Cell Structure

Scientific Methods:

Electromicroscope requires the death of the organism

Immunofluorescence antibodies can attach not only to form colors but to kill cells and
attach between cells. It can stain specific parts of a cell. Can check the location of
molecules within the cell—fluorescent stains/fluorochromes - monoclonal abs. Bind
desired parts.

Freeze fracturing; look at the part. Look inside. Always. Freeze the cell in propane,
then break it up with a steel knife. E.g., FInd surface of the membrane, nucleus, etc.
Fracture on lines of weak. Proteins go through membranes/. Etching, surface removed
to enhance texture. Platinum and carbon created a replica of the surface, then moved.

Cem, cryogenic electron microscopy, proteins do everything, used for researching

these, uses protein solution that flashes freeze to stop water crystal formation. Uses
liquid ethane. This is then placed in the microscope, fired at with an electron beam, and
freezing patterns are recorded... COmputerr uses patterns to make a 3d image of the
protein molecules. Take multiple images; the protein structure is somewhat random.,
and needs different photographic aspects orientation. Resolutions of 0.12 nm can be
given.,

Introduction: All cells have DNA (makes proteins, helps cells have metabolism,
have reactions)
Cytoplasm (primarily water, has chemical concentrations, the right amount of salt,
glucose, etc., contains substances dissolved and suspended in it, reactions happen
here through enzymes, which are metabolic reactions). Particles have to collide with
each other and need cytoplasm to make it happen.

Plasma membrane with lipids (control,s entry and exit of substances, can pump
substances. This ensures control of concentrations, prevents toxic substances, is more
permeable, is easier to come in, is flexible, rigid, versatile, and has primarily fats. ). Can
burst due to excess pressure (water, virus, flu)

Specific Cells and what they contain…

Prokaryotes (Before nucleus, first in evolution, no nucleus contained, small,

everywhere).
Bacteria (primary type).

Ultra Structure - no membranes (Avg. Generic) :

Cell Wall. Inside, Plasma Membrane, Outside, Cell Wall. Protects. Maintain shape.
Prevents Bursting. PM controls in/out. Passive transport (no energy), sactive transport
(energy)., It is semi-permeable; it has enzymes, ribosomes, and nucleoids.,

Bacteria: Add air, pull cells together, and exchange genetic material—adhere to other
cells.

(Not all have.) Flagella: Motor protein spins the flagella like a propeller. Moves bacteria
and causes locomotion. Help bacteria travel.,

Pili: Sticks together bacteria, outer strands.

Ribosomes. Synthesize makes proteins. Translating messenger RNA. Translated,

proteins synthesized.

Nucleoid. Naked DNA. Ha genetic material, passed on to daughter cells -cell divide.

All above have cytoplasms. Most DNA in the nucleoid rests in the plasmid and changes
composition regularly...

Eukaryotic Cells (After nucleus, our cells, animal).

Internal membranes can make compartments, metabolism efficiency, a higher

concentration of enzymes and substrate, condition localization, pH optimal level,
isolates toxic and organelle number can be changed. It can also keep acids in
membranes.

Mitochondria produces energy and can increase the amount in membranes.

Multicellular organisms have more need to contain things.

Nucleus
• Generally spherical with a double membrane
• Pores (holes) are present in the membrane
• Contains genetic information in the form of chromosomes (DNA and associated
histone proteins)
• Uncoiled chromosomes are referred to as chromatin – they stain a dark color and
are concentrated at the edges of the nucleus
• mRNA is transcribed in the nucleus (before use in protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm)
• mRNA leaves the nucleus via the pores
(DNA is too large to move through the pores)

Mitochondria

• Has a double membrane. Energy is produced on the folds of the inner membrane.
• Has lines (inner membrane) to recognize quickly.
• A smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane
• The folds are referred to as cristae
• Variable in shape
• Site of ATP production by aerobic respiration (if fat is used as a source of energy, it
is digested here)

Free Ribozomes, bound (to border) ribozomes.

• 80S Ribosomes (approx. 20nm diameter) - larger than the ribosomes found in
prokaryotes
• No membrane
• These appear as dark granules in the cytoplasm
• Synthesizes proteins to function in the cytoplasm for use within the cell, e.g.,
enzymes

The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

• They consist of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae
• Often located near the nucleus
• 80S Ribosomes are attached to the outside - black dots.
• rER synthesizes proteins which are transported, by vesicles, to the Golgi
apparatus for modification before secretion outside the cell
The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER)
• Branched tubular membranes
• It looks like circles or ovals of membranes
• No ribosomes. - no black dots
• Variety of functions, including synthesizing lipids, phospholipids, and steroids.
• Special sER stores Ca2+ in muscles
Golgi Apparatus:

Processes proteins from rER and releases.

Shorter and more curved than rER or sER
When a protein is made, the DNA is copied into RNA, the Rna gets turned into proteins
by ribosomes on the Rer, and the protein goes to the Golgi apparatus for modification.

Vesicles.

Single Membranes, just circles, can appear black (sometimes). Very small, used to
transport materials around the cell, act as mini vacuoles (vacuole is a structure within
cells that contain water)

Lysosomes

Released from the Golgi apparatus and vesicles, and contain digestive enzymes used
to digest food, to break down organelles and cells. High concentrations of protein
appear black.

Vacuoles:

Takes up 70% of cells used by plants to contain water, where plant cells get structural
integrity. Permanent features of plant cells. In animals, vacuoles are smaller, and less
critical. Unicellular (single) cell organisms use them to expel water.
Microtubules:

Cylindrical fibers. Part of flagella move chromosomes in cell division and plays a role in
cell division. Form network.

Unicellular Organisms: These reproduce mostly asexually.

Organelles only in certain kinds of cells

ANIMALS ONLY

Flagellum (Flagella pl.)

• Thin projection from the cell surface.
• Contain 9 double microtubules plus 2 central ones
• Used to move the cell
• Larger than cilia
• Usually one 1 present
Cillia

• Thin projections from the cell surface.

• Contain 9 double microtubules plus 2 central ones
• Smaller than flagella
• Many are present
• Used to either move the cell or to move the fluids next to the cell
• Tracks anything that should be there, waft ABC and forward move the liquid
around.

Centrioles
• Consist of two groups of nine triple microtubules
• They are mainly found in animal cells
• Form anchor points
PLANTS ONLY

Chloroplast
• Many, but not all, plant cells contain chloroplasts
• A double membrane surrounds the chloroplast
• Inside are stacks of thylakoids
• Each thylakoid is a disc composed of a flattened membrane
• The shape of chloroplasts is variable but is usually ovoid
• The site of photosynthesis and hence where glucose is produced.
• Starch grains maybe present if photosynthesis is happening quickly. Starch is for
storage.

Cell wall
• an extracellular component not an organelle.
• secreted by all plant cells (fungi and some protists also secrete cell walls).
• Plant cell walls consist mainly of cellulose which is:
o Permeable - does not affect transport in and out of the cell
o Strong – gives support to the cell and prevent the plasma membrane
bursting when under pressure
o Hard to digest –resistant to being broken down, therefore lasts along time
without the need for replacement/maintenance

More…

Skeletal muscle
● Challenges the idea that a cell has one nucleus
● Multinucleated structure form when groups of cells fuse together. These are called
syncytium
● Muscle cells have more than one nucleus per cell
● Muscle Cells called fibres can be very long (600mm)
● They are surrounded by a single plasma membrane but they are multi-nucleated
(many nuclei).
Aseptate fungal hyphae

● Challenges the idea that a cell is a single unit.

● Fungal hyphae are again very large with many nuclei and a continuous cytoplasm

● Nucleus divides repeatedly without cell division. Results in large multinucleated

structure called coenocyte

● The cytoplasm is continuous along the hyphae with no end cell wall or
membrane

Red blood cells

● Do not have a nucleus

● At late stage development, nucleus moves to side of cell and is pinched off, then
destroyed.

● This makes RBC small and flexible

● But they cannot repair themselves, so only live for 100-120 days

Phloem sieve tube elements

● Do not have a nucleus or most other cell components

● Conduct sugar sap in plants.

● Have dividing walls with large pores, like a sieve

● During development the nucleus plus other cell components break down, but
plasma membrane remains

● Connected to companion cells which have nucleus and mitochondria, They help
the sieve tube elements survive

Cell Specialization

Embryonic stem cells are unspecialised.

These newly formed cells receive signals which change the activation of genes
The fewer active genes a cell possesses the more specialised it will become
As a result of gene expression cell differentiation begins: the cell’s metabolism and
shape changes so it becomes more specific for its function.

In multicellular organisms, there must be enough of each cell type and they need to be
in the correct positions.

The position of a cell determines how it differentiates.

Gradients of chemical signals indicate a cells position and therefore, its differentiation
pathway by regulating the cells gene expression.In humans 220 distinct highly
specialised cell types have been recognised

All specialised cells and the organs constructed from them have developed as a result
of differentiation. Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can:

● Can continuously divide and replicate

● Have the capacity to differentiate into specialised cell types

Some tissues in adults contain stem cells. This allows them to regenerate and repair
themselves.

The location of the stem cells in a tissue is called a STEM CELL NICHE

Provides an environment for the stem cells:

○ To remain inactive and undifferentiated for long periods of time,

○ For them to divide rapidly and differentiate when they are needed.

They are on interest because if they can be used to make different types of body cells in
a lab environment, then we could use them to restore damaged body parts

Non therapeutic use could include lab grown muscle for meat consumption (of cattle,
not humans!)

Locations of stem cell niches include

○ Striated muscle: Remain inactive unless a muscle injury occurs. Highly

regenerative after damage
○ Bone marrow: Continuous stem cell division and differentiation to replace
blood cells
○ Hair follicles: Continuous stem cell division and differentiation for hair
growth

Kinds of stem cells

 ○ Totipotent: Can differentiate into any type of cell. Found in early stage
embryos

○ Pluripotent: Can differentiate into many types of cell, but not all

○ Multipotent: Can differentiate into a few closely-related mature types of

cell. Found in adults. For example, hematopoietic stem cells in bone
marrow can generate many types of blood cells (See image)

Cell Type Size Why?

Sperm 50𝞵m long Long but narrow ∴ small vol. These reduce resistance and make
swimming easier

Egg 110𝞵m in diameter Large vol. Provides large amount of receive food storage
(Spherical)

RBC 6-8𝞵m in diameter Small size and specific shape. Easy passage through narrow
but convex in capillaries. Large SA:Vol for fast oxygen uptake and drop off
shape. 1𝞵m thick
in middle

○
Cell Type Size Why?

WBC (B- 10𝞵m but an enlarge to Small when inactive. Enlarge when activated,
lymphocytes) 30𝞵m become antibody secreting plasma cells.
Extra vol for protein synthesis

Cerebellar granule Cell body: 4𝞵m. Axons: Twin axons (for thinking, longer thinking
cells 3mm faster) extend into cerebellar cortex. Small vol
allows cerebellum to contain 50 billion (75%
of brains neurons)

Motor neurons Cell body: 20𝞵m. Axons: Large cell body allows enough protein to be
1m+ made to main long axons. Axons connect
CNS to distant muscles
 Striated muscle Diameter: 20-100𝞵m. Large cells allow more force to be exerted by
fibres Length: 100mm the muscle fibres

Membranes and Transportation

When oil is mixed with water, the oil droplet stays together and makes a perfect circular
shape. The oil and water do not mix. Oil molecules are non-polar, and water molecules
are polar. Oil does not dissolve in polar solvents. The oil molecules are hydrophobic.
Oxygen is a covalent. Covalent is based on sharing electrons. Since oxygen is bigger
than hydrogen, hydrogen is bound firmly to oxygen. This gives oxygen a negative
polarity but not a charge since it is not ionic. The hydrogens remain positive. This
makes an area of charge around the bond. Without poles, a polar solvent will not mix
with the specified substance.
There are four types of lipids: oils (liquid), fats (solid), wax (melts above body
temperature), and steroids (can be liquid or solid, has four ring structure).

Membranes are made from a particular type of liquid called a phospholipid. It has a
round hydrophilic head and two legs. The head is a phosphate group and has a charge
polarity. The two legs become fatty acids (hydrogen and carbon), have no charge, and
are hydrophobic. Using these two sections, it forms the membrane and interacts with
water. All in all this is considered amphiphetic (both hydrophilic and phobic). Head faces
outside (extracellular space, water, blood, plasma), Legs face each other.
When put into water, an emergent property is that phospholipids will self-organize to
keep their heads ‘wet’ and their tails ‘dry.’ This 3D representation shows that a
phospholipid bilayer (basis for cell membranes) is one way the tails can be removed
from the water. Phospholipid molecules can flow past each other horizontally but can’t
move vertically. The phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable (It can move stuff in
and out). Ways can exit and enter: diffusion (flow-through) facilitated diffusion (tunnels),
active transport (energy), and exo-endocytosis (use their membrane for large
molecules). When a charge enters the membrane, it is not attracted to the neutral legs.
It is more interested in the polar solute above the membrane so that it will turn back.
This means anything charged cannot move through the membrane without help.
Additionally, size is essential, as more giant molecules require more help to move
through.

Transportation Methods

Passive Transport

Simple Diffusion - Particles move around passively, naturally, through a permeable

membrane through net movement (overall movement)

Some particles come from high to low concentrations; others come from low to high
concentrations. This goes both ways and eventually can equal out. Concentration
relates to the difference in concentration of a substance in 2 locations. A higher
concentration gradient on one side leads to easier diffusion, while an equal (low)
concentration gradient makes diffusion much slower. More extensive surfaces mean
more membranes for particles to pass through. The length of the diffusion path can also
mean slower diffusion. Temperature and charge are other reasons. Equilibrium is met
when the concentration on both sides is the same.

Small non-polar molecules need no energy, so they pass through this method.

Facilitated Diffusion

Passive transport of molecules down a concentration gradient. The too-big or charged

molecule must change shape to let the molecules through.
Osmosis

Hypertonic (lots of waterless dissolved, high solution concentration compared to a cell)

Isotonic (Less water, more dissolved, same solute concentration compare to a cell)
Hypotnic (lower solute compared to cells)

*MUST state as solute concentration

Osmosis is the net movement of water across a partially permeable membrane from an
area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
This is a passive process (does NOT require energy), a type of diffusion.
A cell membrane is an example of a partially permeable membrane

Substances dissolve by forming bonds with water molecule

low solute concentration = a high water concentration

∴
a high solute concentration = a low water concentration
*define which…

Lipids

Steroids are big, have chains stuck to them with four rings of carbon atoms, and are
non-polar. 100s of different types, differences cause function. Some have single bonds
and double bonds, which affect function. They are mostly made from hydrocarbons
(non-polar) and are hydrophobic.

Proteins

Membranes have many proteins; these have many roles. Two types differ in the hope
they are fixed: integral proteins permanently attached to the membrane and Peripheral
proteins, which are temporary. Both are monotopic (go through and penetrate one part
of the membrane) and attach to the surface. One thing that proteins do is facilitate
diffusion. When molecules are too big or charged and need help, this is done by using
channel proteins. These are transmembrane and integral proteins. Have specific chemical
and physical structures that ensure only one kind of molecule passes through.
Substances can pass in either direction; net movement is down the concentration
gradient ∴ , and the process is passive. Some channel proteins can open or close, leading
to permeability changes.

Aquaporin

is an integral protein that acts as a pore in the membrane that speeds up water
movement into the cell as it increases the membrane's permeability to water. Only cells
that need to move a lot of water have aquaporins. The center is so narrow that only one
molecule can pass through, and the positive charges in the membrane walls and the
binding of sodium and hydrogen prevent non-water from passing through.

Energy = ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate
All energy in the body originates from the bond broken between the tri-phosphate to
becoming two-phosphate that produces power. As well as the ATP going to ADP. This
is a hydrolysis interaction.

Made of Adenine, Phosphate (oxygen, phosphorus)

Active Transport:

“Traveling from low concentration area to high concentration. ( controlled) Need protein
pump to move the energy to move ions, molecules, etc across the membrane. At bound
to protein, it will break bond and move sugar. It changes the protein share coil and
‘allows extraction.

Semi-permeable (most minor things can pass through bit selected, well-designed
Selective permeable membrane: Change, does not make b. You can decide what you
want to do freely. (any diffusion the place of the task)

Glycoproteins

Proteins stuck on top are proteins with an oligosaccharide (sugar) on the top. Aacchari
Few, Sugar, ). Usually sticking out the inside. Help identify cells.

Glycolipids

Phospholipids with a saccharide. 1-4 sugar units long. Distinguish between your cells
and others. ‘

These membranes form a layer on specific animal cells. Glycocalyx. This helps by
fusing and stopping cells and tissues from falling apart.

● Carbohydrate (oligosaccharide) faces outward. This looks at other cells through a

receptor (same physical/chemical shape, if receptor and protein fit, same not
 foreign cell)
● This allows for receptors on other cells to recognise them.
● Cell to cell recognition allows:
○ Organisation of tissues
○ Identification of foreign or infected cells for destruction
● ABO antigens (proteins on the surface of body cells) on RBC are an example of
self cell recognition.

This also affects blood and blood type )Ab,B, O, etc)

● Water (H2O) is made up of two hydrogen atoms covalently bound to an oxygen

atom
● While this bonding involves the sharing of electrons, they are not shared equally
● The number of protons in each atom is different; oxygen atoms have 8 whilst
hydrogen atoms have 1
● Having more protons the oxygen atoms attract the electrons more strongly towards
the oxygen
● The oxygen atom becomes slightly negative and the hydrogen atoms become
slightly positive (the oxygen has a higher electronegativity)
● Covalently bonded molecules that have a slight potential charge are said to be
polar
● The slightly charged regions of the water molecule can attract other polar or
charged compounds
● Water molecules can associate via weak hydrogen bonds
● Hydrogen bonds are transitory in nature – they constantly form, break and re-
form
Draw three molecules of water showing the hydrogen bonding between them. The
diagram should be labeled and annotated to indicate:

● Large oxygen atoms

● Small hydrogen atoms
● Covalent bonds
● δ+ (indicate the region of each molecule which possesses a slightly positive
charge )
● δ- (indicate the region of each molecule which possesses a slightly negative
charge)
● Weak hydrogen bonds between δ+ and δ- parts of neighboring water molecules.
Solvation: combination of a solvent with the molecules or ions of a solute
• Water can dissolve many organic and inorganic substances that have charged or
polar regions.
• The polar attraction of large quantities of water molecules can interrupt
intramolecular forces (such as ionic bonds) resulting in the dissociation of the
ions/atoms

Eg. Na+ and Cl- contacts water, Oxygen- prefers Na+, and Cl- prefers Hydrogen +

• Positive ions are surrounded by the negative oxygen regions of water molecules
• Negative ions are surrounded by the positive hydrogen regions of water molecules

Concentratiim over volume

Vol is measured in m3 or dm3. 1 litre = 1dm3

Negative indices = per unit vol, m-3 or dm-3
Amount of solute is measured in moles
Cell-war uncle, thousand i

Isotonic solutions need to be used for medical procedures to ensure cells remain
healthy, meaning that osmosis of cells won’t take place.

Isotonic sodium chloride is mainly used: normal saline

9g of NaCl per dm3 of solution, molarity of 0.154 mol dm-3

Uses:
● IV for rehydration
● Rinsing wounds and skin abrasions
● Keep damaged skin moist before skin grafts
● Eye drops/wash
● Frozen slush used for cooling donor organs for transport prior to donation

Water

● Life first appeared in oceans

● In the first cells, a small amount of water was enclosed in a membrane
 ● Substances dissolved in the water leading to chemical reactions occuring
● Most molecules of life dissolve in
water
● When water is a liquid, molecules
can move around and interact

Cohesion - Water stick to each other

• Occurs as a result of the polarity of a water molecule and its ability to form
hydrogen bonds with another ∴ water sticks to each other
• Although hydrogen bonds are weak, the large number of bonds present (each
water molecule bonds to four others in a tetrahedral arrangement) gives cohesive
forces great strength

• Water molecules are strongly cohesive (they want to stick to one another)
1. The surface of water acts like an elastic membrane because water molecules are
more attracted to each other than air. This causes surface tension because the
cohesive hydrogen bonding of water tries to resist objects penetrating the
surface. The attraction of the water molecules to each other is greater than the
attraction between the water and the object.
2. For an object to break the surface, many hydrogen bonds have to be broken at
the same time, which requires energy.
3. Small organisms can use this property to live on the surface of water
4. Cohesion allows water to move up plant vessels called xylem. Water is
continually pulled up under tension, caused by the evaporation of water from the
leaves.
5. Water can withstand the tension due to the many hydrogen bonds between the
molecules. As long as the water column is continuous, the water will be pulled
upwards.
6. To break the column of water, many hydrogen bonds have to be broken at the
same time. This requires a lot of energy
Adhesion - Water stick to itself, if not polar or charged molecules
• Occurs as a result of the polarity of a water molecule and its ability to form
hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules
• Water molecules tend to stick to other molecules that are charged or polar for
similar reasons that they stick to each other
• Individual hydrogen bonds are weak, but large number of bonds gives adhesive
forces great strength

Capillary action is caused by the adhesive forces causing water to bond to a surface,
e.g. the sides of a xylem, and the cohesive forces bonding water molecules together.
Capillary action is helpful in the movement of water during transpiration (water
movement up a plant) and also is utilised by plants to help maintain moist environments.
Water will replace air as water molecules are more strongly attracted to each other and
polar solid surface, than air is, so they will displace the air.

Solvent:
• Solutions are made from solvents and dissolved solutes
• Water can dissolve many substances that have charged/ polar regions. These
 substances are said to be hydrophilic
• The polar attraction of large quantities of water molecules can interrupt
intramolecular forces and resulting in the dissociation of the atoms
• Positive ions, e.g. Na+ end up being surrounded by the negative oxygen regions
of water molecules and the negative atoms are surrounded by the positive
hydrogen region of water molecules. This forms ‘shells’ of water around the
charged or polar molecules, preventing them from coming together, meaning
they stay in solution
• Water’s solvent properties are essential for the metabolism and transport of
substances in organisms.
• Hydrophobic substances are not attracted to water and are more attracted to
non-polar/charged substances, so they don’t dissolve.

Metabolic reactions happen most readily in solutions of water. In cells, this is in the
cytoplasm, as it is a complex mixture of dissolved substances
Many different reactions are catalysed in the cytoplasm. These are known as the
metabolism of the cell.
Without water, the substances would not come together to react. Water is needed for
metabolism.
Water can transport substances in aqueous solutions.
Plants:
● Mineral ions, sucrose and other photosynthetic products are transported in the
transport vessels.
Animals:
● Blood plasma can transport dissolved sodium chloride, amino acids and glucose.
They are all polar/charged molecules.
● Oxygen is non-polar but it is very small, so can dissolve in water sparingly.
However water cannot hold very much oxygen in solution, hence the presence of
hemoglobin in RBC.
● Lipid molecules are nonpolar and so do not dissolve in water. They are
transported in packets surrounded by hydrophilic phospholipids.

Buoyancy:
Most organisms have a density that is similar to water, meaning they are quite buoyant.
This is useful when swimming. Bony fish have air filled swim bladders that help them
maintain their buoyancy. Cyanobacteria has gas-filled vesicles to help the adjust their
buoyancy in water.

Viscosity:
Substances resistance than flow. Low (easily flow). High (hard to flow)
Solutes increase viscosity ∴ blood flows less easily than water.
Temperature decreases viscosity ∴ body temperature liquids flow more easily than cooler
liquids
Solutes increase viscosity
Thermal conductivity:
As ATP from movement is burned down, heat is is distributed all over the body to sweat
glands. Happens during nervousness, exercise, sickness, etc.

The rate at which heat passes through a material.

Water has a high rate. The rate for lipids is ~25% as quick as water, and for air its ~5%
that of water ∴ they are good insulators. While water is a good conductor.
Water-based animals lose heat a lot more quickly than land-based animals due to the
thermal conductivity of water.
Water can transport heat away from the body's core to help cool an organism down, eg.
red skin, hot hands, and feet, etc.

Specific heat capacity

The heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1K (Kelvin). For
water: 4.18 Jg-1K-1. For air: 1.01 Jg-1K-1

It is higher for water due to the hydrogen bonding. Many hydrogen bonds have to be
broken to increase the temperature of water ∴ ; you need a lot of energy
This means water-based environments have relatively stable temperatures compared to
air/land-based environments.
It also helps organisms maintain their internal temperatures.
Plants:
● Mineral ions, sucrose, and other photosynthetic products are transported in the
transport vessels.
Animals:
● Blood plasma can transport dissolved sodium chloride, amino acids and glucose.
They are all polar/charged molecules.
● Oxygen is non-polar, but it is tiny, so it can dissolve in water sparingly. However
water cannot hold very much oxygen in solution, hence the presence of
hemoglobin in RBC.
● Lipid molecules are nonpolar and so do not dissolve in water. They are
transported in packets surrounded by hydrophilic phospholipid
Cell Respiration

Cell Respiration is… The controlled release of energy from organic compounds in cells
to form ATP.
To create energy for usage within cells. Glucose is used for ATP. In respiration, ADP is
combined with one phosphate to form ATP.
It is useful as:
● Soluble in water so can use freely in cytoplasm
● Stable at pH levels close to neutral (same as cytoplasm)
● Cannot pass freely through phospholipid bilayer ∴ can diffuse out of cell/membrane
bound organelles
● 3rd phosphate can be easily removed and reattached by condensation/hydrolysis
● Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP release small amounts of energy, however this is enough
for most cell processes and ∴ is efficient

As well as energetic processes…

Muscle contraction, active transport, protein synthesis, vehicle transport, DNA/RNA

replication, cell signaling

Synthesisisng Macromolecules (Anabolism)

Anabolism is the building up aspect of metabolism. Endothermic means reactions where

energy is taken in. This energy comes from ATP to ADP hydrolysis

Active Transport

In this, ATP is used to change the protein. Some forms of the protein pumps are more
stable than other forms, and in order to change it to a less stable form, energy is
needed. Reverse change needs no input.

Movement

Such as forming vesicles, moving chromosomes in mitosis, dividing cells in cytokineses,

muscle cell contraction, or cell component movement.

----

For instantaneous energy, glucose is not usable, and ATP is used instead.

Tip. Cell respiration chemical process opposite of Photosynthesis. (Glucose + Oxygen -

Carbon Dioxide )

In humans, the oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse in and out through cell membranes
and gas exchange

Note: Breathing, gas exchange should not be defined as respiration. Respiration as

above is a chemical process.

Respiration through fatty acids is possible, but requires oxygen

2 respiration types Aerobic, Anaerobic.

Glucose Method - Cell cytoplasm with ATP split into 2x pyruvate, then making either
lactic acid (for animals), ethanol (for yeast), or oxygen, ATP, and C02 H20 for
mitochondria

After usage of CO2 and H20, these are then excreted. Note, this is different from
egestion

Aerobic and Anaerobic compare/contrast:

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Oxygen is used as an electron acceptor Oxygen is not used

Glucose, fatty acids and amino acids can be Only glucose can be used
used

Much higher yield of ATP: 30+ ATP molecules Only 2 ATP per glucose
per glucose

Reaction start in cytoplasm but move into the All reactions happen in the cytoplasm
mitochondria

Waste products are water and carbon dioxide In humans waste product is lactic acid. In yeast,
waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Fast activities require anaerobic respiration, due to a lack of oxygen and the need of
fast reactions during short periods of time. The demand for oxygen is called oxygen
debt, in order to break down lactate made by anaerobic respiration

Variables affecting rate of cell respiration:

Measuring it can be done through: Oxygen uptake, Carbon Dioxide/Ethanol Production,

Consumption of glucose