State of California—Health and Human Services Agency

Department of Health Services

ARNOLD SCHWARZENEGGER
SANDRA SHEWRY
Governor
Director

Primer on Radiation

A. Introduction

The California Department of Health Services developed this Primer on Radiation to assist in
efforts to provide the public with some basic information on radiation and radioactive materials,
the prevalence of natural radioactive materials in the environment, and the risks associated with
exposure to radiation.

B. Radioactive Materials

Radioactive materials are a subset of the chemical elements that make up our world. Chemical
elements are the building blocks of all matter. Examples include hydrogen, oxygen, zinc, silver,
tin, radon, radium, and uranium, to name a few. Every element has at least one radioactive
form. Most, but not all, also have non-radioactive forms. These different forms are known as
“isotopes” of the elements.

Each element contains a unique number of protons in its atomic nucleus. Each isotope of an
element, whether radioactive or not, contains a unique number of neutrons in the atomic
nucleus. So, for example, hydrogen may be stable hydrogen-1 (H-1) with one proton and no
neutrons, or may be radioactive hydrogen-3 (H-3) with one proton and two neutrons in each
atom.

C. Radioactive Decay

When a radioactive decay takes place, the radioactive isotope is transformed to another isotope
(which may or may not be radioactive), and emits energy in the form of subatomic particles, and
in most decays, photons (gamma rays or x-rays). For example, when H-3 decays, it emits a
particle known as a beta particle (which is the same as an electron), and becomes the non-
radioactive isotope helium-3 (He-3).

The most common forms of radioactive decay involve the emission of a beta particle (one
electron) or an alpha particle (two protons plus two neutrons). These emissions are frequently
followed immediately by the emission of one or more gamma rays (photons produced in the
nucleus of an atom), or one or more x-rays (photons produced outside the nucleus of an atom).
Other subatomic particles, such as positrons or neutrinos may also be emitted. Every
radioactive isotope can be uniquely identified by the type of particles or photons emitted, and
the energy of those particles or photons.

Radiologic Health Branch, MS 7610, P.O. Box 997414, Sacramento, CA, 95899-7414
(916) 327-5106
Internet Address: www.dhs.ca.gov
 State of California—Health and Human Services Agency
Department of Health Services

ARNOLD SCHWARZENEGGER
SANDRA SHEWRY
Governor
Director

D. Radioactive Half-Life

Each radioactive isotope decays at a specific rate, known as the “half-life” of the isotope. For
iodine-131 (I-131), the half-life is approximately eight days; for H-3, it is approximately 12 years;
and, for uranium-238 (U-238), it is approximately 4.5 billion years. Every time a half-life passes,
half of the original radioactive material has decayed into a new isotope. So, for example, if one
starts with 100 units of I-131, then eight days later, approximately 50 units would remain, and
another eight days after that, approximately 25 units would remain, and this will continue until
essentially all the I-131 has decayed to non-radioactive xenon-131.

Some common radioactive isotopes, their mode of decay, and their half-life are shown in the
table below:

Nuclide Decay Mode Half-Life

Cesium 137 Beta 30 years
Cobalt 60 Beta 5.3 years
Americium 241 Alpha 432 years
Technetium 99m Gamma 6 hours
Carbon 14 Beta 5,730 years

E. Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials

Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) is extremely widespread in the environment.

Some NORM isotopes are primordial, meaning they originated at the time of earth’s formation,
and have not yet decayed away. Uranium, thorium, and an isotope of potassium are common
examples of these radioactive materials, which are widespread throughout the earth’s crust.
These are present in all soil and rocks, as well as ground and surface waters.

Other NORM is cosmogenic, meaning it is extraterrestrial in origin. Cosmogenic radioactive

materials are constantly being produced by cosmic ray interactions in the upper atmosphere.
H-3 and carbon-14 (C-14) are examples of these. Cosmogenic radioactive materials are also
extremely widespread, with H-3 existing in essentially all of earth’s waters and C-14 in all
organic matter, whether living or dead (this phenomenon gives rise to our ability to assess the
age of fossils by “carbon-dating.”)

Finally, cosmic rays themselves also penetrate the earth’s atmosphere, and contribute to natural
radiation dose to humans.
 State of California—Health and Human Services Agency
Department of Health Services

ARNOLD SCHWARZENEGGER
SANDRA SHEWRY
Governor
Director

Some NORM isotopes decay into other radioactive isotopes, forming a long chain of radioactive
materials, until they finally decay to a non-radioactive isotope. So, for example, when U-238
decays, it emits an alpha particle, and becomes the radioactive isotope thorium-234 (Th-234),
which emits a beta particle, and becomes the radioactive isotope protactinium-234m (Pa-234m).
This process continues through many different isotopes until the atom finally becomes the
stable isotope lead-206 (Pb-206). Similarly, thorium-232 (Th-232) decays through a long chain
of radioactive isotopes, and finally becomes stable lead-208 (Pb-208).

This natural radiation is called “background” radiation. Across the United States, the average
background radiation exposure level is about 0.3 rem per year.

F. Radiation Dose

Radiation dose is measured in units called “Roentgen Equivalent Man” (rem). This is a
combination of the measure of energy deposited in human tissue (rad), the effective biological
damage (quality factor) associated with the form of that energy (alpha, beta, gamma, x-ray or
neutron), and a weighting factor to account for where the energy is deposited (i.e., whether in an
individual organ, or over the whole body).

External dose (dose from a radiation source outside the body) can be estimated using personal
monitoring devices (dosimeters) or using a combination of portable equipment and calculation.
Internal dose (dose from a radiation source that has been inhaled, injected, or ingested) can be
estimated by using personal air monitoring devices, portable air monitoring devices, and
bioassay techniques (such as the analysis of urine samples), in combination with calculations
using an accepted model for the distribution of the isotope taken into the body (such as the
models developed by the International Commission on Radiation Protection).

Below is a table to put the concept of dose in perspective:

Dose (rem) Potential Origin of Dose

0.00001 Average dose from natural gamma radiation in one hour
0.0001 Average annual increase in dose from cosmic radiation for every
20 feet one lives above sea level
0.001 Average annual dose from cosmogenic radioactive material
0.01 Annual constraint dose from licensed radiation releases to the air
0.1 Annual public dose limit from licensed operations
0.3 Annual average dose from all natural sources of radiation
1.0 Typical “whole body” dose from a medical computed tomography
(CT) scan
5.0 Annual occupational dose limit to the “whole body”
15 Annual occupational dose limit to the lens of the eyes
50 Annual occupational dose limit to the skin of the whole body or to
 State of California—Health and Human Services Agency
Department of Health Services

ARNOLD SCHWARZENEGGER
SANDRA SHEWRY
Governor
Director

an individual organ

G. Health Effects of Radiation Exposure

The health effects associated with radiation exposure are divided into stochastic (probabilistic)
effects, and non-stochastic (threshold) effects. Stochastic effects include the induction of
cancer and hereditary effects. Non-stochastic effects include cataracts, burns, and acute
radiation sickness. The most serious effects result from very large doses received over short
periods of time. Some effects, whether stochastic or non-stochastic (e.g., cancer and
cataracts), may not appear until many years after exposure. Other effects, such as burns and
acute radiation sickness will appear within a few hours to a few days after the exposure.
Everyone responds differently to radiation doses, so some people may have an effect from a
radiation dose, while others may not, and the timeframes for the individual responses will also
vary.

Some large doses and their potential effects are:

Amount of Exposure Effect

5 rem No detectable injury or
symptoms
May cause nausea and
100 rem vomiting for 1-2 days and
temporary drop in production
of new blood cells
350 rem Nausea and vomiting initially,
followed by a period of
apparent wellness. At 3-4
weeks, there is a potential for
deficiency of white blood cells
and platelets. Medical care is
required.
1000 rem Likely to be fatal. Destruction
of intestinal lining and internal
bleeding. Medical care is
required.

One very controversial area regarding radiation exposure has to do with the stochastic effects,
primarily the potential for cancer induction. There is a very large amount of scientific literature
on this topic, but, in general, the scientific consensus is that radiation doses above 20 rem,
received in very short periods of time (one to two days), produce a reasonably clear risk of
 State of California—Health and Human Services Agency
Department of Health Services

ARNOLD SCHWARZENEGGER
SANDRA SHEWRY
Governor
Director

increased cancer incidence of about 2%; that is, the risk will increase from a baseline risk of
about 37% to a risk of 39% for women, and from a baseline risk of about 49% to a risk of 51%
for men. This does not mean that persons exposed to this dose will get cancer, but that their
risk is slightly increased over the baseline risk due to the exposure.

Doses below 20 rem, or doses of 20 rem received over extended periods of time have not been
clearly demonstrated to result in increased risks of cancer. There is conflicting scientific data in
this “low dose – low dose-rate” region. The bottom line is that the scientific community has not
come to consensus on the potential effects of low dose – low dose-rate radiation, and any
theoretical harm that might accrue must be balanced against the very real benefits of
radioactive materials and radiation use in our society, as well as against costs associated with
cleanup actions.

H. Radiation and Radioactive Materials Detection

Radiation has no smell, color, or taste; it cannot be detected by human senses; however, a
variety of instruments are available for detecting and measuring radiation, and radioactive
materials can be reliably measured down to very low levels. Testing equipment may include
personal monitoring devices that are worn by individuals to measure their radiation exposure,
portable instrumentation that can be used in the field, or laboratory equipment used to analyze
samples collected in the field and brought to the laboratory for analyses.

I. Radiological Dispersion Devices

A Radiological Dispersion Device (RDD) is a device used to spread radioactive materials over a
relatively large area, in order to cause harm to persons, or the disruption of normal activities. In
general, the experts believe that the radioactive materials in an RDD will cause more disruption
and inconvenience than actual harm; however, RDDs could cause severe bodily harm and
death if explosives are used to disperse the material, due to the inherent destructive capacity of
explosives.

RDDs will cause significant disruption due to the many misconceptions about and fears of
radiation. The California Department of Health Services is working to proactively counter this
effect by providing information to the public before any serious event involving radiation or
radioactive materials occurs.

J. Conclusion
 State of California—Health and Human Services Agency
Department of Health Services

ARNOLD SCHWARZENEGGER
SANDRA SHEWRY
Governor
Director

The California Department of Health Services’ mission is to protect and improve the health of all
Californians. We hope that the information in this Primer on Radiation will serve this mission by
helping to fill the information gap that exists with respect to radiation and radioactive materials,
so that all Californians will have the information necessary to make informed decisions
regarding the many beneficial uses of radiation and radioactive materials, and to respond in an
informed manner in the event of an intentionally malevolent use of radiation or radioactive
materials.