reciprocity, and emotional bonds
associated with helping family members. People tend to exhibit greater care and willingness to help
those who belong to their in-group, such as their family.

3. Religiosity (100 words): Humanitarian values and religiosity are associated with giving and
helping behavior. Individuals with strong religious beliefs tend to be more inclined to engage in acts
of kindness. These moral and religious principles guide individuals toward prosocial actions,
emphasizing the significance of religious and moral values in shaping prosocial behavior.
4. Victim's Perspective (100 words): Empathy and altruism are more likely to be observed in
individuals who can actively take the perspective of the victim. Viewing a situation from the victim's
point of view fosters empathy and drives people to engage in prosocial behavior. This shift in
perspective encourages individuals to extend help to those in need.

5. Personal Experience (100 words): Personal experience, especially knowing a victim or having
experienced a similar situation, significantly impacts helping behavior. Research indicates that
individuals who have direct personal experience with specific events, such as abuse or victimization,
are more likely to intervene or express empathy when they encounter others facing similar challenges.
Personal experience enhances one's understanding and empathy towards victims.

6. Identifiable Victim Effect (100 words): People tend to be more generous toward identifiable
victims compared to unidentifiable or statistical victims. Factors such as showing the victim's face or
being in the physical presence of a victim further increase prosocial behavior. Charities often utilize
specific victim stories to tap into this effect and encourage donations.

7. Attributions Concerning Victim's Responsibility (100 words): Individuals are more likely to help
victims whom they perceive as "deserving." This means that if the victim's needs arise from external
causes rather than internal factors, they are more likely to receive help. The perception of
deservingness often triggers feelings of sympathy, ultimately influencing helping behavior.

8. Positive Friend Influence (100 words): Friends play a significant role in socializing individuals into
prosocial behavior. Research has shown that children are more likely to exhibit prosocial behavior if
their friends display similar behavior. Adolescents with friends are generally more inclined towards
prosocial actions. Friends can serve as positive role models and influence one's behavior toward
helping others.

9. Gender (100 words): Gender differences in prosocial behavior are observed, with females
generally engaging in such behaviors more frequently than males. These differences are consistent
across ratings from parents, teachers, and peers. Females are often more likely to share, cooperate,
and engage in nurturing and long-term commitment-based prosocial behavior, while males may
engage in chivalrous or heroic prosocial actions.

10. Age (100 words): Age also plays a role in prosocial behavior. Older adolescents may place less
importance on prosocial values compared to younger adolescents. However, some prosocial
behaviors increase with age, indicating a developmental aspect to helping behavior.
11. Personality (100 words): Research suggests the existence of an altruistic or prosocial personality,
characterized by traits like sociability, low shyness, extroversion, and agreeableness. While personality
traits are linked to prosociality, specific prosocial behaviors may require a combination of additional
traits, such as self-efficacy. Individual differences in prosociality are influenced by personality traits
and contextual factors, such as the situation.

12. Effects of Positive Moods: Feel Good, Do Good (100 words): People in positive moods are
more likely to engage in helping behavior. Positive moods lead individuals to interpret events more
sympathetically, extend their feelings of well-being by helping others, and increase self-attention,
aligning their actions with values and beliefs that favor altruism.

In summary, helping behavior is influenced by a multitude of factors, including physical attractiveness,

similarity and kinship, religiosity, the victim's perspective, personal experience, the identifiable victim
effect, attributions concerning victim responsibility, positive friend influence, gender, age, personality,
and the effects of positive moods. These elements collectively provide insights into the complex
dynamics of prosocial behavior, highlighting the intricate interplay between individual, situational,
and contextual variables in shaping acts of kindness and altruism.

SECTION B
4.Discuss the experimental design in social psychology.
Experimental designs are fundamental to social psychology research, allowing researchers to
systematically investigate the impact of independent variables (IV) on dependent variables (DV) while
controlling for extraneous factors. Two common experimental designs are the one-shot case study
and the post-test only control group design.

In the one-shot case study, researchers introduce an event or manipulation (X) and subsequently
measure the outcome (O) without a control group or a baseline for comparison. This design lacks the
ability to discern whether the manipulation had an effect, as there is no point of reference. For
instance, an educational researcher testing a new teaching method (X) and assessing student
comprehension (O) would not know if the method caused the change without a control group.
In contrast, a more robust experimental design is the post-test only control group design. In this
setup, participants are randomly assigned (R) to either the experimental group exposed to the IV (X),
or the control group with no IV exposure. Both groups are then assessed on the DV (O1 for the
experimental group, O2 for the control group). The comparison between these groups helps
determine if the IV had an impact.

Consider the example of a new teaching method study. One group of students experiences the new
method (X) while another does not (control group). Comparing their comprehension scores (O1 and
O2) helps discern whether the new teaching method had an effect on learning.

Beyond these basic designs, social psychology often employs factorial experiments, which involve
multiple IVs manipulated simultaneously. In a simple 2x2 factorial design, there are two IVs, each with
two levels (X1 and X2, Y1 and Y2). Randomly assigned participants (R) are distributed across these
conditions, resulting in four groups: X1Y1, X1Y2, X2Y1, and X2Y2. Researchers can examine main
effects (the independent influence of each IV) and interaction effects (combined effects of multiple
IVs). Interaction effects become apparent when the combined influence of IVs creates a distinct
pattern that is not merely the sum of their individual effects.

Factorial designs are advantageous because they allow researchers to investigate how different IVs
interact and affect the DV. They offer a nuanced understanding of complex human behavior by
studying the unique and combined impacts of multiple factors.

5. Explain the evolutionary theories of human interpersonal attraction.

The evolutionary theory of human interpersonal attraction posits that attraction between individuals
of the opposite sex is often driven by physical features indicating high fertility. This theory suggests
that romantic or conjugal relationships primarily exist for the purpose of reproduction, with people
naturally drawn to partners who exhibit signs of high fertility. This could increase the likelihood of
passing down their genes to the next generation. However, it has faced criticism for not explaining
same-sex relationships or couples who do not desire children. Nonetheless, even individuals who do
not want children are still influenced by evolutionary forces that have shaped human mating
preferences.

Another facet of the evolutionary explanation suggests that fertility is of greater importance to men
than women. According to this perspective, women place significant emphasis on a man's ability to
provide resources and protection, which are essential for successful child-rearing. This emphasis may
stem from the desire to ensure the well-being of their offspring. Traits related to resource provision
and protection are likely to be inherited by male offspring, making them more attractive mates.

The evolutionary theory also contends that individuals with physical features indicative of good health
are perceived as more attractive. Healthy mates are considered more desirable because they are more
likely to pass on genetic traits related to health to their offspring. For instance, facial symmetry is
often associated with health, and people tend to find individuals with symmetrical faces more
attractive. However, it's worth noting that perfectly symmetrical faces may not always be the most
attractive, as the study found. Another theory suggests that people are attracted to faces resembling
their own. This concept is rooted in the idea of replicating one's own features in the next generation,
driven by an instinctive desire for the survival and well-being of their offspring.

Evolutionary theory goes further to propose that love plays a crucial role in keeping two people
together to raise a child successfully. Love is viewed as a bonding mechanism that facilitates
cooperation between partners in child-rearing. In ancestral tribal settings, raising a child often
required the collaborative efforts of two parents. Mothers with supportive partners would likely have
more surviving offspring than those without such support, leading to the proliferation of genes
associated with the ability to form loving bonds. This explains why the capacity for love is prevalent in
most people today.

6. Describe intervention to reduce aggression.

Treatment for conduct disorder should focus on major modifiable risk factors and start at an early
age, as early intervention is more effective.

Parent Training Programs:

 Individual psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy have limited effectiveness in treating conduct

disorder.
 Behaviorally based parent training programs have consistently shown significant and lasting
reductions in behavioral problems.
 Programs involving direct instruction to parents during interactions with their children, as
pioneered by Patterson and colleagues, have been successful.
 Effective programs typically consist of at least 10 sessions, with booster sessions several
months later.

Multidisciplinary Approach:
  Effective programs often involve collaboration between different disciplines.
 Professionals need training in specific methods, and training centers with qualified trainers are
essential.

Training Using Videotapes:

 Cost-effective group training can be facilitated through videotapes showing parent-child

interactions.
 Sessions involve 10-14 parents attending weekly two-hour sessions for 12 weeks, led by two
therapists.
 Role-playing and homework assignments help parents practice new techniques.

Intensive Programs:

 Intensive programs, such as the one developed by Puckering et al., may entail one day a week
for 16 weeks.
 These programs have been effective in improving parenting skills, even in challenging family
situations.

Challenges and Causes:

 Some cases of aggression result from faulty parental behavior, often associated with parental
psychiatric difficulties like depression, substance abuse, and personality disorders.

Management of Hyperactivity:

 Hyperactivity often coexists with conduct disorder and requires different psychological
treatment.
 Contingent and frequent rewards, breaking tasks into shorter components, and setting clear
rules for different situations can help.
 For severe cases (hyperkinetic syndrome), drug treatment with methylphenidate or
dexamphetamine may be considered, but long-term benefits are less understood.

School Interventions:

 Early preventive educational programs can help reduce later aggressive behavior.
 School settings pose unique challenges, with high demands on concentration and distractions,
but applying the outlined principles can lead to improvements.

In summary, treatment for conduct disorder should prioritize early intervention, with parent training
programs proving most effective. A multidisciplinary approach, the use of videotapes for cost-
effective training, and intensive programs can enhance treatment outcomes. Addressing the
underlying causes and managing coexisting conditions like hyperactivity are essential, along with
early preventive measures in educational settings.

7. Explain the nature and characteristics of attitudes.

Attitude, initially defined as a one-dimensional concept, represented a person's intensity of feelings
towards an object. However, psychologists later introduced two dimensions to explain attitudes:
affective and cognitive components. The cognitive component involves a person's beliefs and
opinions about an object or event, while the affective component signifies the strength of a person's
feelings, whether positive or negative, towards the same object.

Some psychologists proposed a three-dimensional model known as the ABC of attitude, comprising
affective, cognitive, and behavioral components. The behavioral component indicates the actions a
person might take in favor of or against the object or event related to their attitude. For example,
someone with a favorable attitude toward widow remarriage might advocate for it through meetings,
lectures, or even marrying a widow.

To understand the nature of attitudes, it is essential to grasp their characteristics:

1. Valence: This refers to the degree of favorability or unfavorability towards the object or event in
question. It indicates whether the attitude is positive or negative.

2. Multiplexity: Components of attitudes can be complex, with varying numbers of elements. A more
extensive set of elements in a component makes it more intricate.

3. Consistency: Valence factors tend to display more consistency than multiplexity factors.

Key Characteristics of Attitudes:

a) Attitude is Learned: Attitudes are not innate but acquired through the process of socialization
and life experiences. They predispose a person favorably or unfavorably toward specific objects or
events.

b) Attitude Gives Direction: Attitudes guide behavior either towards or away from an object or
event. For instance, a positive attitude towards education motivates sending children to school for
their betterment.
c) Relative Permanence: Attitudes are relatively stable over time, and changes in them occur
gradually.

d) Attitude is Object-Related: Attitudes are always linked to specific issues, objects, or things. They
do not develop in isolation but require the presence of an event, thing, or person.

e) Motivational Properties: Attitudes have motivational properties, influencing a person to engage

in certain behaviors more readily than others. For example, a positive attitude towards sports may
motivate someone to actively participate rather than engage in other activities.

In summary, attitudes encompass affective and cognitive dimensions, and sometimes a behavioral
component, influencing an individual's feelings, beliefs, and actions towards a particular object or
event. These attitudes are learned, provide direction to behavior, are relatively stable, object-related,
and possess motivational properties that drive actions and choices.

8. Discuss the two dimensional model for conflict resolution.

Conflict resolution can be understood through a two-dimensional model that considers assertiveness
and cooperation as fundamental aspects of behavior. These dimensions define five distinct conflict-
handling modes:

1. Competing: This mode is characterized by high assertiveness and low cooperation. When
competing, an individual pursues their own interests aggressively, often at the expense of the
other party. It involves using power dynamics, such as arguments, authority, or economic
leverage, to win one's position. Competing can be seen as "standing up for one's rights" or
defending a strong belief.
2. Accommodating: Accommodating is the opposite of competing, being low in assertiveness
and high in cooperation. In this mode, individuals prioritize the concerns of others over their
own. It may involve acts of selflessness, obeying another's orders even when reluctant, or
yielding to someone else's perspective. Accommodating entails a degree of self-sacrifice.
3. Avoiding: Avoiding is marked by low assertiveness and low cooperation. When avoiding,
individuals neither pursue their own interests nor address the concerns of others, effectively
sidestepping the conflict. This mode may manifest as diplomatically avoiding a contentious
issue, postponing discussions, or withdrawing from a confrontational situation.
4. Collaborating: Collaborating is both highly assertive and highly cooperative. It involves
working closely with others to find mutually satisfying solutions that address all parties'
concerns. Collaborators delve into the conflict to understand the underlying needs and wants
 of everyone involved. This mode encourages exploring disagreements to learn from each
other and creatively solve interpersonal issues.
5. Compromising: Compromising falls in the middle of both assertiveness and cooperation. It
aims to find an expedient solution that partially satisfies all parties involved. While not as
assertive as competing or as cooperative as accommodating, compromising seeks a middle
ground. It may involve splitting the difference, making concessions, or reaching a quick
middle-ground solution.

Individuals are capable of using all five conflict-handling modes, and there is no one-size-fits-all
approach. However, people tend to rely on certain modes more frequently, either due to their
temperament or practice.

Another approach to conflict resolution involves third-party intervention, such as mediation or

arbitration. In this method, an impartial third party assists in finding a resolution that considers the
characteristics and concerns of the conflicting parties. The decision reached through this process is
binding on all parties involved. Unlike enforcing a decision, third-party intervention relies on open
discussions and negotiations to address the points of contention. This method can be effective in
resolving group conflicts, provided the third party possesses maturity and adeptness in handling
human relations.

SECTION C
9.Characteristics of group

Groups exhibit several characteristics that distinguish them from individual interactions. These features include
a sense of unity and belonging among members, shared common interests and values, reciprocal relationships,
the influence of distinct group characteristics on individuals, and the presence of norms and customs that
govern group behavior. Members often have obligations and expectations of one another, reinforcing their
interconnectedness. Groups, like families and schools, serve as units of social organization and play a pivotal
role in shaping social dynamics and relationships.

10. Measurement of group dynamics.

Measuring group dynamics is crucial for comprehending both group behavior and individual
contributions. Various scales like the Group Climate Questionnaire, Group Cohesiveness Scale, Group
Work Engagement Measure, and Group Member Interpersonal Process Scale aid in assessing group
dynamics. These dynamics are vital for enhancing member participation and satisfaction in task
groups, fostering synergy to attain collective goals.
Measurement of group dynamics is essential to understand the behaviour of a
group as a whole as well an individuals who make up the group. There are many
scales to measure group dynamics, viz., Group Climate Questionnaire (Mackenzie,
1983), Group Cohesiveness Scale (Budman, 1993), Group Work Engagement Measure (Macgowan, 2000) and
Group Member Interpersonal Process Scale
(Soldz, 1993). Task groups, such as committees, teams, board of directors are
not merely collections of individuals. The synergy that is created when people
come together to work in these groups transcends the collection of individual
efforts. We have to pay attention to group dynamics because group dynamics
facilitate member participation and satisfaction to achieve the group goal.

11. Schemas
Schemas are cognitive structures that help individuals manage the vast amount of information encountered in
daily life. These organized bodies of information, stored in memory, enable people to make sense of the social
world, categorize new information, and interpret it in relation to the existing schema. Schemas exist not only for
objects but also for people and various roles, allowing individuals to create meaningful mental frameworks for
understanding and navigating their social environment.
12. Ethical issues in Social Psychology
Ethical concerns in social psychology research include issues like deception, informed consent,
debriefing, and minimal risk. Deception is often used to avoid bias in responses but raises ethical
dilemmas. Informed consent requires subjects to voluntarily agree to participate, understand the
research, and know their rights. Debriefing is essential at the study's end to explain its purpose and
procedures, address questions, and help participants recover. Minimal risk means ensuring that
potential risks are no greater than those encountered in daily life, respecting privacy, and leaving
participants in the same state as they entered.

13. Obedience
Obedience is a form of social influence where an individual acts in response to a direct order
from another individual, who is usually an authority figure. It is assumed that without such an
order the person would not have acted in this way. Obedience occurs when you are told to do
something (authority), whereas conformity happens through social pressure (the norms of the
majority). Obedience involves a hierarchy of power/status.

14. Altruism
Altruism is defined as a voluntary act intended to benefit another without expecting any rewards. It
involves selfless help driven by a pure desire to assist others. Prosocial behavior, on the other hand,
includes actions aimed at benefiting others but may also have self-interest motives, such as tax
exemptions when donating money to charity. Altruism lacks the element of self-interest.

15. Social Learning theory

Social learning theory posits that pro-social behavior is acquired through observation and
reinforcement. Role models, such as parents or respected figures, displaying pro-social acts serve as
examples of desired behavior. Rewards encourage pro-social actions, while punishments deter harmful
behavior. In group settings, social recognition, beyond private rewards, enhances pro-social conduct.
Observational modeling with reinforcement fosters learning over time.

Social learning theory suggests that pro-social behaviour is learned (Bandura,

1977; Bandura & McDonald, 1963; Batson, 1998). Observing role models who
are loved or respected, such as parents or authorities, engaged in pro-social
behaviour, demonstrates how people can and should behave prosocially. Rewards
reinforce helping behaviour; punishments reduce unhelpful or hurtful behaviour.
Within a group context, social recognition, not just private reward, increases pro
social behaviour (Fisher & Ackerman, 1998).Observational modeling processes
with reinforcement will result in learning over time (Compeau & Higgins, 1995;
Lim et al., 1997).

16. Stereotypes
A stereotype is an unfounded belief, often irrational, attributing a specific trait to every member of a
social group. This generalization assumes that all individuals within the group possess the same
characteristic, resulting in uniform perceptions and understanding of group members. The term was
coined by Walter Lipman in his book "Public Opinion" (1922).

Stereotypes are beliefs about a specific trait that are attributed to all members of a particular social group, often
involving exaggerated or unfounded categorizations. These beliefs lead to sweeping generalizations about people
based on certain physical, social, or cultural characteristics shared by the group. Stereotyping assumes that
individuals within the group will exhibit all the traits associated with that category, promoting a uniform perception
of group members. The term was coined by Walter Lipman in 1922, and stereotypes serve as a basis for such
generalizations.

17. Overt Conflict

In this form social conflict is open and explicit. Competition between both the parties is fierce
and direct. For example, negotiation between management representatives and labour union or
war between two countries. A more simple example of it is debate, in which one speaker
emphasises and justifies his own point while questioning the validity of opponents point of
view. The explicit aim is to defeat the opponent and ensure ones victory.

18. Group Development

Group development typically progresses through five stages: forming, storming, norming, performing,
and adjourning. In the forming stage, members get acquainted and set expectations. Storming sees
conflicts and disagreements arise. Norming involves recognizing differences and shared expectations,
while performing is marked by productivity and cohesion. Finally, adjourning signals the group's
dissolution after achieving its goals. Groups fulfill psychological and social needs, with members
performing various roles, including leadership, and effective interaction being crucial for group
success.