5.

1 Sound in Enclosures
ISVR6136 Fundamentals of Acoustics
Contents
1. 1D modes in a finite pipe
2. Rectangular ducts
3. Circular ducts
4. Rooms
5.1 1D modes in a finite pipe

3
Source-free problem

𝑥=0 𝑥=𝐿
• We solved the forced problem in the previous part by applying one
active boundary condition (at the piston) and one passive one (at
the end)
• If the piston is at rest there will be two passive boundary
conditions
• One solution that satisfies these conditions is 𝑃෨ 𝑥 = 0 i.e. silence
• Are there any others?
4
Eigenfrequencies
• General solutions for the pressure and velocity fields are, as usual,
𝑃෨ 𝑥 = 𝐴eሚ −j𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵e
෨ j𝑘𝑥 and 𝑈
෩ 𝑥 = 𝜌0𝑐 −1 𝐴e ሚ −j𝑘𝑥 − 𝐵e
෨ j𝑘𝑥
• Our boundary conditions are now 𝑈 ෩ 0 = 0 and 𝑈 ෩ 𝐿 = 0, both
passive
• These are satisfied when both 𝐴ሚ = 𝐵෨ and 𝐴e
ሚ −j𝑘𝐿 = 𝐵e
෨ j𝑘𝐿
• This will only be the case when e2j𝑘𝐿 = 1, i.e. (using Euler’s
formula) when cos 2𝑘𝐿 = 1 and sin 2𝑘𝐿 = 0
• The boundary conditions aren’t satisfied at arbitrary frequencies as
in the forced problem
• They are satisfied at discrete frequencies 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑐Τ2𝐿, called
eigenfrequencies or modal frequencies
• They are the same frequencies at which the forced tube resonates 5
Eigenfunctions
• The eigenfrequencies 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑐Τ2𝐿 correspond to wavenumbers 𝑘𝑛 =
𝑛𝜋Τ𝐿
• For each of these we can find a corresponding spatial factor 𝑃෨𝑛 𝑥
that satisfies the Helmholtz equation and the two passive
boundary conditions:

𝑃෨𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐴ሚ e−j𝑘𝑛𝑥 + ej𝑘𝑛𝑥 = 2𝐴ሚ cos 𝑘𝑛 𝑥

• These are the eigenfunctions of the air in the tube, also known as
its acoustic modes
• The amplitude is arbitrary so 𝑃෨𝑛 𝑥 is any multiple of cos 𝑘𝑛 𝑥
6
Modes in a -long pipe
• 𝑐 = 343 ms−1
• Hard wall at both ends
• Pressure gradient vanishes at
both ends
• Modal frequencies integer
multiples of 𝑐Τ2𝐿
Resonances in a -long pipe
• Hard wall at both ends
• Resonance frequencies
integer multiples of 𝑐Τ2𝐿
• Theoretically infinite
response at resonance
Modes in a -long pipe
• Pressure-release boundary at
𝑥=𝐿
• Pressure gradient vanishes at
one end, pressure at the
other
• Modal frequencies odd-
integer multiples of 𝑐Τ4𝐿
Resonances in a -long pipe
• Pressure-release boundary at
𝑥=𝐿
• Resonance frequencies odd-
integer multiples of 𝑐Τ4𝐿
Connection with matrices
• A square matrix 𝐌 has eigenvalues 𝜆𝑛 and eigenvectors 𝐱𝑛 that
satisfy
𝐌𝐱𝑛 = 𝜆𝑛 𝐱𝑛

• Think of a matrix as an operator that turns one vector into another

by pre-multiplying it
• Only certain vectors are invariant under pre-multiplication by 𝐌
• Instead of changing direction (as most vectors do) they’re just
scaled by 𝜆
• The eigenvectors 𝐱𝑛 are these invariant vectors, and the
eigenvalues 𝜆𝑛 are the amounts by which they are scaled
11
Operator eigenfunctions
• Replace the matrix 𝐌 by the operator 𝛻 2, and the vector 𝐱 𝑛 by the
function 𝑃෨𝑛 𝐱 and we have

𝛻 2𝑃෨ 𝐱 = 𝜆𝑃෨𝑛 𝐱

• This is the Helmholtz equation with 𝜆 = −𝑘 2

• Only certain functions are invariant under the operator 𝛻 2
• Instead of changing shape (as most functions do) they’re just scaled by 𝜆
• The subset of such functions that also satisfies the boundary conditions
form a set of discrete modes 𝑃෨𝑛 𝐱
• Their eigenvalues 𝜆𝑛 = −𝑘𝑛2 are the amount by which they are scaled

12
Uses of eigenfrequencies and
eigenfunctions
1. Eigenfrequencies predict the resonance frequencies of
forced problems and are often easier to find
2. Eigenfunctions predict the susceptibility of a system to
forcing at the corresponding eigenfrequency
• Example: if you pluck a fixed-fixed string a fifth of the way along, the
fifth, tenth, fifteenth etc modes (which all have nodes there) will not
be excited, and their eigenfrequencies will be absent from the sound
3. Just as any vector can be written as a linear combination of
the eigenvectors of the (non-singular) matrix we’re
interested in, an arbitrary 𝑃෨ 𝑥 can be written as a linear
combination of modes 𝑃෨𝑛 𝑥

13
Absorbing boundary conditions
• If the end of the tube is a hard wall then the pressure gradient
will vanish there (pressure but no velocity)
• If it is a pressure-release boundary the pressure will vanish
(velocity but no pressure)
• This allows us to work out the modes by fitting whole or half-
wavelengths into the tube
• The eigenvalues, and hence resonance frequencies, occur in a
harmonic, or odd-harmonic sequence
• What about absorbing boundary conditions?
Complex modes
• If the end of our tube is not hard, but has impedance 𝑧ǁ𝑤 , the
eigenvalues 𝑘𝑛 will be complex
• We saw, when studying evanescent waves, that complex
wavenumbers correspond to waves that are attenuated with
distance
• Modes with complex eigenvalues decay in time, rather than
attenuate with distance
• We therefore often refer to complex 𝜔𝑛 = 𝑐𝑘𝑛 or 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑐𝑘𝑛 Τ2𝜋 as
the eigenfrequencies
• The imaginary part of the eigenfrequency indicates how heavily
damped the corresponding mode is
• That imaginary part must be positive when using ej𝜔𝑡 time factor
Modes in a -long pipe
• End wall has 𝑧ǁ𝑤 = 2 + j 𝜌0 𝑐
• Pressure gradient at end
different for each mode
• Modal frequencies complex
• Real parts are not integer
multiples
Resonances in a -long pipe
• Impedance wall at end
• Resonance peaks have
reduced amplitude
• Peaks are broader – less
difference between exact
and near resonance
• Resonance frequencies
shifted from harmonic series
5.1.2 Rectangular ducts
Infinite rectangular ducts
• A hard-walled duct with dimensions
shown is infinitely long in the 𝑧-
direction
• What can we say about the sound
field in it?
• The boundary conditions lie on
Cartesian co-ordinate surfaces 𝑥 = 𝑦
0, 𝑥 = 𝐿𝑥 , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝐿𝑦 𝐿
𝑧
𝑦
• The wave equation is separable in 𝑥
Cartesian co-ordinates 𝐿𝑥
Separable solutions
• Seek solutions of the form 𝑃෨ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑋෨ 𝑥 𝑌෨ 𝑦 𝑍෨ 𝑧 where

𝑋෨ 𝑥 = 𝐴ሚ𝑥 e−j𝑘𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵෨𝑥 ej𝑘𝑥𝑥 , 𝑌෨ 𝑦 = 𝐴ሚ𝑦 e−j𝑘𝑦𝑦 + 𝐵෨𝑦 ej𝑘𝑦𝑦 ,

𝑍෨ 𝑧 = 𝐴ሚ𝑧 e−j𝑘𝑧 𝑧 + 𝐵෨𝑧 ej𝑘𝑧𝑧

෩ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
• The associated velocity field components will be 𝐔
Velocity field
• Substituting the solutions for 𝑋෨ 𝑥 , 𝑌෨ 𝑦 and 𝑍෨ 𝑧 gives the velocity
෩ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
field 𝐔

• The boundary conditions in 𝑥 therefore become

𝐴ሚ𝑥 − 𝐵෨𝑥 𝑌෨ 𝑦 𝑍෨ 𝑧 = 0, 𝐴ሚ𝑥 e−j𝑘𝑥𝐿𝑥 − 𝐵෨𝑥 ej𝑘𝑥𝐿𝑥 𝑌෨ 𝑦 𝑍෨ 𝑧 = 0

Eigenvalues
• The equations

𝐴ሚ𝑥 − 𝐵෨𝑥 𝑌෨ 𝑦 𝑍෨ 𝑧 = 0, 𝐴ሚ𝑥 e−j𝑘𝑥𝐿𝑥 − 𝐵෨𝑥 ej𝑘𝑥𝐿𝑥 𝑌෨ 𝑦 𝑍෨ 𝑧 = 0

will only be satisfied over a range of 𝑦 and 𝑧 values when

𝐴ሚ𝑥 − 𝐵෨𝑥 = 0, 𝐴ሚ𝑥 e−j𝑘𝑥𝐿𝑥 − 𝐵෨𝑥 ej𝑘𝑥𝐿𝑥 = 0

• This is the one-dimensional eigenvalue problem we solved

previously
Transverse mode
𝑚 𝑚
• We can therefore write 𝑋෨ 𝑥 ∝ cos 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 where 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝜋 Τ𝐿𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
• The eigenvalue problem in 𝑦 has the same form, so 𝑌෨ 𝑦 ∝ cos 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 with 𝑘𝑦 =
𝑛𝜋Τ𝐿𝑦
• Any transverse pressure pattern that satisfies the BCs at the walls can be written as
a combination of these modes, so
∞
𝑚,𝑛 𝑚,𝑛
𝑃෨ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = ෍ Φ𝑚,𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝐴ሚ𝑚,𝑛 e−j𝑘𝑧 𝑧
+ 𝐵෨𝑚,𝑛 ej𝑘𝑧 𝑧

𝑚,𝑛=1

where Φ𝑚,𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦) is the transverse mode shape

𝑚𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑦
Φ𝑚,𝑛 𝑥, 𝑦 = cos cos
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦
Transverse mode shapes
• The transverse mode Φ𝑚,𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)
has:
• 𝑚 nodal lines perpendicular to 𝑥
• 𝑛 nodal lines perpendicular to 𝑦
• They will be evenly spaced
between the walls
• Nodal lines for Φ1,2 are shown
• Instantaneous pressure has
opposite signs either side of a
nodal line
• The plane-wave mode is Φ0,0 = 1
Transverse wavenumber
• The (𝑚, 𝑛)𝑚,𝑛
transverse mode propagates in the 𝑧 direction with wave
number 𝑘𝑧 , which must satisfy
2 2 2
𝑚 𝑛 𝑚,𝑛
𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 = 𝜔 2 Τ𝑐 2

• Define the transverse wavenumber of the 𝑚, 𝑛 mode as

• It will have an associated frequency 𝜔𝑚,𝑛 = 𝑐𝑘 𝑇𝑚,𝑛

Cut-on modes
𝑚,𝑛 𝑚,𝑛
• The wavenumber 𝑘𝑧 will only be real if 𝑘𝑇 < 𝜔Τ𝑐
• This will be the case if 𝜔 > 𝜔𝑚,𝑛
𝑚,𝑛
• If 𝜔 < 𝜔𝑚,𝑛 then 𝑘𝑧 will be imaginary and that mode will
evanesce in the 𝑧 direction
𝑚,𝑛
• We say that modes that have imaginary 𝑘𝑧 at frequency 𝜔 are
cut-off at that frequency
• The frequency 𝜔𝑚,𝑛 is that mode’s cut-on frequency
• At any given frequency only a finite number of modes are cut on
• The plane-wave mode with 𝜔0,0 = 0 is always cut on
Dispersion
• A mode 𝑚, 𝑛 , when cut on, will propagate with speed
𝜔 𝜔
𝑐𝑚,𝑛 = 𝑚,𝑛
=
𝑘𝑧 2
𝑚,𝑛
𝑘2 − 𝑘𝑇

𝜔 Τ𝑘 𝑐
= =
2 2
𝑚,𝑛
1− 𝑘𝑇 Τ𝑘 1 − 𝜔𝑚,𝑛 Τ𝜔

• Because each cut-on mode propagates at a different speed pressure

patterns will disperse as they travel along the duct
• The plane-wave mode has 𝑐0,0 = 𝑐
Degeneracy
• Suppose we have two transverse modes 𝑚1 , 𝑛1 and 𝑚2 , 𝑛2
that are distinct, so 𝑚1 ≠ 𝑚2 and 𝑛1 ≠ 𝑛2
• If

the modes will have the same wavenumber in the 𝑧- direction

and are called degenerate
• For square ducts with 𝐿𝑥 = 𝐿𝑦 all modes with 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛 occur in
degenerate pairs
5.1.3 Circular ducts
Infinite circular ducts
• A hard-walled circular duct with
dimensions shown is infinitely long
in the 𝑧-direction
• What can we say about the sound
field in it?
• The boundary condition lies on the
cylindrical co-ordinate surface 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑧
𝑎
• The wave equation is separable in 𝜙
cylindrical co-ordinates
𝑟
Cylindrical co-ordinates
• In cylindrical co-ordinates the Helmholtz equation 𝛻 2𝑃෨ + 𝑘 2𝑃෨ = 0 where
𝑘 = 𝜔Τ𝑐 is

𝜕 2𝑃෨ 1 𝜕 𝑃෨ 1 𝜕 2𝑃෨ 𝜕 2𝑃෨ 2෨

2 + + 2 2 + 2 = −𝑘 𝑃
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

• If 𝑃෨ 𝐱 = 𝑅 𝑟 Φ 𝜙 𝑍 𝑧 then separation of variables gives

𝑅′′ 𝑅′ Φ′′ 𝑍 ′′
+ + 2 + = −𝑘 2
𝑅 𝑟𝑅 𝑟 Φ 𝑍

• We should expect this case to be more complicated than the rectangular

case because the radial co-ordinate multiplies the azimuthal factor
Axial factor
• Since the only term that contains functions of 𝑧 is 𝑍 ′′ Τ𝑍, and
since the RHS doesn’t depend on 𝑧 this term must be constant
• Therefore, as with each of the Cartesian factors we have

whose solution is

𝑍 𝑧 = 𝐴𝑧 e−j𝑘𝑧 𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 ej𝑘𝑧 𝑧
Azimuthal factor
• We have
𝑅′′ 𝑅′ Φ′′ 𝑍 ′′
+ + 2 + = −𝑘 2
𝑅 𝑟𝑅 𝑟 Φ 𝑍

• If we use the axial result 𝑍 ′′Τ𝑍 = −𝑘𝑧2 and multiply through by 𝑟 2

we get

• By a similar argument Φ′′ΤΦ must be constant so

Φ′′
= −𝜇2, Φ 𝜙 = 𝐴𝜙 e−j𝜇𝜙 + 𝐵𝜙 ej𝜇𝜙
Φ
Azimuthal boundary condition
• Whereas the units of 𝑘𝑧 are radians per metre the azimuthal
wavenumber 𝜇 is dimensionless because 𝜙 is in radians
• Our pipe doesn’t haven’t any wall occupying a 𝑟 − 𝑧-plane 𝜙 = const,
but Φ 𝜙 must obey the periodic boundary condition

Φ 𝜙 = Φ 𝜙 + 2𝜋

• This will only be satisfied if 𝜇 is an integer 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

• A mode with Φ𝑚 𝜙 = e−j𝑚𝜙 with 𝑚 ≠ 0 is a spinning mode – these
can be excited by rotating machinery e.g. fans
• If Φ−𝑚 𝜙 = e+j𝑚𝜙 is present with the same amplitude then the
azimuthal variation will be cos 𝑚𝜙 which won’t spin
Radial factor
• We have
𝑟 2𝑅′′ 𝑟𝑅′ Φ ′′
+ + 𝑟 2 𝑘 2 − 𝑘𝑧2 + = 0,
𝑅 𝑅 Φ

into which we can substitute Φ ′′ ΤΦ = −𝑚2 and multiply by 𝑅 Τ𝑟 2 to get

2
1 𝑚
𝑅′′ + 𝑅′ + 𝑘𝑟2 − 2 𝑅 = 0
𝑟 𝑟

where 𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘 2 − 𝑘𝑧2 is the radial wavenumber (equivalent to 𝑘 𝑇 in 5.1.2)

• This is Bessel’s equation, a linear ODE (despite the fact that the coefficients are
functions of the independent variable)
• It contains the azimuthal wavenumber as a parameter – although the solutions are
separable they are coupled, unlike the Cartesian case
Bessel’s equation

• Its solution is
2 1
𝑅 𝑟 = 𝐴𝑟 H𝑚 𝑘𝑟 𝑟 + 𝐵𝑟 H𝑚 𝑘𝑟 𝑟

1 2
where H𝑚 and H𝑚 are are the Hankel functions of the first and
second kind, of order 𝑚
• The Hankel functions are defined in terms of Bessel and Neumann
functions J𝑚 and Y𝑚 respectively

2 1
H𝑚 𝑟 = J𝑚 𝑟 − jY𝑚 𝑟 , H𝑚 𝑟 = J𝑚 𝑟 + jY𝑚 𝑟
What do they look like?
• The Hankel functions are helices, like e−j𝑘𝑥
and ej𝑘𝑥 except that:
• Their diameter decreases as 𝑟 increases
• Their imaginary parts are singular at 𝑟 = 0
• Their shape depends on 𝑚, the azimuthal order
2 1
• J𝑚 𝑟 and Y𝑚 𝑟 are to H𝑚 𝑟 and H𝑚 𝑟
as cos 𝑘𝑥 and sin 𝑘𝑥 are to e−j𝑘𝑥 and ej𝑘𝑥
• We can plot them and animate them in a
Jupyter notebook as easily as we can the
complex exponential helix
Radial boundary conditions
• The pressure must be finite at 𝑟 = 0 so the contribution of the
Neumann function must be zero and 𝑅 𝑟 = 𝐴𝑟 J𝑚 𝑘𝑟 𝑟
• At 𝑟 = 𝑎 the radial pressure gradient 𝜕𝑃Τ𝜕𝑟 = d𝑅 Τd𝑟 = 0
• This will happen if 𝑘𝑟 𝑎 is a turning point of J𝑚
Turning points of Bessel functions
J0(r)
• Let the numbers j′𝑚𝑛 be the J1(r)
turning points of J𝑚 𝑟 so
that dJ𝑚 Τd𝑟 = 0 at 𝑟 = j′𝑚𝑛
• The first non-plane mode has
′
𝑚 = 1, 𝑛 = 1 and j1,1 = 1.841
• Its radial wavenumber must
′
be such that 𝑘𝑟 𝑎 = j1,1 , i.e.
𝑘𝑟 = 1.841Τ𝑎 r

j0,1 = 0 j0,2 = 3.832 j0,3 = 7.016 j0,4 = 10.173

 = 1.841
j1,1
Circular duct modes
• If there are no rotating sources then any transverse pressure
pattern that satisfies the BC at the walls can be written as a
combination of real modes, so

where Ψ𝑚,𝑛 𝑟, 𝜙 is the transverse mode shape

Ψ𝑚,𝑛 𝑟, 𝜙 = cos 𝑚𝜙 J𝑚 𝑘𝑟 𝑟
Transverse mode shapes
• The transverse mode Ψ𝑚,𝑛 (𝑟, 𝜙)
has:
• 𝑚 radial nodal lines
• 𝑛 − 1 azimuthal nodal lines
• The azimuthal nodal will be
evenly spaced around the section
• Radial nodal lines are′ not evenly
spaced because the j𝑚𝑛 aren’t
• Nodal lines for Ψ3,2 are shown
• Instantaneous pressure has
opposite signs either side of a
nodal line
• The plane-wave mode is Ψ0,1 = 1
Axial propagation
• Axial wavenumber is 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘 2 − 𝑘𝑟2 which will be imaginary
if 𝑘 < 𝑘𝑟
• We have 𝑘 = 𝜔 Τ𝑐 and the first non-plane mode has 𝑘𝑟 =
1.841Τ𝑎, so for this mode 𝑘 < 𝑘𝑟 when 𝑓 < 1.841 𝑐 Τ2𝜋𝑎 ≈
0.3𝑐Τ𝑎 as stated in Part 2
• Any non-plane modes will evanesce below this frequency,
leaving only plane waves
5.1.4 Rooms
Cuboidal room
• Rename 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 as 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3
• A cuboidal room with hard walls is a rectangular
duct with hard-wall BCs at 𝑥3 = 0 and 𝑥3 = 𝐿3
• We can write the sound field down directly as a sum of modes

𝑃෨ 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3

• What will the associated modal frequencies be?

Modal frequencies
• The eigenvalue problem is

𝛻 2𝑃෨𝑛 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 + 𝑘𝑛2 𝑃෨𝑛 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 = 0

• The eigenvalues 𝑘𝑛 will be of the form

• The mapping from 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 → 𝑛 is arbitrary; chose it so that 𝑘𝑛+1 ≥

𝑘𝑛 ∀𝑛 i.e. number them by size
Distribution of modal frequencies
• The modal frequencies 𝑓𝑛 are not uniformly distributed through the
frequency range, they occur more often as frequency increases
• Let 𝑁 𝑘 be the modecount function

where
0, 𝑥<0
H 𝑥 =ቊ
1, 𝑥≥0
Is the Heaviside function
• 𝑁 𝑘 is the (integer) number of modes with modal wavenumber less
than 𝑘 = 𝜔Τ𝑐
Modecount function
Modenumber space 𝑛3 𝑛2

𝑛1
• Let 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 be the axes of a 3D
Cartesian space
• The non-negative integer lattice points,
e.g. (3, 1, 7) all correspond to possible
room nodes
• All those with 𝑘𝑛 < 𝑘 will be inside the
ellipsoid octant defined by
Volumes
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
• An ellipsoid defined by + + = 1 has volume 4Τ3 𝜋𝑟1𝑟2𝑟3
𝑟12 𝑟22 𝑟32
• The equivalents to 𝑟1, 𝑟2, 𝑟3 in 𝑛1, 𝑛2, 𝑛3 space are 𝐿1𝑘Τ𝜋, 𝐿2𝑘Τ𝜋,
𝐿3𝑘Τ𝜋
• The number of lattice points contained should be similar to an
eighth of the ellipsoid’s volume so

1 4 𝐿1𝐿2𝐿3 3 𝑉 3
𝑁 𝑘 ≈ × 𝜋× 3 𝑘 = 2𝑘
8 3 𝜋 6𝜋

where 𝑉 = 𝐿1𝐿2𝐿3 is the volume of the room

Weyl series
• Similar arguments applied to the
ellipsoid’s surface area lead to the
Weyl series for 𝑁ഥ 𝑘 , the smooth part
of the modecount:

𝑉 3 𝐴 2 𝐿 1
ഥ 𝑘 =
𝑁 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘+
6𝜋 2 16𝜋 16𝜋 8

• Here 𝐴 = 2 𝐿1𝐿2 + 𝐿1𝐿3 + 𝐿2𝐿3 is the

room’s wall area and 𝐿 = 4(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 +
𝐿3) is the length of its edges
• Similar rules hold for rooms of any
shape
Modal density
• To leading order our smoothed modecount is

𝑉 3 𝑉 4𝜋𝑉 3
ഥ≈
𝑁 3
𝑘 = 2 3𝜔 = 3 𝑓
6𝜋 2 6𝜋 𝑐 3𝑐

then the modal density is

where Δ𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 ≈ 𝑐 3Τ4𝜋 2𝑉𝑓 2 is the average modal separation

• As frequency increases modes get closer together
Rooms with absorption
• Suppose a room’s boundary consists of 𝑁 surfaces
• Let the 𝑖th surface have area 𝐴𝑖 m2 and absorption coefficient 𝛼𝑖
(see 3.1.4)
• Then

is the equivalent absorption area

• If the sound intensity were uniformly randomly distributed (a
diffuse field) then a single surface with area 𝐴𝑠 and 𝛼 = 1 would
absorb as much sound power
• Sometimes described as the equivalent ‘open window’
Multiple reflections

𝐿𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

𝐿𝑥
Room impulse response
• In a cuboidal room the response to an impulse will be many delayed reduced
impulses
• The time between successive arrivals gets shorter as time increases
• Reactive walls, scattering from furniture etc will ‘blur’ those later impulses
• The reverberation dies away exponentially – linearly in dB/s
• 𝑇60 – the time for the level to fall by 60 dB is the usual measure of
reverberation time

𝐿𝑝

𝑡
Sabine’s law
• Wallace Sabine found that

• 𝑉 is the rooms volume in m3

• Often written 𝑇60 = 0.161 𝑉 Τ𝐴𝑠 , which assumes 𝑐 = 342 ms−1
Reverberation and resonance
• Recall from 5.1.1 that absorption broadens resonance peaks
• It can be shown that the ‘bandwidth’ of resonance peaks in a room is

6 ln 10 2.20
Δ𝑓 res = =
2𝜋𝑇60 𝑇60

• If the modal separation is less than about a third of this bandwidth

the resonances merge and it individual modes can’t be distinguished
• Above this frequency we can treat the frequency response as
continuous and the sound field as diffuse
Schroeder’s frequency
• We seek the Schroeder frequency 𝑓𝑆 , such that
1
Δ𝑓 mode = 3
Δ𝑓 res
so

giving

• This is a useful parameter in architectural acoustics