2.

3 Time-domain waves
in 1D
ISVR6136 Fundamentals of Acoustics
Contents
1. Plane waves
2. Radiation
3. Reflection
4. Transmission
5. Visualising waves (Jupyter)
2.3.1 Plane waves
Fluid mechanics Time-domain Frequency-domain
acoustics acoustics

Conservation 𝜕2𝑝 1 𝜕2𝑝 1D Helmholtz

of mass − =0 equation
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2

Conservation
General 1D harmonic
of momentum Harmonic
General solution pressure-field
time-
for pressure dependence
Linearize
Conservation
of energy Pressure/velocity
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑢 relation
− = 𝜌0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Equation
of state General 1D harmonic
General solution velocity-field
for velocity

Specific Sound
Sound acoustic intensity
intensity impedance
Plane waves
• In 3D space we have 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
• At any time 𝑡0 we have pressure isosurfaces, on which
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡0 = constant
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
• Suppose 𝑝 varies with 𝑥 but not with 𝑦 or 𝑧, i.e. = =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• (this is what we assumed when deriving our 1D wave equation)
• Then the pressure isosurfaces will be flat plane surfaces,
perpendicular to the 𝑥-axis
• If 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) satisfies our 1D wave equation it will exhibit plane
waves in the 𝑥 direction
• We can choose the axes so that whichever direction we want is the
𝑥-axis and put the origin wherever is convenient
How to make plane waves – 1
• Make an infinitely wide,
infinitely tall flat wall occupying
𝑥=0
• Fill the half-space 𝑥 > 0 with
fluid
• Make the wall vibrate
perpendicularly to its surface
• The wall will radiate plane
waves into the fluid

(Not easy to arrange)

How to make plane waves – 2
• Make a small object, e.g. a
loudspeaker, emit sound at
𝑥=𝑦=𝑧=0
• Its waves will be spherical in
the ‘geometric far-field’
• Their curvature will be 1Τ𝑅
where 𝑅 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
• As 𝑅 → ∞, 1Τ𝑅 → 0
• A long way away the waves
are nearly plane
How to make plane waves – 3
• Make some sound in a hard-walled
pipe of radius 𝑟
• If all the frequency components of
the sound signal lie below 𝑓𝑐 ≈
0.3𝑐Τ𝑟 then only plane waves will
propagate, other shapes will decay
• 𝑓𝑐 is sometimes called the pipe’s
‘cut-off’ frequency
• (It’s really the lowest cut-on
frequency of any non-plane mode –
we’ll cover this later)
Solutions of the 1D acoustic wave equation
• Longitudinal plane acoustic waves obey the same wave equation as
transverse string waves

• It must therefore be possible to write them in the form

𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 + 𝐺 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡

• The function 𝐹 𝑥 is the pressure distribution along the 𝑥-axis at

𝑡 = 0 for the positive-going wave
Solution surface (plotting versus & )
D’Alembert’s solution – alternate form
• In pressure acoustics we encounter more boundary value
problems than initial value problems
• We therefore prefer to write

𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 + 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐

• This is still d’Alembert’s form, but with 𝑓 𝑞 = 𝐹 −𝑐𝑞 and

𝑔 𝑞 = 𝐺 𝑐𝑞
• Now 𝑓(𝑡) is the pressure signal at 𝑥 = 0 for the positive-going
wave
• At any point 𝑥 = 𝑥0 the time 𝑥0 Τ𝑐 is how long it takes a
positive-going wave to travel from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑥0
Fluid mechanics Time-domain Frequency-domain
acoustics acoustics

Conservation 𝜕2𝑝 1 𝜕2𝑝 1D Helmholtz

of mass − =0 equation
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2

Conservation
General 1D harmonic
of momentum 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 Harmonic
= 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 pressure-field
time-
+ 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 dependence
Linearize
Conservation
of energy Pressure/velocity
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑢 relation
− = 𝜌0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Equation
of state General 1D harmonic
General solution velocity-field
for velocity

Specific Sound
Sound acoustic intensity
intensity impedance
Pressure and velocity in a wave
• Suppose 𝑔 𝑡 = 0 and we have just a positive-going wave

𝑝+ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐

• What is the velocity field 𝑢+ 𝑥, 𝑡 associated with this pressure

field?
• We can find it by using our pressure-velocity relation, the
linearized momentum equation:

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑢
− = 𝜌0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Pressure and velocity fields
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑢
• The linearized momentum equation − = 𝜌0 can be
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
rearranged as

• Therefore for our positive-going wave

Pressure and velocity fields
• The chain rule gives

• So

and
1 1
𝑢+ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 = 𝑝+ 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜌0 𝑐 𝜌0 𝑐
“In an isolated positive-going wave, velocity is proportional to
pressure”
 Positive-valued positive-going pressure
wave (‘Sparrowgram’)

1
𝑓 𝑡 ≥ 0 ∀𝑡, 𝑝+ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 , 𝑢+ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0 𝑐
• Particles move with the wave, to the right
• Acoustic velocity is positive (proportional to pressure)
 Negative-valued positive-going pressure
wave

1
𝑓 𝑡 ≤ 0 ∀𝑡, 𝑝+ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 , 𝑢+ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0 𝑐
• Particles move against the wave to the left
• Acoustic velocity is negative (proportional to pressure)
Pressure and velocity in waves
• Now suppose 𝑓 𝑡 = 0 and we just have a negative-going wave
𝑝− 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
• This time the chain rule gives
𝜕 𝜕 ′ 1 ′
𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 = 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 × 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 = 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑐
• So

and
1 1
𝑢− 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 = − 𝑝− 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜌0𝑐 𝜌0𝑐
“In an isolated negative-going wave, velocity is proportional to minus
pressure”
 Positive-valued negative-going pressure
wave

1
𝑔 𝑡 ≥ 0 ∀𝑡, 𝑝− 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 , 𝑢− 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0 𝑐
• Fluid particles move with the wave, to the left
• Acoustic velocity is negative (proportional to minus pressure)
 Negative-valued negative-going pressure
wave

1
𝑝− 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 , 𝑔 𝑡 ≤ 0 ∀𝑡, 𝑢− 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0 𝑐
• Fluid particles move against the wave, to the right
• Acoustic velocity is positive proportional to minus pressure
General solution for acoustic velocity
• If
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 + 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
then,
1 1
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0 𝑐 𝜌0 𝑐
1
= 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0 𝑐

• Where pressures interfere constructively, their associated

velocities interfere destructively and vice versa
Fluid mechanics Time-domain Frequency-domain
acoustics acoustics

Conservation 𝜕2𝑝 1 𝜕2𝑝 1D Helmholtz

of mass − =0 equation
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2

Conservation
General 1D harmonic
of momentum 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 Harmonic
= 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 pressure-field
time-
+ 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 dependence
Linearize
Conservation
of energy Pressure/velocity
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑢 relation
− = 𝜌0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Equation
of state General 1D harmonic
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 velocity-field
= 𝜌0 𝑐 −1 ሾ𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐
− 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐 ሿ
Specific Sound
Sound acoustic intensity
intensity impedance
Characteristic specific acoustic
impedance
• The quantity 𝜌0𝑐 is called the fluid’s characteristic specific
acoustic impedance 𝑧char
• It is the ‘rate of exchange’ between pressure and velocity in a
positive-going wave
• You get 𝑧char pascals of pressure for every metre-per-second of
velocity
• The units of 𝑧char are Pa s m−1 or rayls (named after Lord Rayleigh)
• When the sound-field contains positive and negative-going waves
the relationship between 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 and 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 is no longer so simple
What can we do now?
• With the general solutions for acoustic pressure and acoustic
velocity we can solve three important problems
• All three involve semi-infinite domains:
1. Sound radiation by a vibrating piston
in a semi-infinite pipe
2. Reflection of sound waves by a
hard wall (normal incidence)
3. Transmission of sound between two
fluids (normal incidence)
• All three are boundary value problems
2.3.2 Radiation
Radiation from a vibrating piston

𝑣 𝑡

𝑥=0

• A semi-infinite tube has given cross-sectional area 𝑆

• It contains fluid with given uniform density 𝜌0 and sound speed 𝑐
• At 𝑥 = 0 a rigid non-porous piston vibrates longitudinally with given
small velocity 𝑣 𝑡
• Problem: find the acoustic pressure and velocity fields 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 and
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 in the tube
 Identify what we know Apply to
and what we want to find
problem

Identify what physics tells us Interpret solution as

physical behaviour

Form an equation Solve that

relating knowns equation
and unknowns
Radiation problem
• What do we know? pipe area 𝑆, fluid properties 𝜌0 , 𝑐, piston
velocity 𝑣 𝑡 , piston location 𝑥 = 0
• What do we want to find? acoustic pressure 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 , acoustic
velocity 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡
• What does physics tell us?
• Sound obeys the wave equation (‘small’ implies linearity)
• Pressure and velocity fields therefore must be forms of the general
solutions
• If the pipe is infinitely long there will be no negative-going wave
 Identify what we know Apply to
and what we want to find
problem

1. Write fields in terms of general

solutions, identifying knowns and
unknowns 6. Interpret solution as
2. Write boundary conditions physical behaviour

3. Write boundary condition(s) 4. Rearrange: unknown(s) on one

in terms of fields side, knowns on the other
5. Use this to write the answer
1. Write fields in terms of general solutions,
identifying knowns and unknowns
• Acoustic pressure field (no negative-going waves so 𝑔 𝑡 = 0)

𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐

• Acoustic velocity field

1
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0𝑐

• We know 𝜌0 and 𝑐 but we don’t know 𝑓 𝑡

2. Write boundary conditions

𝑣 𝑡

𝑥=0
• If the piston is moving what boundary condition can we impose?
• Also, where should we impose it?
• The fluid velocity at the piston face should equal the piston’s
velocity i.e. 𝑢 = 𝑣
• Although the piston is actually vibrating about the point 𝑥 = 0 we
can still write 𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 - any discrepancies vanish with
linearization
3. Write boundary condition in terms of
general solutions
• The boundary condition is 𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡) (piston velocity is
known)
• The velocity field is 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜌0 𝑐 −1 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐
• Setting 𝑥 = 0 in this gives 𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 𝜌0 𝑐 −1 𝑓 𝑡
• The boundary condition, written in terms of the general
solution, is therefore

1
𝑓 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡
𝜌0 𝑐
4. Rearrange
• We have
1
𝑓 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡
𝜌0 𝑐

• To get knowns on one side and unknowns on the other we

multiply both sides by 𝜌0 𝑐 to get

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝜌0 𝑐𝑣 𝑡
5. Write the answer
• If 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝜌0 𝑐𝑣 𝑡 (and 𝑔 𝑡 = 0) then the acoustic pressure
field is

𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜌0 𝑐𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐

and the acoustic velocity is

𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐
5. Interpret the answer
• Vibrating pistons radiate sound into pipes
• The area doesn’t make a difference
• The sound doesn’t decay with distance (under our assumptions)
• The acoustic velocity anywhere in the semi-infinite pipe is a
delayed copy of the piston’s velocity
• The acoustic pressure everywhere in the fluid is that velocity
multiplied by the fluid’s 𝑧char
• The same piston vibration velocity would cause a much larger
acoustic pressure variation in water than it would in air
Specific characteristic acoustic
impedance
• Impedance doesn’t ‘impede’ wave motion – sound waves travel
just as easily through high-impedance fluids as low-impedance
fluids!
• Since 𝑐 = 𝐵 Τ𝜌0 we have 𝑧char = 𝜌0 𝑐 = 𝐵𝜌0
• A vibrating string with wave speed 𝜏Τ𝜇 has mechanical
impedance (force divided by velocity) 𝜏𝜇 – increasing either
restoring force or inertia increases the force needed to
generate a given vibration velocity
• In duct (pipe) acoustics we define volume velocity 𝑄 = 𝑆𝑢 and
acoustic impedance (no ‘specific’) 𝑍 = 𝑝Τ𝑄 = 𝑝Τ 𝑆𝑢 , units
acoustic ohms (Pa s m−3 )
vs with lines of equal
2.3.3 Reflection
Hard-wall reflection problem
𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥/𝑐 (known)

𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥/𝑐 (to be found)

𝑥=0

• The wall at 𝑥 = 0 is acoustically hard (rigid, non-porous)

• Let there be a known incident pressure wave 𝑝𝐼 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
travelling towards it at normal incidence
• We want to find the reflected pressure wave 𝑝𝑅 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐
• Problem: find the reflected wave function 𝑓(𝑡), and hence the total
pressure and velocity fields 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑝𝐼 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑝𝑅 𝑥, 𝑡 and 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡
 Write down what we know Apply to
and what we want to find
problem

1. Write fields in terms of general

solutions, identifying knowns and
unknowns 6. Interpret solution as
2. Write boundary conditions physical behaviour

3. Write boundary condition(s) 4. Rearrange: unknown(s) on one

in terms of general solutions side, knowns on the other
5. Use this to write the answer
1. Write fields in terms of general solutions,
identifying knowns and unknowns
• Acoustic pressure field

𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑝𝑅 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑝𝐼 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 + 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐

• Acoustic velocity field

1
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0𝑐

• We know 𝜌0, 𝑐 and 𝑔 𝑡 but we don’t know 𝑓 𝑡

2. Write boundary conditions
𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥/𝑐 (known)

𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥/𝑐 (to be found)

𝑥=0

• The wall at 𝑥 = 0 is acoustically hard (rigid, non-porous)

• The acoustic velocity normal to the wall must vanish there
• We therefore have the boundary condition

𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 0
3. Write boundary condition in terms of
general solutions
• The boundary condition is 𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 0
• The velocity field is

1
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0 𝑐

• Setting 𝑥 = 0 in this gives 𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 𝜌0 𝑐 −1 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡

• The boundary condition, written in terms of the general
solution, is therefore
1
𝑓 𝑡 −𝑔 𝑡 = 0
𝜌0 𝑐
4. Rearrange
• We have 𝜌0 𝑐 −1 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡 = 0
• To get knowns on one side and unknowns on the other we
multiply both sides by 𝜌0 𝑐 to get

𝑓 𝑡 −𝑔 𝑡 = 0

and add 𝑔 𝑡 to both sides to get

𝑓 𝑡 =𝑔 𝑡
5. Write the answer
• If 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 then the acoustic pressure field is

𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 + 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐

and the acoustic velocity is

1
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐 − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐
𝜌0 𝑐
6. Interpret the answer
• Sound waves are reflected from hard walls with unchanged polarity
• At a hard wall the normal velocity is zero all the time – fluid can’t
move into or out of the wall
• The linearized momentum equation tells us that pressure gradient
𝜕𝑝Τ𝜕𝑥 is proportional to linearized acceleration 𝜕𝑢Τ𝜕𝑡 in an
acoustic field
• If the velocity at the wall vanishes all the time then so must 𝜕𝑢Τ𝜕𝑡,
and therefore so must 𝜕𝑝Τ𝜕𝑥 the pressure gradient
• The acoustic pressure itself does not vanish at a hard wall
• A microphone embedded in a hard wall (a ‘pressure-zone
microphone’ or PZM) can be used to record the sound in a room
Terminology
• The reflection problem is an example of a scattering problem:
• A background field 𝑝𝐵 𝑥, 𝑡 is given (in our case 𝑝𝐼 𝑥, 𝑡 )
• The background field satisfies the field equation (in our case the 1D
wave equation) but not the boundary condition
• To solve the problem we have to find a scattered field 𝑝𝑆 (𝑥, 𝑡) (in our
case 𝑝𝑅 𝑥, 𝑡 ) such that the sum of the two fields satisfies both the
field equation and the boundary condition
• Mathematicians call a boundary condition where the gradient
of the dependent variable vanishes a Neumann boundary
condition
• The fixed end of the string where the dependent variable
itself vanished was a Dirichlet boundary condition
A more complicated scattering problem

Background Scattered
field field

Total
field
2.3.4 Transmission
Fluid transmission – normal incidence

Fluid 1 Fluid 2
𝜌1 , 𝑐1 𝜌2 , 𝑐2

𝑥=0
• Each fluid occupies a semi-infinite domain
• They meet at the plane 𝑥 = 0
Fluid transmission – normal incidence

𝑝𝐼 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥Τ𝑐1

𝑝𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡

𝑝𝑅 𝑥, 𝑡
• Incident pressure field 𝑝𝐼 𝑥, 𝑡 is known
• Problem: find the reflected and transmitted wave fields 𝑝𝑅 𝑥, 𝑡 and
𝑝𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡
 Write down what we know Apply to
and what we want to find
problem

1. Write fields in terms of general

solutions, identifying knowns and
unknowns 6. Interpret solution as
2. Write boundary conditions physical behaviour

3. Write boundary condition(s) 4. Rearrange: unknown(s) on one

in terms of general solutions side, knowns on the other
5. Use this to write the answer
1. Write fields in terms of general solutions,
identifying knowns and unknowns
• In fluid 1
𝑝1 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑝𝐼 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑝𝑅 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐1 + 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐1
−1
𝑢1 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜌1𝑐1 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐1 − 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐1

• In fluid 2
𝑝2 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑝𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡 = ℎ 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐2

𝑢2 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜌2𝑐2 −1 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐2

• We know 𝜌1, 𝑐1, 𝜌2, 𝑐2 and 𝑓 𝑡 but we don’t know 𝑔 𝑡 or ℎ 𝑡

• We have two unknowns so we’ll need two equations, obtained from
two boundary conditions
2. Write boundary conditions

𝑝𝐼 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥Τ𝑐1

𝑝𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡

𝑝𝑅 𝑥, 𝑡
• At the interface the forces must balance so 𝑝1 0, 𝑡 = 𝑝2 0, 𝑡
• The velocities there must be equal so 𝑢1 0, 𝑡 = 𝑢2 0, 𝑡
3. Write boundary conditions in terms of
general solutions
• The pressure boundary condition is 𝑝1 0, 𝑡 = 𝑝2 0, 𝑡
• The pressure fields are 𝑝1 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐1 + 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐1 and
𝑝2 𝑥, 𝑡 = ℎ 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐2
• Setting 𝑥 = 0 in these gives 𝑝1 0, 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑡 and
𝑝2 0, 𝑡 = ℎ 𝑡
• This boundary condition, written in terms of the general
solution, is therefore
𝑓 𝑡 +𝑔 𝑡 =ℎ 𝑡
3. Write boundary conditions in terms of
general solutions
• The velocity boundary condition is 𝑢1 0, 𝑡 = 𝑢2 0, 𝑡
• The velocity fields are 𝑢1 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜌1 𝑐1 −1 ሾ𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐1 −
𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑥 Τ𝑐1 ሿ and 𝑢2 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜌2 𝑐2 −1 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝑥 Τ𝑐2
• Setting 𝑥 = 0 in these gives 𝑢1 0, 𝑡 = 𝜌1 𝑐1 −1 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡
and 𝑢2 0, 𝑡 = 𝜌2 𝑐2 −1 ℎ 𝑡
• This boundary condition, written in terms of the general
solution, is therefore
4. Rearrange

• Eliminating ℎ 𝑡 gives

𝜌2 𝑐2 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝜌1 𝑐1 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑡

so the reflected wave function is

4. Rearrange (cont’d)
𝑓 𝑡 −𝑔 𝑡 ℎ 𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 +𝑔 𝑡 =ℎ 𝑡 , =
𝜌1𝑐1 𝜌2𝑐2
• Eliminating 𝑔 𝑡 gives

𝜌2𝑐2 2𝑓 𝑡 − ℎ 𝑡 = 𝜌1𝑐1ℎ 𝑡

so the transmitted wave function is

5. Write the answer

• We can define the pressure reflection factor and pressure

transmission factor:

𝑔 𝑡 𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1 − 1 ℎ 𝑡 2 𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1
𝑅𝑝 = = , 𝑇𝑝 = =
𝑓 𝑡 𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1 + 1 𝑓 𝑡 𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1 + 1
6. Interpret

• What if fluid 2 has a much lower impedance than fluid 1 (e.g.

water → air)?
• When 𝜌2 𝑐2 Τ𝜌1 𝑐1 → 0 we have 𝑅𝑝 → −1 and 𝑇𝑝 → 0; the sound is
reflected with full amplitude but inverted pressure-polarity
(like the string)
• This is called a pressure-release boundary and provides a
Dirichlet condition to fluid 1 (e.g. water)
• Can subsea sound be heard in the atmosphere?
6. Interpret (cont’d)
𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1 − 1 2 𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1
𝑅𝑝 = , 𝑇𝑝 =
𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1 + 1 𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1 + 1

• What if fluid 2 has a much higher impedance than fluid 1 (e.g. air →
water)?
• When 𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1 → ∞ we have 𝑅𝑝 → 1; the sound is reflected with
almost full amplitude and unchanged pressure-polarity
• Water appears acoustically hard to air (Neumann condition)
• When 𝜌2𝑐2Τ𝜌1𝑐1 → ∞ we also have 𝑇𝑝 → 2; the sound is transmitted
with almost double amplitude!
• This seems surprising – can it satisfy energy conservation?
• Can atmospheric sound be heard underwater?
Boundary value problem procedure

Write Write Write BCs

general boundary in terms Solve
solutions conditions of GSs
Looking ahead
• None of the results we obtained (piston radiation, hard-wall
reflection, fluid interface reflection/transmission) depend on
frequency – most other problems will
• These three problems are all ‘open’ i.e. posed on semi-infinite
domains with no characteristic length scale that would affect
different wavelengths differently
• They also contain no other dynamics (such as a mass on a spring)
that would respond differently to different frequencies
• To treat harder problems we will, in future parts, exploit the
linearity of the acoustics and treat them a frequency at a time
• We should also account for the energy transport in our waves and
check the surprising pressure doubling in air → water transmission
2.3.5 Visualizing waves
(Jupyter)