CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE SYSTEM

2.1. Introduction
In this chapter, we will discuss about the sources or articles that are related to
automatic street light system. The research explains that to ON and OFF a, a manual
support is not needed. In this way, without any human support, light can be ON as
many times as per the requirement automatically. As microcontrollers and other
processors act as control unit, a sensor system is required in order to detect the
obstacle so that the light can be ON.
Generally, sensor technology is used for conserving energy as well as obstacle
detection. In other terms, sensors are allowed for direct replacement of standard wall
switches. When sensors detect the obstacle, it sends data to microcontroller or
processor by which it makes the light ON and after the obstacle leaves the sensing
area then light will get into OFF position automatically. When LDR is used for energy
saving such as controlling of light. In this system there will be two parts, One is with
the motion sensor: that is used for the room light and the other is with LDR: used for
the walkway light. We can set it to any of them according to our comfort. This is
general outlook of the automatic light. Where the sensor detects the presence of the
human body on his way and sends data to the Arduino so that Arduino will control the
working of the light whether to ON or OFF.
But here in some cases, if the body has no motion and then the sensor may fail
to detect the obstacle so that the light may not get ON. This often happens and the
light systems fail. So here the main aim is to make the light ON at any cost whether
the body is moving and to say in better words to make the light ON; if so for that
condition we used LDR. It automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight goes
below the visible region of our eyes.
It automatically switches OFF lights under illumination by sunlight. This is
done by a sensor called Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) which senses the light
actually like our eyes. By using this system energy consumption is also reduced
because now-a-days the manually automatic lighting are not switched off properly
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even the sunlight comes and also not switched on earlier before sunset. In sunny
and rainy days, ON time and OFF time differ significantly which is one of the
major disadvantage of using timer circuits or manual. By doing in such a way, the
user will be provided conveniently and the power saving is also done for some
particular extend. This kind of street light system is suitable for both urban and rural
areas.
An automatic light, temperature, humidity control system consists of the
components such as LDR and PIR motion Sensor. Other different components
required by the system for this project will be deliberated later. Different types of
occupancy sensors that can be used in automatic system to minimize energy
consumption and the reason to choose PIR sensor over others, its working principle
will be discussed.
Other sensors used in the system and their working principle will also be
discussed and different table will show some comparison. The utility of using Micro
controller “Arduino Uno” in this project will be also deliberated in this paper.

2.2. Occupancy Sensor

Occupancy sensors are lighting control device that detects occupancy of a
space by people and turns the lights on or off automatically using infrared or
ultrasonic technology. Occupancy sensors are typically used to save energy, provide
automatic control, and comply with building codes.
When occupancy in a given space is predictable, switching can often be
scheduled using simple devices such as time-clocks and timer-switches to save
energy. When occupancy is not predictable, then switching can be automated using
occupancy sensors. Occupancy sensors detect when a space is occupied or unoccupied
and turn the lights on or off automatically after a short period of time to save energy.
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) can detect the light. It will light only the time
that there is no light. On the walkway for a building, it is no need of lighting in the
daytime. So the manual work is needed for the switch ON and OFF. If someone will
forget to switch OFF at day time, the electricity is lost without needed.
Depending on the characteristics of the space to be controlled, energy savings
as high as 90% can be realized through use of occupancy sensors. Here below a table
is shown to comprehend energy saving can be done using occupancy sensors.
There are different types of occupancy sensors which are being used all over
the world for certain benefits, some of them are explained below.
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Table 2.1. Power Saving Occupancy Sensor

Occupancy Area Energy saving

Private Office 15-50%

Classroom 40-50%

Conference room 25-70%

Restrooms 32-72%

Corridors 32-84%

Storage Areas 50-80%

2.2.1. Passive Infrared (PIR) Sensors

PIR sensors, the simplest type are vastly used occupancy sensor for its
inexpensiveness and better usage. PIR sensor has a sensor face that measures different
air temperatures in a room. The PIR detector sends a signal to switch on lights when a
person is in the room. It is an electronic sensor that measures infrared (IR) light
radiating from objects in its field of view. They are most often used in PIR-based
motion detectors.

2.2.2. Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensor also known as the Ping sensor measures distance using
sonar; an ultrasonic (well above human hearing) pulse is transmitted from the unit and
distance-to-target is determined by measuring the time required for the echo return.
Output from the sensor is a variable-width pulse that corresponds to the distance to
the target.

2.2.3. Microwave Detector and Occupancy Sensor

This sensor is being used in many places for its good performance.
Microwave based detectors emits microwaves from the detector cover a wide range to
detect movement and activate lighting controls or an alarm. Battery-operated
microwave occupancy sensors will work during power outages, so they are good for
home security.
There are some type of PIR sensor which combined with PIR sensor for better
performance and security purpose. Three types of occupancy sensors are shown in
figure 2.1. Two of them are briefly explained in the following sections:
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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.1. Three types of Occupancy sensors. (a)Passive Infrared (PIR) sensor, (b)
Ultrasonic sensor (c) Microwave Detector and Occupancy Sensor.

2.2.4. Combined PIR and Ultrasonic Detector

This type of PIR detector is coupled to an active ultrasonic wave-emitting
detector. These provide accurate readings of when people come into and out of a
room, enabling more precise control of the lighting system. These are also good for
use in home security as they can pinpoint the movement of intruders in the home with
accuracy, and activate alarms when needed.

2.2.5. Combined PIR and Microwave Occupancy Sensor

This type of occupancy sensor works well in spaces with windows. PIR
detectors sometimes unable to detect movement beyond the windows, because glass
blocks infrared radiation, but microwave emitters can. This sensor can activate an
alarm or turn on interior lights when people approach home or office windows at
night. These combined sensors are mostly used in Intrusion detection in protected area
and formation of alarm notification by opening the contact output signal relay. Figure
2.2 shows two types of combined PIR sensor.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.2. Two types of combined PIR sensors (a) Combined PIR and Ultrasonic
sensor, (b) Combined PIR and Microwave Occupancy Sensor.
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There are advantages and disadvantages of above sensors. In our project for
system and system purpose and for several advantages we used Passive Infrared
sensor (PIR). For departmental stores required range for motion or occupancy sensor
is 3 m to 4 m. So PIR sensor is preferred the most.

2.3. What Arduino Is.

Arduino is an open source electronic prototyping platform based on flexible
easy to use hardware and software. Arduino is used for building different types of
electronic circuits easily using of both a physical programmable circuit board usually
microcontroller and piece of code running on computer with USB connection between
the computer and Arduino. Programming language used in Arduino is just a
simplified version of C++ that can easily replace thousands of wires with words.

2.3.1. Types of Arduino

Figure 2.3.Types of Arduino

There are many types of Arduino. They are

1. Arduino Leonardo,
2. Arduino Mega ADK,
3. Arduino Ethernet,
4. Arduino Due,
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5. Arduino Yun,
6. Arduino Mega 2560,
7. Arduino Nano and
8. Arduino Uno,

2.3.2. Arduino Uno

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328
(datasheet). It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM
outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power
jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller, simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a
USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Uno
differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver
chip. Instead, it features the Atmega8U2 programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.
“Uno” means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of
Arduino 1.0 will be reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is the
latest in a serious of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino
platform; for a comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.
The specification of Arduino are as shown in figure 2.4.

Figure2.4. Arduino Uno Board

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2.3.3. Technical Specification

Microcontroller - ATmega328
Operating Voltage - 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) - 7-12 V
Input Voltage (limits) - 6-20 V
Digital I/O Pins - 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins - 6
DC Current per I/O Pin - 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin - 50 mA
Flash Memory - 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
SRAM - 2 KB
EEPROM - 1 KB
Clock Speed - 16 MHz

The definitive Auduino Uno pinout Diagram in figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5. The Definitive Arduino Uno Pinout Diagram

2.3.4. Labraries
Libraries are a collection of code that makes it easy for you to connect to a
sensor, display, module, etc. For example, the built-in Liquid Crystal library makes it
easy to talk to character LCD displays. There are hundreds of additional libraries
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available on the Internet for download. Arduino bare minimum code is shown in
figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6. Bare Minimum Code

2.4. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

An LDR or light dependent resistor is also known as photo resistor, photocell,
photoconductor. It is a one type of resistor whose resistance varies depending on the
amount of light falling on its surface. When the light falls on the resistor, then the
resistance changes. These resistors are often used in many circuits where it is required
to sense the presence of light. These resistors have a variety of functions and
resistance. For instance, when the LDR is in darkness, then it can be used to turn ON
a light or to turn OFF a light when it is in the light. A typical light dependent resistor
has a resistance in the darkness of 1MOhm, and in the brightness a resistance of a
couple of KOhm.

2.4.1. Working Principle of LDR

The resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. It is nothing but,
when the light falls on its surface, then material conductivity reduces and also the
electrons in the valence band of the device are excited to the conduction band.
These photons in the incident light must have energy greater than the band gap
of the semiconductor material. This makes the electrons to jump from the valence
band to conduction.

Figure 2.7. Working Principle of LDR

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These devices depend on the light, when light falls on the LDR then the
resistance decreases, and increases in the dark. When a LDR is kept in the dark place,
its resistance is high and, when the LDR is kept in the light its resistance will
decrease. If a constant “V” is applied to the LDR, the intensity of the light increased
and current increases. The figure 2.8 shows the curve between resistance Vs
illumination curve for a particular light dependent resistor.

Figure 2.8. Light Intensity Vs. LDR Resistance

2.5. Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)

Every object that has a temperature above perfect zero emits thermal energy
(heat) in form of radiation. We, Homo sapiens, radiate at wavelength of 9-10
micrometers all time of the day. The PIR sensors are tuned to detect this IR
wavelength which only emanates when a human being arrives in their proximity. The
term “pyroelectricity” means: heat that generates electricity. All objects with a
temperature above absolute zero emit heat energy in the form of radiation.
Usually this radiation is invisible to the human eye because it radiates at infrared
wavelengths, but it can be detected by electronic devices. The term passive in this
instance refers to the fact that PIR devices do not generate or radiate any energy for
detection purposes. They work entirely by detecting the energy given off by other
objects. The sensor can trigger an alarm when a heat level changes in intensity or
position.
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Figure 2.9. Pin Configuration of PIR Sensor

2.5.1. Working Principle of PIR Sensor

In our project we used PIR sensor that has a pyro-electric sensor module
which developed for human body detection. A PIR detector combined with a Fresnel
lens are mounted on a compact size PCB together with an analog IC, SB0061, and
limited components to form the module. High level output of (3.3 v) variable width is
provided and has range from 3 m to 4 m, lens angle 140 degree and its configuration
and working principle is relatively simple. Here pin 1 is used to power up the sensor
and pin 3 is used as ground which completes the circuit and by pin 2 the sensor sends
and receives signal acting as an input and output pin.

Figure 2.10. PIR Sensor Range and its Lens Angle

To make it entirely purposeful it is connected to an intelligent chip which

provides the input signal. Here in our project for the intelligent chip microcontroller
Arduino Uno is used. The PIR Pin “+” is connected to Arduino +5 and PIR pin “-” is
connected to Arduino Gnd. When PIR sensors can sense thermal energy within its
range from 3 m to 4 m its sends signal to the connected microcontroller and
microcontroller controls the lightning system.
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For the better work performance the PIR sensor should be installed on the
ceiling.

Figure 2.11. Working Principle of PIR Sensor

2.5.2. Advantages of Using PIR Sensor

The advantages of PIR sensor over other sensors as occupancy sensor is that it
has compact size (28 X 38 mm),less complex, easy to install, power consumption very
low (current drain 1.5mA-0.1mA and DC 0.8V-405V), high sensivity, low noise,
delay time can be varied from 5s to 18 minutes, blockade time 0.5 s to 50 s and can
operate under temperature from -15 degree to 70 degree. Most importantly ,as
opposed to microwave sensor, it can’t be a problem as the waves can’t penetrate walls
where motion would be expected and it is way less expensive than other sensors.

2.5.3. Limitations
PIR sensor cannot detect a stationary or very slowly moving body and they are
temperature sensitive, another drawback is that its field of view is not as broad as
other sensors; ceiling mounting can help reduce this weakness. Another shortcoming
is that motion directly toward the sensor may fail to result in a trigger. This type of
sensor should not be mounted near ventilation ducts, pointed toward windows or
placed where temperature changes will be common.
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2.6. Hardware of LDR

LDR alight-dependent resistor, otherwise known as photo-resistor, photo-
conductor, or photocell, is a variable resistor whose value decreases with increasing
incident light intensity. An LDR is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. If light
falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons adequate energy to jump into the conduction
band. The resulting free electrons conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. In
our project, LRD is used to measure the light intensity during day time and night that
determines the number of lights should be turned on in order to save sufficient amount
of energy.

Figure 2.12. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Figure 2.13. LDR Circuit

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark

sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as
1000 000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops
dramatically. Here in our project one end of the LDR is used to power it up and a
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resistor is connected in serial with the LDR. Formula for calculating Vout is given
below.
R2
V out =V in × (2.1)
Rldr+R2

2.7. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a
p-n junction diode that emits light when active. When a suitable current is applied to
the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and
the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small (less than 1 mm 2) and
integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern. Figure 2.14
shows light emitting diode. In figure 2.15 the typical of LED is shown.

Table 2.1. Led configuration

Working Principle Electroluminescence
Invented H.J Round(1907)
Oleg Losev (1927)
James R.Biard (1961)
Nick Holonyak (1962)
First production Oct-62
Pin configuration Anode and cathode
Electronic symbol
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Figure 2.14. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Figure 2.15. Typical LED

2.7.1. Advantages of Using LED

1. Energy efficient source of light for short distances and small areas. The typical
LED requires only 30-60 Mili Watts to operate.
2. Durable and shockproof unlike glass bulb lamp types.
3. Directional nature is useful for some applications like reducing stary light
pollution on streetlights.