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3.0 Fasteners and Springs
Fasteners are machine elements for holing (joining) two or more machine or structural parts.
There are 2 types of fasteners – permanent and removable (temporary). Riveting and welding
processes are used in making permanent fasteners – rivet joints and weldments. In making
removable fastening, screwed fasteners (e.g. Bolts, Studs and Nuts in combination), machine
screws, set screws, keys, cotters, couplings are frequently used.
A spring is a mechanical device that yields by expansion or contraction due to applied pressure,
force, or stress. Most springs are in the form of a helical coil. Types of spring include helical
torsional spring, spiral torsional spring, torsional bar spring, coil string, wave spring, flat
spring, wave spring, volute spring, coned disc spring, garter spring, etc. Some of these
springs are shown in figure 3.1.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.0: (a) Compression coil spring, (b) compression wave spring, volute spring, (d) flat spring
3.1 Descriptions and Specifications of Fasteners
3.1.1 Screw fasteners: The mostly used fasteners are the screw fasteners. A screw fastener has
helix or conical spiral that is formed on the external surface of a shaft. The helix or the conical
spiral is called the thread. For a Nut used in combination with a bolt or a stud, the thread is
formed on the internal surface its cylindrical hole.
A screw thread is obtained by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface,
giving an external thread. The threaded portion engages with a corresponding threaded hole,
giving an internal thread, forming a screwed fastener. Figure 3.1(a), shows a typical external
thread on a shaft (of a bolt or stud) and figure 3.1(b) shows an internal thread inside a hole or
nut.
Referring to figure 3.1, the following terminologies are used to describe threads:
Axis: the centreline of the cylindrical thread shape.
Major (nominal) diameter: the largest diameter of a screw thread, touching the crests
on an external thread, or the roots of an internal thread.
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Minor (core) diameter: the smallest diameter of a screw thread, touching the roots of
an external thread or the crest of an internal thread.
Pitch diameter: the diameter measured from a point halfway between the major and
minor diameter through the axis to a corresponding point on the opposite side.
Depth: is the depth of thread, and it is the distance between the crest and the root.
Figure 3.1 (a): External thread
Figure 3.1 (b): Internal thread
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Body: sometimes called the shank, is the portion of a screw shaft that is left unthreaded.
Crest: the top of external threads or the bottom of internal threads.
Root: the bottom of an external thread or top of an internal thread.
Included Angle: the angle between the flans (or sides) of a thread.
Pitch: the distance measured parallel to the axis from a point on one thread to the
corresponding point on the adjacent thread.
Lead: the lateral distance a thread travels in 1 complete turn.
Thread: the part of screw thread represented by 1 pitch.
Chamfer: an angular relief at the thread to help allow the thread to engage with a
mating part more easily.
Thread form: the design of a thread determined by its profile.
3.1.2. Thread Forms: the design profiles of some external and internal thread forms are shown
in figure 3.2.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.2: (a) Metric or American National thread, (b) Acme thread, (c) Square thread, (d) Buttress
thread
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3.1.2.1 Thread Representations: there are 3 methods of representing threads. They are:
Detailed method: this is a pictorial display of threads used in special situations such as
in a catalogue or display drawing, because they represent actual threads. Examples are
shown in figure 3.3, for a bolt or stud and a nut or hole.
`
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.3: (a) Front view detailed for external thread, (b) Section view detailed for
internal thread, (c) side view with chamfer, (d) side view with no chamfer
Schematic method: shows the threads as symbol rather than as they actually look.
Examples are shown in figure 3.4, for a bolt or stud and a nut or hole.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.4: (a) Front view schematic for external thread, (b) Section view schematic
for internal thread, (c) side view with chamfer, (d) side view with no chamfer
Simplified method: this is the most commonly used in drawing threads. It clearly
describes threads, and they are easy and quick to draw. Examples are shown in figure
3.5, for a bolt or stud and a nut or hole.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.5: (a) Front view simplified for external thread, (b) Section view simplified
for internal thread
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3.1.2.2 Simplified Thread Drawing: the following steps are followed to draw simplified
threads:
Step 1: with the major thread diameter, draw an object lines for the external
threads or the hidden lines for internal threads, as shown in figure 3.6.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.6: (a) object lines for external thread, (b) object lines for internal thread
Step 2: with the given dimension of the minor diameter, draw the minor thread
diameter. If the minor diameter and major diameter are too close together, the
use discretion and exaggerate the space. The minor diameter is drawn hidden
lines for external thread and hidden line staggered with the major diameter lines
for the internal thread. The minor diameter is an object line for internal thread
section view, as illustrated in Figure 3.7.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.7: establishing minor diameter (a) for external thread, (b) for internal thread, (c) using
object lines in section view.
3.1.2.3 Detailed Thread Drawing: the following steps are followed to draw detailed
threads:
Step 1: use construction lines to lightly draw the major and minor diameters of
the thread as shown in figure 3.8.
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(a) (b)
Figure 3.8: establishing the major and minor diameters for the detailed thread, (a)
external thread, (b) internal thread.
Step 2: divide one edge of the thread into number of threads per inch (1 inch =
25.4 mm), as shown in figure 3.9.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.9: establishing the number of thread per inch on the detailed thread for, (a)
external thread, (b) internal thread.
Figure 3.10: drawing the thread form on the detailed thread for, (a) external thread,
(b) internal thread.
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Step 3: stagger the opposite side one-half pitch and draw parallel thin lines equal
to the spaces established in step 2. Thereafter make V’s at about 60° to form the
root and crest of each thread. See figure 3.10.
Step 4: complete the detailed thread representation by connecting the roots of
opposite threads by drawing parallel lines as shown in figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11: complete representation of the detailed thread for, (a) external thread, (b) internal
thread
The simplified thread drawing is very versatile and can be used in all situations, whereas
the other representations cannot be used in all situations. Figure 3.12 shows a bolt
fastener as it is appears drawn in assembly with two parts using simplified thread
representation. It can be seen that the thread did not go through. In this situation, the
hole for the thread making is drilled deeper than the thread and the thread vanish or
runout continues past the full thread depth. This vanish is represented as an arc that
begins at the end of a full thread and ends into the extended minor diameter.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.12: (a) simplified external thread in assembly where the thread does not go through
the par, (b) section view
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3.1.2.4 Thread Notes: simplified, schematic and detailed thread representations clearly
display threads on drawings. These thread representations alone do not give the full
information about the thread but only describe the locations where threads are used.
The thread notes clearly and completely describe and identifies the thread used. The
metric thread notes, and the Unified & American National threads notes are shown in
figure 3.13.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.13: (a) Metric thread notes, (b) Unified and American National thread notes
In figure 3.13a, M is the symbol for ISO metric threads and is always placed in the first
location (A). Location (B) is used to specify the nominal major diameter in
millimetres, followed by the symbol X, meaning by. The thread pitch in millimetres
in placed at location (C), followed by a dash ( – ). Location (D) identifies the tolerance
grade, which can be any number from 3 to 9, used for fine to coarse. Tolerance grade 3
through 5 are fine threads, and 7 through 9 are coarse. Grade 3 is very fine and grade 9
is coarse. Grade 6 is the most commonly used and is the medium tolerance metric
thread. The letter placed after the grade number gives the class of thread tolerance for
internal or external thread. A blank space at location (E) indicates a right-hand thread
(thread that turns clockwise) is assumed unless an LH is entered in this space. The
length of internal threads or the length of external threads in millimetres is provided at
the end of the note. When the thread goes through the part, this space is left blank,
although some establishments prefer to use the description THRU for internal threads
that go.
From figure 3.13b, the components of the unified and American National thread notes
are as follows: the major diameter of the thread in inches is placed in the first position
in (A), followed by a dash ( – ). (B) identifies the number of threads per inch. (C)
identifies the class of thread from fine to coarse, followed by a dash ( – ). As shown,
UNC means Unified National Coarse. Other include Unified National Fine (UNF),
Unified National Extra Fine (UNEF), Unified National Special (UNS). (D) indicates
class of fit for the tolerance. 1 means large tolerance, 2 is a general-purpose moderate
tolerance, and 3 is for applications requiring a close tolerance. (E) indicates either letter
A or B. the letter A meaning external thread while B is internal thread. A or B can be
omitted if the thread shown on the drawing is clearly external or internal. (F) being
blank indicates that the thread is right-hand thread, otherwise LH in the space identifies
Left-hand thread. Blank space at (G) is used to identify a single lead. For double and
triple lead, letter L is used along with 2X pitch for double lead threads. Finally, (H) is
to indicate internal thread depth or external thread length in inches. This space is left
blank when drawing clearly shows that the internal thread goes through the part or the
word THRU is placed for clarity.
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3.1.3 Bolts and Nuts: Screw thread is widely applied in bolts and nuts. Bolts are identified by
thread notes, length and head type. Figure 3.14 shows a hexagonal and a square bolt heads.
Nuts are classified by thread specifications and type, and are available with a flat base or a
washer face. Both bolt and nut are chamfered, and when views from the side, this chamfer is
seen as radii on the sides of the nut or bolt.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.14: Bolt head types, (a) Hexagonal, (b) Square
3.1.3.1 Drawing of Hexagonal Head Fasteners: they are generally drawn with the hexagon
positioned across the corners vertically in the front view, as shown in figure 3.15. The
following steps are used in drawing hexagonal head fasteners:
Step 1: use construction lines to draw the end side views of the hexagonal bolt using
the distance across-flats (AF) or corners from the construction information, as shown
in figure 3.15a.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.15: (a) Layout views of a hexagonal head, (b) Diameters across corners and flats
Step 2: project the hexagon corners to the front view, and establish the radii. With the
radii draw the arcs completing the bolt head, as shown in figure 3.16.
Step 3: use object lines to complete both views, and draw a vertical line to the extent
of the thread length on the shank. The standard thread length for all bolts is given in
table 3.1.
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Figure 3.16: Type A, bolt and nut without washer face underneath the bolt head
Step 4: finish off the thread end of the bolt with a spherical radius of 11/4 or a 45°
chamfer to the thread root, as shown in figure 3.17.
Figure 3.17: Type B, bolt and nut with washer face underneath the bolt head
Figure 3.16 and figure 3.17, show the 2 types standard bolts and nuts. Type a shown in
figure 3.16 has no washer face underneath the bolt head, while type B shown in figure
3.17 has a washer face underneath the bolt head.
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Table 3.1: Standard bolt lengths
There are many types of heads for bolts and screws apart from the standard hexagonal
head. Some of them are shown in figure 3.18. The dimensions for all these threaded
fasteners can be obtained from any good engineering handbook.
Figure 3.18: Bolt and screw heads
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Studio Work 1
1. Figure 2A shows the notes and dimension of a Lathe Dog. Draw the detailed drawing
of the lathe dog and the specified screw thread in 1st angle orthographic projection, by
choosing your views. (Computer Engineering)
2. Using 1 inch = 25.4 mm conversion, draw the detailed screw thread of the Shoulder
Screw shown in figure (2B), in 3rd angle projection by choosing your views. (Agric/
Food Engineering).
Figure 2A (Lathe Dog) Figure 2B (Shoulder Screw)
Figure 2C (Bearing Nut) Figure 2D (Washer Face Nut)
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Figure 2E (Threaded Step Shaft)
3. Using 1 inch = 25.4 mm conversion, make detailed drawings of the bearing nut in
figure (2C) and washer face nut in figure (2D), in 1st angle orthographic projection, by
choosing your views. (Civil Engineering)
4. Using 1 inch = 25.4 mm conversion, draw in details the threaded step shaft in figure
(2E), in 1st angle orthographic projection, by choosing your views. (Mechanical &
Elec/Elect Engineering)
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3.2 Descriptions and Specifications of Springs
A spring is a mechanical device often in the form of a helical coil that yields or deforms by
expansion or contraction as a result of applied pressure, force, or stress. Springs are made to
return to their normal form when the force or stress is removed. Their design criteria are
generally based on material gage (size of the wire diameter used in making the coils), type of
material, spring index (the ratio of the average coil diameter to the wire diameter), direction of
helix, type of ends, and function.
4.2.1 Spring terminology
Coil: is one 360° revolution of the wire used to make the spring.
Active Coils: are the total number of coils used to calculate the total deflection of a
spring.
Total Coils: are the number of active coils plus the coils used to form the spring
ends for compression springs.
Deflection: is the movement from free length to the solid length in a compression
spring. It can also mean the movement of a spring from free position to maximum
open position in an extension spring.
Spring ends: compression spring have four general ends – open or closed ground
ends, and open or closed unground ends as shown in figure 3.20. Extension springs
have variety of operational ends to for different applications.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.19: (a) compression spring, (b) extension spring
(a) (b)
Figure 3.20: (a) compression spring with open unground ends, (b) compression spring
with closed ground ends
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Helix direction: can be specified as right-hand or left-hand, which is the direction
of the twist used to create the spring as seen in compression springs in figure 3.20.
Free Length: is the length of spring when there is no pressure or stress to affect
compression or extension. See figure 3.19a.
Compression length: is also known as the solid length, is the maximum
recommended design length of the spring when compressed as shown in figure
3.19a.
Solid height: is the maximum compression possible. The design function of the
spring should not allow the spring to reach solid height when in operation unless
this factor is a function of the machinery, as depicted in figure 3.19a
Loading extension: is the distance to which an extension spring is designed to
operate, as shown in figure 3.19b.
Pitch: is one complete helical revolution or the distance from a point on one coli to
the same corresponding point on the next coil.
4.2.2 Spring Representations
Springs can be draw using detailed or schematic representation. The detailed
representation is commonly used in drawings as well as in situations requiring
realistic representation, such as in detailed assembly drawings and in vendor’s
catalogs. The schematic representation is less commonly used in drawings even
though it is very easy to draw. There are different types of spring, and some of them
are mentioned in the introduction of this chapter. We are going to pay attention to
the representation of coiled springs since other types can be represented simply the
way they appear.
4.2.2.1 Detailed Coiled Spring Representation
No matter which spring representation drawing to be used, requires the spring
specifications referred to as spring data. The spring data come in form of a specific
or general note, or placed as dimensions on the spring drawing. The information
the spring data can contain include outside or inside diameter, wire gage, pitch,
material, number of coils, force required, type of ends, free and compressed length,
etc. suppose we are given the spring data as follows:
Material: 2.5 mm diameter high-carbon spring steel
Outside diameter: 16 mm
Free length: 50 mm
Number of coils: 6
Step 1: draw using construction lines a rectangle equal to the outside diameter of
16 mm wide and length equal to the free length of 50 mm given, as shown in figure
3.21.
Step 2: divide the length of one side of the layout rectangle in figure 3.21 into 6
equal parts and draw (6 + 1) equally space full circles, each with a diameter of 2.5
mm corresponding to the size of the steel wire used in making the helical coils of
the spring (see figure 3.22). On the other side of the length of the rectangle, lay out
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a half circle at each end. Beginning at a distance of ½ pitch away from one end,
draw the first of six full 2.5 mm circles with equal spaces between them.
Figure 3.21 Step 1: Preliminary spring layout
Figure 3.22 Step 2: Spacing the coils
Step 3: connect the circles drawn in step 2 to make the coils. Draw lines from a
point of tangency on one circle to a corresponding point on a circle on the other
side, as shown in figure 3.23. Draw the last element on each side down the edge of
the rectangle for ground ends. To draw unground ends, make the last element
terminate at the axis of the spring.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.23: (a) Step 3 - connect the coils to complete the details (b) Detailed spring
representation in section
For detailed coils in longitudinal sectional view, leave the circles in step 2 and draw
that part of the spring that appears as if the front half were removed as shown in
figure 3.23b.
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4.2.2.2 Schematic Coiled Spring Representation
The schematic spring representation is much easier to draw than the detailed
representation, and they clearly represent a spring. The following steps show how
to represent the previously drawn spring using schematic symbol.
Step 1: use construction lines draw the layout rectangle using the spring diameter
and free length as the width and length respectively, as shown in figure 3.21.
Step 2: establish six equal spaces at Pitch distance along one edge of the rectangle.
Along the opposite edge, begin and end with a space equal to ½ Pitch. Establish
five equal spaces between the ½ pitch ends (see figure 3.24).
Figure 3.24 Step 2: spacing the coils
Step 3: beginning on one side, draw the elements of each spring coil as shown in
figure 3.25.
Figure 3.25 Step 3: complete the schematic representation
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Studio Work 2
Figure 3A, 3B & 3C show two different types of spring with outer diameter, internal diameters,
and wire diameter of the coils given. All dimensions are in inches. Take 1 inch = 25.4 mm.
Draw the detailed representation of each spring.
Figure 3A – PSI Spring
(Civil & Elect/Elect Engineering)
Figure 3B – Plunger Spring
(Mechanical & Computer Engineering)
Figure 3C – Compression Spring
(Agric & Food Engineering)
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