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 CHAPTER ELEVEN

Action Research
Anne Burns

Action research (AR) is gaining acceptance in applied linguistics studies as

an empirical approach adaptable to higher degree and other research studies,
as well as to engagement of practitioners in their personal professional
growth through reflective practice and local practical inquiry. I describe the
major philosophical and paradigmatic assumptions of AR, its origins and
essential processes. Issues of validity and value, which remain contentious in
AR, are then raised. I also outline briefly the main research techniques and
tools, after which key ethical considerations are briefly discussed. Following
the pattern of other contributions to this volume, the chapter ends with an
illustrative example.

Underlying assumptions and methodology

What is action research?
AR is the superordinate term for a set of approaches to research which,
at the same time, systematically investigate a given social situation and
promote democratic change and collaborative participation. Participatory
action research (PAR), critical action research (CAR), action learning,
participant inquiry, practitioner inquiry and cooperative inquiry are all
terms broadly underpinned by the assumptions and approaches embodied
in AR. The common features they share are to: (a) undertake research to
bring about positive change and improvement in the participants’ social
situation; (b) generate theoretical as well as practical knowledge about
the situation; (c) enhance collegiality, collaboration and involvement
of participants who are actors in the situation and most likely to be

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 188 Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

affected by changes; and (d) establish an attitudinal stance of continual

change, self-development and growth. Those engaged in AR experience
self-reflection on their behaviour, actions and interactions with others;
deliberate interventions to question and enhance current practices;
adaptation of research processes and methods to address issues that
emerge directly; and unpredictability and openness to changes in research
goals and questions as knowledge of the social situation expands and
deepens. By way of summary:

Action research involves a self-reflective, systematic and critical approach

to enquiry by participants who are at the same time members of the
research community. The aim is to identify problematic situations or
issues considered by the participants to be worthy of investigation in
order to bring about critically informed changes in practice. (Burns, cited
in Cornwell 1999, p. 5)

Typically, the situations that participants wish to investigate are those they
perceive to be ‘problematic’. Rather than suggesting that the participants
or their behaviours are the ‘problems’, the term problematic reflects a
desire on the part of participants to ‘problematize’, that is question, clarify,
understand and give meaning to the current situation. The impetus for
the research is a perceived gap between what actually exists and what
participants desire to see exist. In this sense, action researchers are change
agents aiming ‘to take a stand for a preferred future’ (Atiti 2008) and
interested in resolving, reformulating or refining dilemmas, predicaments
or puzzles in their daily lives through systematic planning, data-gathering,
reflection and further informed action.
In its historical applications within educational contexts, AR is typically
depicted as three broad movements over the past sixty years (see Burns 2005,
2011 for detailed discussion): technical-scientific (a technically motivated,
step-wise activity seeking basic improvements to practice), practical-
deliberative (a solution-oriented approach to morally problematic situations)
and critical- emancipatory (an empowering approach embedded in critical
theory and addressing broader socially constituted educational structures at
the local level). In 1993, Crookes argued that in language education contexts,
critical-emancipatory approaches were uncommon and it could be said that
this is still the case (although see Denos et al. 2009 for a recent example).

Processes in action research

In contrast to research approaches which follow more predictable, well-
established procedures, AR is characterized by dynamic movement,
flexibility, interchangeability and reiteration. Broad research phases
are, however, discernible. Despite the large number of (contested)
models in educational AR (Zuber-Skerritt, 1990, calculates that there

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 Action Research 189

are at least thirty), typical representations show spirals or cycles of

(i) planning, (ii) action, (iii) observation and (iv) reflection (cf. Kemmis
& McTaggart 1988). The spirals are interwoven, fluid and repeated
throughout the investigation; thus, a researcher conducting AR should
be prepared for unanticipated variations and reiterations in the process.
For example, Burns (1999, p. 35) and the Australian practitioners she
collaborated with experienced a ‘series of interrelated experiences’
involving numerous dynamic phases (Table 11.1).

Table 11.1 Interrelated experiences in action research phases

Phase Focus of phase

Exploring Identifying generalized areas for investigation

Identifying Undertaking fact-finding to refine ideas
Planning Developing a viable plan of action
Collecting data Selecting and enacting initial data-gathering techniques
Analysing/reflecting Simultaneously scrutinizing and reflecting on
emerging
should data
the second line be lined up with first here and below?
‘Hypothesising’/ Developing initial predictions/explanations based on data
speculating
Intervening Deliberately changing practices in response to predictions
Observing Observing and evaluating outcomes of interventions
Reporting Articulating processes formatively or summatively to
others
Writing Summarizing and disseminating written research
accounts
Presenting Summarizing and disseminating oral research accounts

One challenge for novice action researchers is to distinguish how AR

differs from everyday educational practice. Everyday action and investigative
processes of research are brought together in AR; the researcher must
plan, act, observe and reflect ‘more carefully, more systematically and
more rigorously than one usually does in everyday life; and [to] use the
relationships between these moments in the process as a source of both
improvement and knowledge’ (Kemmis & McTaggart 1988, p. 10).
In AR, the action in and on the social situation is deliberately
interventionist; researchers are simultaneously critical participants in the
action and researchers of the action. AR is essentially an exploratory and
decision-generating process invoking key questions, actions and challenges.
Table 11.2 presents the major phases and processes and suggests the kinds
of actions and challenges that can arise.

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 Table 11.2 Typology of phases and processes in action research
190

Broad Key questions Key actions Key challenges

phases of AR

Plan • What problematic areas for • Develop statements /reflections/ • Articulating implicit and explicit

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investigation and change can be questions cultural and professional
identified in this social situation? • Identify, collaborate and dialogue assumptions about status quo
• What changes to current practice with co-participants (colleagues, • Interrogating relationship of
are anticipated? administrators, parents, students) professional experience to research
• What outcomes are desired? • Outline initial action and research issues
• Who is involved in this situation? designs and processes • Scanning political, social and
• What resources are needed? • Identify scope, timing, resources educational constraints
Act • What strategies and actions • Initiate actions over critically selected • Avoiding personal bias and
should be put in place? time period interrogating preferred actions
• What is distinctive in this action/ • Observe deliberately, consciously and • Questioning preconceptions about
how will it lead to change? nonjudgmentally outcomes
• What ethical issues are involved? • Collaborate with co-participants • Maintaining openness to
• What evidence is emerging for • Adjust actions on basis of emerging unpredictable or unwelcome
renewed action? observations outcomes
Observe • What evidence about actions is • Evaluate the nature of evidence • Connecting data sources to research
required? required to document actions purpose and action
• What types of data-gathering systematically • Selecting/reselecting data-collection
Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

techniques should be used? • Identify/adapt/develop relevant data- tools

collection tools and techniques • Ensuring triangulation of data
techniques
(continued )

25/02/15 9:45 PM
 Broad Key questions Key actions Key challenges
phases of AR

• What additional forms of data • Clarify range of perspectives required • Locating resources/materials
are needed? for adequate coverage required for data collection

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• What kinds of interim analyses • Identify roles of co-participants in • Reviewing/readjusting actions on the
are possible? data gathering basis of evidence
• Maintaining rigour and thoroughness
of procedures
Reflection • What evidence is emerging and/ • Adopt a formative approach to the • Rechecking and cross-checking
or re-merging from systematic emergence of findings evidence
observation? • Maintain openness to possible • Revising focus and aims of
• What intended and unintended revisions, redirections and new intervention and observation based
outcomes are identifiable problems /questions on emerging evidence
as a consequence of the • Interrogate personal and profession • Identifying and challenging
intervention? preconceptions/ assumptions preconceptions/assumptions
• What reformulations of the • Ensure equitable and just • Informing research participants about
problem are required? consequences for all participants progress and purpose
Action Research

• What ethical issues are arising • Involving participants in cross-

from the research? checking judgements about evidence
• What balances in judgement • Analysing evidence impartially
need to be achieved? • Maintaining awareness of the
intersubjective nature of personal
involvement
191

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 192 Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Validity/trustworthiness
Validity is a contested notion in AR. Criticisms about quality and validity
have long been levelled against educational AR in relation to: methodological
limitations (Ellis 2010) such as its lack of scientific rigour, replicability and
generalizability; the tentativeness and unpredictability of the initial design
and therefore its inability to set out validity measures in advance; the localized
and therefore unreplicable nature of AR; the capacity of practitioners to
design and conduct robust research (e.g. Jarvis 1983; Dörnyei, 2007); and
the level of rigour in research design (Brumfit & Mitchell 1989; Mackey &
Gass 2005) and data analysis (Elliott & Sarland 1995; Winter 1987).
However, proponents argue that these criticisms misconstrue the nature
and purpose of AR. Like the process of AR itself, validity in AR is highly
dynamic and subject to variation, determined by the ongoing and changing
aims of the research. Because of the complexity and contentions surrounding
the term ‘validity’, as well as its strong associations with positivist and
quantitative-experimental paradigms, AR commentators tend to avoid
using it, instead preferring terms such as ‘trustworthiness’(Zeichner & space required after '?
Noffke 2001), ‘worthwhileness’ (Bradbury & Reason 2001) or ‘credibility’
(Greenwood & Levin 2007). Trustworthiness refers to whether the data
analyses, reports and interpretations constitute honest and authentic
reconstruction of the research and of the knowledge that emerged in the
social environment, while the value accruing to participants in undertaking
the research contributes to its worthwhileness. Credibility relates to
‘the arguments and the processes necessary for having someone trust
research results’ (Greenwood & Levin 2007, p. 67); internal credibility
means that knowledge created is meaningful to the participants generating
it, while external credibility is to do with convincing those uninvolved in the
research that the outcomes are believable.
Fundamental to reconceptualizing validity in AR is the challenge of
how to make judgements about the quality of the research. Altrichter et al.
(1993, pp. 74–81) argue that four key questions should be considered when
formulating criteria to evaluate AR quality:

Have the understandings gained from research been cross-checked against Qs need to be lined up
the perspectives of all those concerned and/or against other researchers?
Have the understandings gained from research been tested through
practical action?
Are the research aims compatible with both educational aims and
democratic human values?
Are the research design and data-collection methods compatible with
the demands of teaching?

Taking these questions in turn, the following measures can enhance

trustworthiness in AR (see Altrichter et al. 1993, pp. 74–81; Burns 1999,
pp. 163–166).

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 Action Research 193

Cross-checking perspectivesThis is a sub-head - not same level as above

In line with qualitative research procedures more generally, this criterion
concerns repetition and comparison of data in order to uncover discrepancies
or alternative perspectives, typically sourced through:
Triangulation, a term derived from navigation where different bearings are
taken to give accurate positioning on an object. In AR, triangulation means
using more than one data-collection method (e.g. observations, followed by
interviews, or surveys complemented by observations and focus groups) or
making comparisons across different types of data (e.g. quantitative analyses
compared with qualitative survey responses). Other procedures include
investigator (using different researchers), theory (using multiple theoretical
approaches) and environmental (using different locations) triangulation. By
using different perspective sources, confidence that findings are not simply
the result of using a particular method is increased.
Member-checks which involve taking the data to various participants
and/or stakeholders for verification of the accuracy of the findings. The
researcher’s interpretations are cross-checked by those who supplied the
data or by other ‘members’ of the social context in a position to provide
views (e.g. principals, administrators, close colleagues). In some cases, peer
comparison, using the perspectives of those relatively uninvolved, is also
sought to test out the extent of the account’s credibility (e.g. colleagues or
administrators in other educational contexts, or parents).
Perspectives comparison which involves testing findings against research
in comparable situations. Sources come from the literature, other action
research accounts, presentations at professional workshops and conferences,
or the researcher’s deepening reflections. Failure to find rival explanations
that show alternative data explanations, or negative cases, that confirm that
patterns and trends identified in the data are accurate increases confidence
in interpretations.
Cyclical iteration where the trustworthiness of findings and interpretations
are compared with and tested against previous iterations of the AR cycle
in order to build on previous evidence, expand the scope, purpose and
central questions of the study, further triangulate the data and guard against
researcher bias.

Testing through practical application This is a sub-head also

AR involves not just practical application but the development of empirical
and theoretical insights about the social situation under investigation.
Given the dynamic interaction between action and reflection, the strength
of the theories that emerge rests on their ability to generate improvement
in practice. Theory-testing is related to how the researcher demonstrates
practical application for improvement, and critical reflection on the capacity

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 194 Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

of the intervention strategies to bring about changes and developments.

This does not imply that intervention strategies will show immediate and
clear-cut improvements in practice; but it does mean that the purpose and
forward movement of the AR process is consistently focused on enhancing
practical conditions within the social situation The knowledge generated
is based not on received wisdom or ‘grand theory’, but on ‘experiential
knowing’ (Heron 1996).

Compatibility with educational aims This is also a sub-head

and democratic values
This criterion relates to ethical considerations (see below). As mentioned,
AR is deliberatively interventionist, aimed at disturbing and unsettling
the status quo. Consequently, participants may find themselves
confronting surprising or even unpalatable realities or changing things
in unanticipated ways. Despite disturbances to accepted practice, it is
important that essential educational aims in the context are kept in mind.
Also, methods should be compatible with research aims; if, for example,
the aim is to work with novice teacher colleagues to understand and
improve early teaching experiences, interviewing experienced colleagues
about ‘problems’ in supporting novices is counterproductive to fostering
good collegial relationships. Similarly, sharing these data with novices and
asking for perspectives on their colleagues’ views is only likely to increase
feelings of alienation. AR strives to enhance cooperative participant
relationships, and so showing how these relationships were treated
within the research is relevant. Indicating explicitly how ethical principles
were achieved and how participants’ roles and these relationships were
(re)negotiated through different research cycles is essential to ensuring
research quality.

Compatibility with teaching demands Also a sub-head

AR practitioners must be simultaneously researchers and actors in the

social situation. Thus, the scope and aims of the research need to be realistic
and justifiable within the constraints of the teaching context. The research
should show how it builds upon, rather than detracts from, practitioners’
major responsibilities for teaching. It should also show how it links to the
notion of enhanced professionalism for educators and the personal and
professional development of the participants. These criteria are closely
tied to the notion of compatibility with educational aims and the concepts
of reflexivity and praxis, in which theory and practice become mutually
informing (e.g. Freire 1970).

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 Action Research 195

Notwithstanding these considerations for enhancing the quality and

rigour of AR, debates about what constitute underpinning validity criteria
are very much at an evolutionary and contested point. And, as Greenwood
and Levin note, in attempting to defend AR as a valid research approach,
it would be unfortunate to assume ‘transcendentally high standards’
(2007, p. 113) that deter the very practitioners most likely to want to
participate. Rather, ‘[t]he key in good AR practice is to design and sustain a
process in which important reflections can emerge through communication
and some good practical problem-solving can be done in as inclusive and
fair a way as possible’ (p. 113). If action researchers approach research in
the spirit of providing fair and honest disclosure, and reflections on the
contexts, the research issues, the cyclical phases and processes, the methods,
the presentation and interpretation of the data, convincing ‘validation’ of
the research (Heron 1996) is likely to ensue.

Techniques and instruments

Generally, action researchers employ qualitative techniques common in
naturalistic exploratory research. There are essentially two main sources for
data-gathering: observing and recording what people do; and asking people
for their views and opinions. As in other forms of research, techniques should
be closely aligned to the central questions or focus – it is pointless to try to
understand what participants think about aspects of language learning by
observing them undertake a particular task, for example. The techniques
highlighted here do not imply, however, that AR data cannot be quantified
through percentages, rankings, ratings and so on. However, using statistical
calculations typical of quantitative approaches (see Phakiti this volume) is
uncommon in AR. Burns (1999, Chapters 4 and 5) describes observational
and non-observational techniques in detail.

Observing what participants do This is a sub-head for main head above

Modes of observation include other-observation (researcher observations
of other participants), self-observation (one’s own behaviours, thoughts,
actions, interactions) and peer-observation (observation by and with research
colleagues, acting as mentors, influencers, critical friends, supervisors).
Participant observation (where the researcher is part of the setting rather than
a detached observer) is inevitable in AR; thus, peer-observation is a useful
source of data triangulation to verify one’s own observations. In some cases
(more likely in formalized AR studies submitted as dissertations), a priori
observational schemes developed for language acquisition research, such
as FOCUS (Fanselow 1987) or Communicative Orientation to Language
Teaching (COLT) (Spada & Fröhlich 1995) might be used, but more

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 196 Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

commonly, AR observations focus on specific issues under investigation.

Richards (2003) suggests four main areas for focusing observations: (i) the
setting (e.g. context, spaces, locations), (ii) the systems (e.g. typical routines
and procedures), (iii) the people (e.g. roles, relationships, responses) and
(iv) the behaviours (e.g. timing, activities, events).
Observation is accompanied by techniques for capturing the
phenomena observed, so that the researcher can revisit the situation
objectively. Classically, anthropological ethnographic observation uses
fieldnotes made during (obtrusive to other participants) or immediately
afterwards (unobtrusive to others) observation that record in an objective
and factual style. Increasingly, fieldnotes include reflective commentary,
questions for further consideration, evaluations, and self-observations,
all relevant to the dynamic and evolving nature of AR. Another ‘classic’
of AR observation is the researcher journal or diary (see Perkins 2001
for an example), a self-reflective tool written for various purposes.
Personal journals are often used to ‘let off steam’, ruminate on passing
thoughts or insights and record hopes, anxieties or even confessions.
Other kinds of journals are ‘memoirs’, more objective and factual
reflections on events or people, or even ‘logs’, running records of what
contacts and transactions occur during the day. In a variation on free-
form journals, some AR practitioners use grids or tables with relevant
headings, for instance dates/times, issues arising, actions taken, changes
made, reflections, comments, reactions, literature references. Journals
sometimes include drawings, sketches, diagrams, maps, illustrations of
student work, and mindmaps. With the advent of technology, fieldnotes
and journals can be shared creatively among researchers or set up as
blogs (Weblogs, such as Blackboard) or vlogs (visual Weblogs, like
Flikr) for running commentary between participants.
Audio or video recordings have the advantage of capturing observational
data verbatim and are accurate and reliable sources of data. Audio recording
is less intrusive, while video, although more intrusive, includes non-verbal
behaviour. Accustoming participants to the presence of the recording
device is likely to result in more authentic records of typical interaction.
A challenge in AR observation is that the researcher is also an actor in the
context. Thus, if peer observation is not readily available, other recording
mechanisms are needed. Typical techniques include: hand-held recorders for
short, rapid commentary; post-it notes for passing insights or reminders;
‘jottings’ on lesson-plans or class handouts; electronic whiteboard copies;
focused observations by students acting as co-researchers; photographs
by teacher or students using disposable, digital or mobile phone cameras;
maps and diagrams; mindmaps linking key observations and insights;
spoken and/or written debriefings with peer-observers immediately after
observations. Undertaking and documenting observations are limited only
by participants’ creativity; the key consideration is making them focused,
flexible, convenient and adaptable to preferences and circumstances.

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 Action Research 197

Asking participants for views and opinions This is also a sub-head

Non-observational and introspective techniques involve seeking views,

beliefs and opinions about issues under investigation. They also include
collecting artefacts from the research site, such as documents (policies,
curricula, lesson plans, student work, test results) providing a track
record or paper trail that reflect people’s activities. Two mainstays of non-
observational data collection are interviews and surveys or questionnaires.
Structured (pre-planned sets of questions posed in fixed order), semi-
structured (sets of questions used flexibly) or unstructured (open-ended
conversational interactions) interviews offer various ways to tailor this
technique to a specific focus and purpose, as do different combinations
of participants (individualized, paired, focus group–oriented). Interviews
can easily double as classroom learning activities. A variation on formal
interviews, well adapted to AR for example, is a class or group discussion
angled towards the research topic. For greater reliability, interviews are
frequently recorded, audio recording usually being sufficient to capture
participants’ introspections for later analysis.
Surveys or questionnaires eliciting written data through closed and/or
open-ended questions are also well adapted to classroom activities. Closed
questions involve selecting specified responses and lead to tabulation
and quantification (percentages, averages, frequency), while open-ended
questions elicit fill-in or short answers and offer qualitative data from which
the researcher derives themes, patterns and trends. Questions focus typically
on factual, behavioural or attitudinal information (Dörnyei 2003). A major
challenge lies in question preparation so as to avoid lack of clarity, ambiguity,
bias and ‘leading-the-witness’, and for this reason, piloting the questions
is recommended. Decisions also need to be made about the language and
literacy levels required and whether responses should be completed in the
mother tongue or alternative language.
One problem that inevitably arises in using these techniques is teacher–
student power-relationships. McKay (2006, p. 55) suggests minimizing this
threat to authenticity by: (i) explaining the purpose of the interview, what
will be done with the information and the benefits to participants; (ii) being
sensitive to students’ responses and any awkwardness or nervousness that
might arise; (iii) providing feedback and reinforcement during the interview
through thanks, praise and support. This advice applies equally to the
preparation and distribution of questionnaires. Linked to the power-relation
issue is the problem that ‘self-report’ data is notoriously unreliable; responses change is to are
may be simplistic, aimed to please, impress or cover up actual opinions for
fear of reprisal. Consequently, action researchers should critically evaluate
data obtained in this way against other sources.
Finally, as in other research, AR data are ‘traces’ or representations
of events that provide evidence for the researcher’s findings and
interpretations. Inevitably, what is highlighted from the data is selective,

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subject to researcher interpretation and ultimately represents dynamic

situations statically. In AR, as perhaps in no other approach to research,
to impact on practice, the evidence from the data must be supplemented
and supported by what can be learned from and made meaningful about
the practical social situation through deep reflection and experiential
application.

Ethical considerations
As already noted, ethical considerations are tied up with the quality, value
and democratic worth of the AR in changing and enhancing social situations
for the participants. Thus, a fundamental ethical question is how the design
of the research works towards educational improvement, more effective
outcomes for students and the empowerment of teachers, professionally,
educationally and politically. Underpinning AR goals are at least three
important ethical issues (see also Burns, 2010).

Whose permission or consent is needed for the research?

It is vital to consider two types of permission. First, permission may need
to be sought from the researcher’s university, school board, district or
school. Second, the researcher needs to obtain informed consent from
other participants, such as colleagues and students. Even when written
consent is not required, all stakeholders and participants have a right
to information about the purpose, procedures, possible effects and how
the research will be used, as well as assurances of anonymity, voluntary
participation and withdrawal from the research without penalty. This is
particularly important in an approach where researchers could be accused
of ‘experimenting’ on their students and ‘threatening’ their educational
achievement.

Who will be affected by the research?

Action researchers need to maintain vigilance about the possible
consequences of the research on participants. No harm, risk or
disadvantage should ensue, and again explanation and communication
about the purpose of the research should be foregrounded. In AR, it is
particularly important to be aware of the power differences inherent
in the educational situation, and how they might affect participants’
behaviours and reactions.

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 Action Research 199

Who should be told about the research

when it is completed?
Participants need to know that the outcomes of the research will be fed back
to them for their input. Not only does the researcher do them the courtesy
of sharing what comes out of the research but researcher interpretations are
(re) affirmed. Information about how the research will be used and to whom
it will be disseminated on completion also meets good ethical standards.
Conducting AR ethically involves confronting continual decisions,
challenges and choices, which are not always self-evident because of the
dynamic and shifting nature of the processes. Nevertheless, an ethical
orientation is fundamental to the reflective and democratic spirit of AR and
plays a central role in focusing and strengthening its quality, trustworthiness
and credibility.

A sample study
The focus of Heather Denny’s (2008) action research, conducted in a
New Zealand (NZ) university over three semesters, was how to introduce
her adult immigrant English as an additional language (EAL) learners to
conversational skills and cultural norms of the local variety of English,
as rapidly and efficiently as possible. The institutional curriculum
required students to achieve criterion-based competencies in various
spoken genres (e.g. Is able to manage a conversation and keep it going
for 6 minutes: opening, small talk, turn taking, responding to questions,
remarks, etc., transitions, closing). Perceiving that conversational models
from available textbooks were inauthentic and non-reflective of local
situations, she drew on work by Burns (2001), Butterworth (2000), Carter
and McCarthy (1995), de Silva Joyce and Slade (2000) and Eggins and
Slade (1997) to develop more realistic semi-scripted role-play dialogues.
The approach involved ‘giving native speakers a scenario based in real-
life interactions … and asking them to role-play an exchange’ which
was recorded and transcribed (Denny 2008, p. 44). To facilitate and
understand the development of her teaching practice using this approach,
she undertook three cycles of AR with three different classes of mixed-age
students at a level equivalent to 4.5 General on the International English
Language Testing System (IELTS).
In the initial cycle, she used unscripted or semi-scripted conversations from
published Australian materials (e.g. Delaruelle 2001), also experimenting
by developing semi-scripted recordings and activities involving NZ native-
speaker colleagues. Activities focused particularly on weaknesses identified
in pre-tests; using formulaic expressions for conversational initiation and

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introducing discourse markers (so, well, anyway) to maintain interaction.

Students conducted role-plays rated by peers using the institutional
assessment criteria mentioned above.
The second cycle took the investigations further by focusing on the
staging of conversational transitions from initiation, to requesting and
giving advice and concluding the interaction. Three transitional strategies,
identified from semi-scripted recordings and published material, provided
data for class activities, including student demonstrations, discussion of
strategies used and role-play of complete conversations, during which
students self-assessed, using yes/no/sometimes responses against given
criteria (e.g. Start a conversation; Speak fluently in conversation using
discourse markers (e.g. well, anyway, so, listen, look, now); Find the right
question to get information from my partner).
The final cycle extended skills by introducing more complex
conversational negotiations, including strategies for gaining attention,
introducing a situational problem such as with an employer, teacher and
real-estate agent, and insisting. Students listened to models, which were
from authentic or simulated sources compiled by Denny, and responded to
questions about vocabulary, linguistic features, staging of the conversational
genre, getting attention and stating the problem in general and in detail,
and using discourse strategies such as introducing softeners, suggesting
compromises and checking outcomes. Discussions about conversational
models focused on context, participants, power relations, situations and
politeness. Other activities involved paired practice, identification of
relevant discourse transitions, strategies and markers, demonstration role-
plays, peer-coaching and peer assessment.
During all three cycles, data were collected through teacher-created
pre-tests and institutional post-tests, initial and final written self-
assessments, a student survey and a reflective researcher journal. Pre-
and post-tests consisted of role-plays observed and evaluated by Denny
according to criteria. For pre-tests, Denny created her own set of criteria
(e.g. Uses appropriate language to manage transition to discussion topic)
designed to diagnose each student’s learning needs. Post-tests utilized the
institutional requirements mentioned earlier. After each teaching period,
students completed self-assessment check-lists evaluating discourse
competencies. In cycle three, self-assessment occurred before teacher
assessment, so that responses were not influenced by results. Surveys
were completed at the same time as post-teaching self-assessments
and students were asked to identify various activities they found most
effective:

(i) direct activities using models;

(ii) more indirect activities such as practising with partners; and
(iii) most indirect activities such as practising outside class.

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 Action Research 201

Denny’s reflective journal recorded classroom activities, events and

perceptions about effectiveness of activities, student progress and her own
practices.
By comparing test results, she found that all students improved
their weakest skills, but improvement across competencies was uneven.
However, the self-assessments showed lower perceptions of individual
improvement, particularly for activities in cycle two where students rated
themselves higher on the pre-test. Surveys on preferred activities indicated
that students found teacher information, practice in class, listening to
tapes and studying transcripts the most useful across all cycles. Denny
concluded that authentically oriented materials combined with classroom
practice did contribute to student improvement. In relation to personal
insights and skills development, she claimed that her professional learning
about materials development as well as her knowledge about naturalistic
data analysis increased: ‘I have learned to trust the data in them and
have progressively worked more directly with the tapes and transcripts,
becoming gradually less worried that learners would find them too
complex’ (p. 55).
One area identified for future cycles was to investigate ways to enhance
sociocultural knowledge of the discoursal features of naturalistic interaction.
She also refined her research knowledge and skills realizing, particularly by
the third cycle, the importance of recording student interaction for greater
reliability in assessment and analysis, and wording surveys clearly and
unambiguously. For further cycles, she saw follow-up student interviews as
a way of triangulating data and increasing trustworthiness. She concluded:
‘In all cycles I learned again that careful and trustworthy research takes
more time than anticipated. However, I am convinced that the gathering
of data facilitated more focused and rapid development of my teaching’
(p. 56). Denny’s research is a good example of a practitioner deepening
her confidence in addressing a locally contextualized teaching issue and
engendering self-reflective empirically based insights.

Resources for Further Reading

Altrichter, H, Posch, P & Somekh, B 1993, Teachers Investigate Their Work.
An Introduction to the Methods of Action Research, Routledge, London.
While not focused on language teaching, this book is a classic for teachers, teacher
educators and administrators wanting to understand and begin using action research
alone or with professional colleagues. Organized as a handbook, it provides
numerous practical methods and strategies.
Burnaford, G, Fischer, J & Hobson, D (eds), 2001, Teachers Doing Research. The
Power of Action Through Inquiry, 2nd ednLawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ. punct/spacing need fixin

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 202 Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Using numerous examples from mainstream teacher action research projects in US

schools and colleges, this book describes the processes of doing action research,
discusses how technology can be integrated into methodology and explores the
relationships between teacher research and the broader field of educational research.
Burns, A 2010, Doing Action Research in English Language Teaching: A Guide for
Practitioners, Routledge, New York, NY.
This volume is a hands-on, practical guide for practitioners wishing to get started in
action research. It introduces the main concepts and offers a step-by-step guide to
the action research process. It includes numerous examples from language teacher
action researchers internationally.
Edge, J (ed.), 2001, Action Research, TESOL, Alexandria.
This was one of the first books to provide chapter length examples of action research
carried out in the field of language teaching internationally. The opening chapter
offers an interesting synopsis of the history of action research, its developments
within mainstream educational and applied linguistics/TESOL contexts and its
relevance to teacher research and professional development.
Farrell, T (Series editor), Language Teacher Research in… Series,, TESOL,
Alexandria, VA.
This series of edited books is valuable in providing chapter length examples of
research, including AR, carried out by language teachers in different international
contexts – Asia (Farrell, 2006), Europe (Borg 2006), the Americas (McGarrell (2007),
the Middle East (Coombe & Barlow 2007), Australia and New Zealand (Burns &
Burton 2008), Africa (Makalela 2009).
Griffee, D T 2012, An introduction to second language research methods, TESL-
EJ Publications, E-book edition available at http://www.tesl-ej.org/pdf/ej60/
sl_research_methods.pdf, viewed 13 May 2014.
Although this book is not specifically about designing and conducting action
research, it is written very much in the spirit of encouraging teachers to become
researchers so that their understanding of their beliefs and practices is expanded.
One of the chapters deals specifically with AR design and is a useful introduction to
the main processes and procedures.
Borg, S 2013, Teacher Research in Language Teaching: A Critical Analysis,
Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
This book reports on research investigating the extent to which teachers are engaged
in research, both as consumers (or readers) and doers of research. It considers
teachers’ and academic managers’ attitudes to teacher research and identifies
factors that impede or promote engagement. It also reviews a number of projects
conducted outside the context of formal study to examine how teacher research can
be facilitated effectively.

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 Action Research 203

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