COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Department of Industrial Engineering and Technology

ELEX 105 – Industrial Robotics

First Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 3 – ROBOT SENSORS

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. define the Robot Sensors;

2. determine the applications of robot sensors;
3. and understand the usage of robot sensors;

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE LEARNER:

1. This module contains pre-test to be answered first which aims to help the reader
have an idea for the topics to be explained.
2. After answering the pre-test, wait for the feedback or the score before proceeding
to the learning activities.
3. In the learning activities, read and analyze carefully the topics and its content. The
instructor may set a meeting for a discussion of the topics.
4. Answer the post-test and wait for the feedback after answering the mentioned
post-test.

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PRE-TEST: Encircle the letter of the correct answer. (2pts each).

1. A window for a robot to the environment.

a. Robot
b. Sensor
c. Switches
d. End effector

2. Detects light and creates a difference in voltage.

a. Light Sensor
b. Sound Sensor
c. Proximity Sensor
d. Tactile Sensor

3. It is generally a microphone used to detect the equivalent voltage of

sound and return.

a. Light Sensor
b. Sound Sensor
c.Proximity Sensor
d. Tactile Sensor

4. The nearby object can be detected by this sensor.

a. Light Sensor
b. Sound Sensor
c. Proximity Sensor
d. Tactile Sensor

5. It is a device specifying an object’s contact. Often used in everyday

objects such as elevator buttons and lamps, which dim or brighten by
touching the base, a tactile sensor allows the robot to touch and feel.

a. Light Sensor
b. Sound Sensor
c. Proximity Sensor
d. Tactile Sensor

PRE-TEST FEEDBACK:
____________________________________________________________

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 Learning Activities

CONTENT OF THE MODULE

Robot Sensors

A sensor is a window for a robot to the environment. Sensors allow robots to

understand and measure the geometric and physical properties of objects in their
surrounding environment, such as position, orientation, velocity, acceleration,
distance, size, force, moment, temperature, luminance, weight, etc.
Sensors are generally classified into two groups: internal sensors and external
sensors. Internal sensors such as its position sensor, velocity sensor, acceleration
sensors, motor torque sensor, etc obtain the information about the robot itself, while
external sensors such as cameras, range sensors (IR sensor, laser range finder, and
ultrasonic sensor) contact and proximity sensors (photodiode, IR detector, RFID,
touch, etc.) and force sensors gather the information in the surrounding environment.
Sensors are defined by various properties that describe their capabilities:
 Accuracy (difference between measured & actual)
 Repeatability (difference between repeated measures)
 Resolution (smallest observable increment)
 Bandwidth (result of high resolution or cycle time)
 Sensitivity (change of output and change of input)
 Linearity (constancy of output and input)
 Response Time (time required for a change in input to force a change in
the output)
 Measurement/Dynamic range (difference between minimum and
maximum)
Different Sensors Used in Robotics
Sensors are used in robots for a variety of tasks. A greater use of sensors,
therefore, is highly essential to avoid uncertainty and achieve higher productivity. In
this post, we will briefly discuss seven common sensors used in robots.

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Types of Robot Sensors
There are different sensors to choose from and we will identify the
characteristics of few sensors, and also understand why and where they are used.

Light Sensor
A light sensor detects light and creates a difference in voltage. A robot’s vision
system has a computer-controlled camera that allows the robot to see and adjust its
movements accordingly. The two primary light sensors in robots are Photoresistor
and Photovoltaic cells. Other light sensors like phototubes, phototransistors, CCDs,
etc. are rarely used.
A photoresistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with light intensity
changes; more light leads to less resistance, and less light leads to more resistance.
They can be easily implemented in light-dependent robots.
Photovoltaic cells convert solar radiation into electricity. This is especially
helpful when planning a solar robot. While the photovoltaic cell is considered as an
energy source, a smart implementation combined with transistors and capacitors can
convert this into a sensor.
2D & 3D Vision: A standard 2D machine vision image is flat, calibrated to
measure length and width, but does not provide any height information. 3D vision
allows a robot to detect the orientation of a part that needs handling more effectively,
even if the location and position of the components vary.
A 3D vision system can accurately guide a robotic arm during assembly, while a
robotic arm can provide multiple viewing angles for critical assembly inspection.

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Sound Sensor
Sound sensors are generally a microphone used to detect the equivalent
voltage of sound and return. The sound it receives can be navigated by a simple
robot. Imagine a robot turning right to a pulpit, turning left for two palpitations.
Complex robots may use the same microphone for voice recognition.
Sound sensors are not as easy as light sensors because sound sensors
generate a minimal voltage difference which should be amplified to produce a
measurable change in voltage. Voice systems also use robots with voice commands.
This is useful if the trainer has to handle other objects when training robots.

Proximity Sensor
The nearby object can be detected by a proximity sensor without physical
contact. The transmitter transmits electromagnetic radiation in the adjacent sensor
and receives and analyzes the interruption feedback signal. Thus, the amount of light
received in the area can be used to detect the presence of nearby objects. The
sensors provide a collision avoidance method for the robot.
There are various types of proximity sensors, and only a few of them are usually
used in robots.
Infrared (IR) transceiver:
o An IR LED transmits an IR light beam that reflects the light captured by
an IR recipient when an obstacle is found.
Ultrasound Sensor:
o These sensors generate sound waves at high frequencies; the received
echo indicates an object is interrupted. Ultrasound sensors can also be
used for distance measurement.
Photoresistor:

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 o Photoresistor is a light sensor, but it can still be utilized as a sensor of
proximity. If an object approaches the sensor, the number of light
changes, which changes the resistance of the Photoresistor. This is
detectable and processable.

Tactile Sensors
Tactile Sensor is a device specifying an object’s contact. Often used in
everyday objects such as elevator buttons and lamps, which dim or brighten by
touching the base, a tactile sensor allows the robot to touch and feel. These sensors
are used to measure applications and gently interact with the environment. It can be
sorted into two principal types: Touch Sensor and Force Sensor.
Touch Sensor or Contact Sensor:
o Touch Sensor is capable of sensing and detecting sensor and object
touch. Some of the commonly used simple devices are micro-switches,
limit switches, etc. These sensors are mostly used for robots to avoid
obstacles. When these sensors hit an obstacle, it triggers a task for the
robot, which can be reversed, turned, switched on, stopped, etc.
Force Sensor:
o Force sensor is included in calculating the forces of several functions,
such as machine loading & unloading, material handling, and so on,
performed by a robot. This sensor will also be a better assembly process
to check problems.

Temperature Sensor
Temperature sensors are used to detect the surrounding temperature change. It
is based on the principle of voltage difference change for a temperature change; this
voltage change will provide the surrounding temperature equivalent. Temperature

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sensing applications include air temperature, surface temperature, immersion
temperature.
What if your robot has to work in a desert and transmit ambient temperature?
Simple solution is to use a temperature sensor. Tiny temperature sensor ICs provide
voltage difference for a change in temperature. Few generally used temperature
sensor IC’s are LM34, LM35, TMP35, TMP36, and TMP37.

Contact Sensor
Contact sensors are those which require physical contact against other objects
to trigger. A push button switch, limit switch or tactile bumper switch are all examples
of contact sensors. These sensors are mostly used for obstacle avoidance robots.
When these switches hit an obstacle, it triggers the robot to do a task, which
can be reversing, turning, switching on a LED, Stopping etc. There are also
capacitive contact sensors which react only to human touch (Not sure if they react to
animals touch).
Touch screen Smart phones available these days use capacitive touch sensors
(Not to be confused with older stylus based models). Contact Sensors can be easily
implemented, but the drawback is that they require physical contact. In other words,
your robot will not turn until it hits an object. A better alternative is to use a proximity
sensor.

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Navigation and Positioning Sensors
Positioning sensors are used to approximate the position of a robot. The usual
positioning sensor is a GPS (Global Positioning System). Satellites orbiting our Earth
transmit signals, and a robot receiver acquires and processes these signals. Use the
processed information to determine a robot’s approximate position and velocity.
Digital Magnetic Compass provides directional measurements using the Earth’s
magnetic field that guides your robot to reach its destination. Compared to GPS
modules, these sensors are cheap, but a compass works best when you need both
positional feedback and navigation. Another method called location refers to the task
of automatically determining a robot’s location based on external elements such as
natural and artificially placed landmarks such as doors, windows, walls, etc.
• GPS (Global Positioning System)
o The most commonly used positioning sensor is a GPS. Satellites orbiting
our earth transmit signals and a receiver on a robot acquires these
signals and processes it. The processed information can be used to
determine the approximate position and velocity of a robot. These GPS
systems are extremely helpful for outdoor robots, but fail indoors. They
are also bit expensive at the moment and if their prices fall, very soon you
would see most robots with a GPS module attached.

• Digital Magnetic Compass

o Similar to a handheld magnetic compass, Digital Magnetic compass
provides directional measurements using the earth’s magnetic field which
guides your robot in the right direction to reach its destination. These
sensors are cheap compared to GPS modules, but a compass works best
along with a GPS module if you require both positional feedback and
navigation. Philips KMZ51 is sensitive enough to detect earth’s magnetic
field.

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 • Localization
o Localization refers to the task of automatically determining the location of
a robot in complex environment. Localization is based on external
elements called landmarks which can be either artificially placed
landmarks, or natural landmark. In the first approach, artificial landmarks
or beacons are placed around the robot, and a robot’s sensor captures
these signals to determine its exact location.
o Natural landmarks can be doors, windows, walls, etc. which are sensed
by a robots sensor / vision system (Camera). Localization can be
achieved using beacons which generate Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Ultrasound,
Infrared, Radio transmissions, Visible Light, or any similar signal.

Acceleration Sensor
An accelerometer is a device for measuring acceleration and tilt. The two types
of forces affect an accelerometer:
• Static Force
o the frictional force between any two objects. By measuring this gravity, we
can determine how much robot tilts. This measurement is useful in
balancing robot or determining whether a robot is driving on a flat or uphill
surface.
• Dynamic Force
o The acceleration required to move an object. Measuring dynamic force
using an accelerometer tells the speed/speed at which a robot moves.
Accelerometer comes in different flavors. Always select the one which is most
appropriate for your robot. Some of the factors which you need to consider before
selecting an accelerometer are:
– Output Type: Analog or Digital
– Number of Axis: 1,2 or 3
– Accelerometer Swing: ±1.5g, ±2g, ±4g, ±8g, ±16g

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 – Sensitivity: Higher or Lower (Higher the better)
– Bandwidth

Pressure Sensors
As the name suggests, pressure sensor measures pressure. Tactile pressure
sensors are useful in robotics as they are sensitive to touch, force and pressure. If
you design a robot hand and need to measure the amount of grip and pressure
required to hold an object, then this is what you would want to use.

Tilt Sensors
Tilt sensors measure tilt of an object. In a typical analog tilt sensor, a small
amount of mercury is suspended in a glass bulb. When mercury flows towards one
end, it closes a switch which suggests a tilt.

Gyroscope
A gyroscope or simply Gyro is a device which measures and helps maintain
orientation using the principle of angular momentum. In other words, a Gyro is used
to measure the rate of rotation around a particular axis. Gyroscope is especially
useful when you want your robot to not depend on earth’s gravity for maintaining
Orientation. (Unlike accelerometer)

IMU
Inertial Measurement Units combine properties of two or more sensors such as
Accelerometer, Gyro, Magnetometer, etc, to measure orientation, velocity and
gravitational forces. In simple words, IMU’s are capable of providing feedback by
detecting changes in an objects orientation (pitch, roll and yaw), velocity and
gravitational forces. Few IMUs go a step further and combine a GPS device providing
positional feedback.

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 Voltage Sensors
Voltage sensors typically convert lower voltages to higher voltages, or vice
versa. One example is a general Operational-Amplifier (Op-Amp) which accepts a low
voltage, amplifies it, and generates a higher voltage output. Few voltage sensors are
used to find the potential difference between two ends (Voltage Comparator). Even a
simple LED can act as a voltage sensor which can detect a voltage difference and
light up. (not considering current requirements here).
.
Current Sensors
Current sensors are electronic circuits which monitor the current flow in a circuit
and output either a proportional voltage or a current. Most current sensors output an
analog voltage between 0V to 5V which can be processed further using a
microcontroller.

Other sensors for robots

There are hundreds of sensors made today to sense virtually anything you can
think of, and it is almost impossible to list all available sensors. Apart from those
mentioned above, there are many other sensors used for specific applications.
For example: Humidity Sensors measures Humidity; Gas sensors are designed
to detect particular gases (helpful for robots which detects gas leaks); Potentiometers
are so versatile that they can be used in numerous different applications; Magnetic
Field Sensors detect the strength of magnetic field around it.

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POST-TEST: (3 points each)

1. It is used to detect the surrounding temperature change.

a. Temperature Sensor
b. Contact Sensor
c. Navigation Sensor
d. Acceleration Sensor

2. __________ are those which require physical contact against other

objects to trigger.

a. Temperature Sensor
b. Contact Sensor
c. Navigation Sensor
d. Acceleration Sensor

3. Used to approximate the position of a robot.

a. Temperature Sensor
b. Contact Sensor
c. Gyroscope
d. Pressure Sensor

4. Sensor that measures pressure.

a. Temperature Sensor
b. Contact Sensor
c. Gyroscope
d. Pressure Sensor

5. It measure tilt of an object.

a. Gyroscope
b. Tilt Sensor
c. Pressure Sensor
d. Temperature Sensor

POST-TEST FFEDBACK:
____________________________________________________

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 s

REFERENCES

Groover, M. (1986). Industrial Robotics: Technology, Programming and Applications.

Hegde, G. (2007). A textbook of Industrial Robotics

Ross, L. Walach, M. Fardo, S. (2017) Industrial Robotics Fundamentals: Theory and

Application

Park, F. Lynch, K. (2017) Modern Robotics: Mechanics, Planning, and Control.

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