1.

The term diplomacy and its core

Diplomacy has been practiced since the formation of the first city-
states and is one of the defining elements of a state. Diplomacy is
basically a term that is widely important for International relations
between various nations.
Diplomacy is the art of negotiations between various countries. In
international relations it forms the basis for peace making, economics,
culture, trade, wars etc. The origin of the word "diploma" comes from
different sides of the earth. In Greece diploma meant "folded in two",
while in ancient Rome the word was used to describe travel
documents. Often times the word diplomacy is given many meanings.

2. Diplomacy and foreign policy

General objectives that guide the activities and relationships of one
state in its interactions with other states. The development of foreign
policy is influenced by domestic considerations, the policies or
behavior of other states, or plans to advance specific
geopolitical designs. Foreign diplomacy it assumes a continuous
interaction between domestic considerations and the external arena.
Diplomacy constitutes only one element of foreign policy, though one
of essential importance. It implements foreign policy through
negotiation, making policy understood and if possible accepted by
other nations. Interests, aims and concepts of foreign policy may
change. By providing necessary information, presenting a choice of
alternatives and as a result of its quality and style, diplomacy can
influence policy making.

3.Historical types of diplomacy

One of the ancient forms of diplomatic relations is Roman
diplomacy. In ancient Rome, there were proxenias (jus hospitii) and a
collegium of fesials. The Fesials were a college of priests with civil
functions. No important event could begin or end without the
permission of the officials. They declared war, made peace and signed
treaties. The council of fesials consisted of 20 people from ancient
generations. Ancient Rome also had a system of diplomatic services.
A gathering of free people who did not have civil rights, in Rome, this
right belonged to the Senate. In Rome, embassies were called legasi
(legationes), and ambassadors were called legate (legati), speaker
(arotores) and so on. In ancient Rome, the right to send ambassadors
belonged to the ruler, and ambassadors were chosen from fessials.
During the Republican period, this right passed into the hands of the
Senate. Since ambassadorial functions require highly intelligent
individuals, determining the composition of the embassy mission has
become a complex process. The embassy in Rome never consisted of
one person. It usually consisted of 3 people. The identities of
ambassadors were protected by law and customThe purposes of the
embassy could be various: declaring war and concluding peace,
signing a treaty, settling religious disputes and international conflicts
by arbitration, etc. After the end of the mission, the ambassadors gave
a "report on the embassy" in front of the Senate. The embassies that
came to Rome were divided into two groups:
• Ambassadors of states at war with Rome;
• Ambassadors of countries friendly to Rome.
The ambassadors of hostile states were not allowed to enter Rome,
but were hosted in a private house outside the city, where they waited
for the invitation of the Senate for an audience. The audience was
held in the temple of Bellona (goddess of war).
Greece
In ancient Greece, the ancient form of international relations and
international law was proxenia. Proxenia existed between individuals,
dynasties, tribes and states. Negotiations were conducted through
proxies, the ambassador who came to the city first addressed the
proxies. Proxenia, which was widespread in Greece, was the basis of
the international relations of the Ancient period.
Another institution that was widespread in Greece was the
amphicthony. Amphicthonias were religious unions formed around
temples. These alliances included people living around the temple,
regardless of kinship. In the early times, the purpose of the
amphictonies was to sacrifice, protect the temple and its treasure, and
punish those who violated the religious rules. Although there were
many amphicthonias, the oldest and most widespread was the Delphi-
Fermopylus amphicthonia.
The third form of international relations in Greece was treaties and
military-political alliances-symmachias. The supreme body of the
Symmachia of Lacedaemon, led by Sparta, was called once a year.
The cities included in the union had one vote, regardless of their
power. Decisions were made by majority vote after long discussions.
Disputes between the communities and the police were resolved
through the mediation of special authorized representatives or
ambassadors. In Homeric Greece they were called messengers
(keryux, angelos), and in classical Greece they were called elders
(presbeis). Ambassadors were chosen from wealthy, knowledgeable,
world-viewing people who had proxies in other cities. As a rule, they
treat foreign ambassadors with respect. After returning to their cities,
the ambassadors reported on the activities of their missions to the
People's Assembly. As in all ancient states, one of the main tasks of
the ambassador in Greece was to create alliances and conclude
agreements with other states. After the agreement was signed, both
parties copied the text of the agreement on stone tablets and kept them
in the temples. In case of breaking diplomatic relations and declaring
war, the stone containing the text of the agreement was broken.

4. Ancient Roman diplomacy

BU GIRIS UCUNDU ISTESEZ YENI (Diplomacy has existed since
the first problems related to tribes, commodity and food exchange,
hunting, agriculture, and fishing. With the creation of the first human
associations, mutual relations and disputes arose between them. In
the early days, problems were solved by force. But soon people
realized that it is more profitable to settle disputes by agreement.
During the settlement of disputes, the concept of contract also
appeared. Of course, these were the first signs of diplomacy.)
Rome
One of the ancient forms of diplomatic relations is Roman
diplomacy. In ancient Rome, there were proxenias (jus hospitii) and a
collegium of fesials. The Fesials were a college of priests with civil
functions. No important event could begin or end without the
permission of the officials. They declared war, made peace and signed
treaties. The council of fesials consisted of 20 people from ancient
generations. Ancient Rome also had a system of diplomatic services.
A gathering of free people who did not have civil rights, in Rome, this
right belonged to the Senate. In Rome, embassies were called legasi
(legationes), and ambassadors were called legate (legati), speaker
(arotores) and so on. In ancient Rome, the right to send ambassadors
belonged to the ruler, and ambassadors were chosen from fessials.
During the Republican period, this right passed into the hands of the
Senate. Since ambassadorial functions require highly intelligent
individuals, determining the composition of the embassy mission has
become a complex process. The embassy in Rome never consisted of
one person. It usually consisted of 3 people. The identities of
ambassadors were protected by law and customThe purposes of the
embassy could be various: declaring war and concluding peace,
signing a treaty, settling religious disputes and international conflicts
by arbitration, etc. After the end of the mission, the ambassadors gave
a "report on the embassy" in front of the Senate. The embassies that
came to Rome were divided into two groups:
• Ambassadors of states at war with Rome;
• Ambassadors of countries friendly to Rome.
The ambassadors of hostile states were not allowed to enter Rome,
but were hosted in a private house outside the city, where they waited
for the invitation of the Senate for an audience. The audience was
held in the temple of Bellona (goddess of war).

5)Comparison of modern diplomacy with traditional

diplomacy
Traditional diplomacy - old diplomacy – till the end of the 18 th
century – bilateral diplomacy
Modern diplomacy – new diplomacy – the 19th century – multilateral
diplomacy
Traditional diplomacy:
Structure - a negotiation process between recognizably modern states
rather than other forms of political organization
The main actors ( five big powers ) - England France Prussia Austria
Spain
Process – organizing largely on bilateral basis
The development of diplomatic protocol and a series of rights,
privileges and immunities
Agenda – parochial and narrow
Set up by the underdeveloped state of bilateral relationships between
states
The preoccupations of political leaders
Modern diplomacy:
Structure – the major actors: states
Non state actors : IGO(international governmental organizations) an
NGO (nongovernmental organizations)
Process – becoming more complicated activity involving states and
non-state actors
Bilateral negotiations on a state to state basis
Multilateral negotiation of group of states in IGOs like the UN and
with other NGOs
Agenda – a number of new issues
Low politics - (economic, social and welfare)
High politics – (military issues and issues of war and peace)

6) Ancient Greek diplomacy

BU GIRIS UCUNDU ISTESEZ YENI (Diplomacy has existed since
the first problems related to tribes, commodity and food exchange,
hunting, agriculture, and fishing. With the creation of the first human
associations, mutual relations and disputes arose between them. In
the early days, problems were solved by force. But soon people
realized that it is more profitable to settle disputes by agreement.
During the settlement of disputes, the concept of contract also
appeared. Of course, these were the first signs of diplomacy.)
In ancient Greece, the ancient form of international relations and
international law was proxenia. Proxenia existed between individuals,
dynasties, tribes and states. Negotiations were conducted through
proxies, the ambassador who came to the city first addressed the
proxies. Proxenia, which was widespread in Greece, was the basis of
the international relations of the Ancient period.
Another institution that was widespread in Greece was the
amphicthony. Amphicthonias were religious unions formed around
temples. These alliances included people living around the temple,
regardless of kinship. In the early times, the purpose of the
amphictonies was to sacrifice, protect the temple and its treasure, and
punish those who violated the religious rules. Although there were
many amphicthonias, the oldest and most widespread was the Delphi-
Fermopylus amphicthonia.
The third form of international relations in Greece was treaties and
military-political alliances-symmachias. The supreme body of the
Symmachia of Lacedaemon, led by Sparta, was called once a year.
The cities included in the union had one vote, regardless of their
power. Decisions were made by majority vote after long discussions.
Disputes between the communities and the police were resolved
through the mediation of special authorized representatives or
ambassadors. In Homeric Greece they were called messengers
(keryux, angelos), and in classical Greece they were called elders
(presbeis). Ambassadors were chosen from wealthy, knowledgeable,
world-viewing people who had proxies in other cities. As a rule, they
treat foreign ambassadors with respect. After returning to their cities,
the ambassadors reported on the activities of their missions to the
People's Assembly. As in all ancient states, one of the main tasks of
the ambassador in Greece was to create alliances and conclude
agreements with other states. After the agreement was signed, both
parties copied the text of the agreement on stone tablets and kept them
in the temples. In case of breaking diplomatic relations and declaring
war, the stone containing the text of the agreement was broken.

7)Characteristics features of diplomatic professions

Diplomat - An employee of a foreign affairs body who carries out
official relations between one's country and another state or states.
Like the methods of diplomacy, the requirements for professional
diplomats change over time.
The most important qualities of ancient Greek diplomats were the
ability to speak in front of an audience and to convince the "masses"
and the "public". As time went on, the requirements for the moral and
ethical qualities of diplomats also changed. For example, in the
Middle Ages diplomats had to know the history, philosophy, and
theology of religion. The system of moral values of diplomats, such as
knowledge, the ability to intrigue, cunning, and the ability to use
everything to achieve a goal, can be called Machiavellianism.
Requirements for diplomats in the modern period:
1. Intelligence, literacy
2. Honesty
3. Loyalty
4. Knowing the diplomatic language
5. Persuasion and force
Special requirements:
- Knowledge about the country
- Knowledge in the field of international law
- Knowledge of finance and international trade
- Knowing foreign languages at advanced level
- Knowledge of Mass Media, their working system
- Knowledge of international protocol and etiquette
To be a good diplomat, you have to stay calm and composed in
stressful or difficult situations and to maintain self-control. A good
diplomat should always be professional in every moment of his/her
work-life: when negotiating, when conducting interviews, when
informally discussing with other professional colleagues, and when
writing emails. Moreover, a diplomat should demonstrate an
analytical temperament because, especially on some specific
occasions, discussing or giving opinions about political facts requires

a lot of data and analytical research.

8) The forms of diplomacy

Diplomacy has been practiced since the formation of the first city-
states and is one of the defining elements of a state. Originally
diplomats were sent only for specific negotiations, and would return
immediately after their mission concluded. Diplomats were usually
relatives of the ruling family or of very high rank in order to give
them legitimacy when they sought to negotiate with the other state.
There are some forms of diplomacy:
Gunboat diplomacy:
> demonstrating strength to achieve foreign policy goals
> full recognition of the legitimacy of using military force

Public diplomacy:
> Here government of one country directly tries to influence the
society of another country
> State branding is promoted through culture, values, education, etc.

Economic diplomacy:
> use of economic problems as an object, means of struggle, and
cooperation in international relations
> country's economic interest at international level through export,
foreign investment, international economic organization

Digital (electronic) diplomacy:

> use of the Internet, information and communication
technologies
> new media, social networks, blogs and similar global
media platforms are used

Nuclear Diplomacy:
> preventing nuclear proliferation and nuclear war

9) Features of traditional diplomacy

Traditional diplomacy:
Structure - a negotiation process between recognizably modern states
rather than other forms of political organization
The main actors (five big powers) - England France Prussia Austria
Spain
Process – organizing largely on bilateral basis
The development of diplomatic protocol and a series of rights,
privileges and immunities
Agenda – parochial and narrow
Set up by the underdeveloped state of bilateral relationships between
states
The preoccupations of political leaders

10)Features of modern diplomacy

Modern diplomacy:
Structure – the major actors: states
Non state actors: IGO (international governmental organizations) an
NGO (nongovernmental organizations)
Process – becoming more complicated activity involving states and
non-state actors
Bilateral negotiations on a state to state basis
Multilateral negotiation of group of states in IGOs like the UN and
with other NGOs
Agenda – a number of new issues
Low politics - (economic, social and welfare)
High politics – (military issues and issues of war and peace)

11) Digital diplomacy

Digital diplomacy, also known as e-diplomacy or cyber diplomacy,

refers to the use of digital technologies, social media, and online
communication tools in the practice of diplomacy. It involves the
strategic use of digital platforms to engage with foreign audiences,
conduct diplomatic negotiations, and advance a country's foreign
policy objectives. Digital diplomacy has become increasingly
important in the modern era, allowing diplomats and governments to
reach a global audience, share information, and participate in online
dialogue. Social media channels, official websites, and digital
communication tools play a significant role in shaping public
perception, building international relationships, and addressing
diplomatic challenges in the digital age.

12) Cultural diplomacy

Cultural diplomacy is a form of diplomacy that focuses on promoting
a country's cultural values, traditions, and artistic expressions to foster
understanding and build relationships with other nations. It involves
the exchange of cultural artifacts, artistic performances, educational
programs, and other initiatives to create positive perceptions and
enhance cross-cultural communication. Cultural diplomacy aims to
strengthen international ties, bridge cultural gaps, and contribute to
peaceful relations by emphasizing shared human experiences and
values. This form of diplomacy recognizes the power of culture in
shaping global perceptions and fostering mutual respect among
diverse communities.

13) The concept and importance of diplomatic

protocol
• Protocol is commonly described as a set of international
courtesy rules. These well-established and time-honored rules
have made it easier for nations and people to live and work
together. Most of the norms of diplomatic protocol are based on
historically formed rules of international courtesy
• The historical rules of the protocol arose as a result of the same
and constant application of customs and conditions in essentially
the same situations in international communication
• The word protocol is derived from the Greek words protos - first
and kola - to attach.
• the protocol is understood as a set of rules that help to regulate
the order of various diplomatic ceremonies of the official
representatives of the government in each country.
• Protocol is a historical category as the conclusion of centuries-
old communication between states.
• In order to protect normal diplomatic relations -it is necessary to
observe certain traditions, rules, conditions, customs, in short,
diplomatic protocol.
• Protocol complience creates a respectful attitude -atmosphere of
trust
14) Evolution of international protocol
Diplomatic protocol goes as far as diplomacy itself. Diplomatic
protocol can be traced further into history in the ancient ages.
In 1504, the head of the Roman Catholic Church tried to compile a
list of them as a key to solving the constant conflicts between rulers.
But this list remained in force for a very short time.

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the system of anarchy and chaos

in diplomatic relations was corrected and a classification of
diplomatic ranks was adopted.

The Aachen Congress of the "Holy Alliance" in 1818- a high-level

diplomatic meeting of France and the four allied
powers Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia, Certain vexatious
questions of diplomatic etiquette were settled once and for all.

The UN convened a conference in Vienna. The Vienna Convention on

Diplomatic Relations dated April 18, 1961 was developed at the
conference. According to Article 51, the Convention entered into
force on April 24, 1961.
Diplomatic protocol includes:
• Recognition of new states,
• establishment of diplomatic relations,
• appointment of heads of diplomatic missions,
• presentation of credentials,
• strict adherence to diplomatic protocol norms during a visit is
mandatory.
• Etiquette is especially important when it comes to the national
emblem and flag.
A protocol is a form of hierarchical order, an expression of good
behavior in relations between states, and a set of rules for the
 conduct of governments and their representatives on official and
unofficial grounds.

15) The main functions of the protocol department

The main functions of the protocol department are as follows:
• Participation in the drafting of proposals for the admission of
foreign government delegations and other officials in
cooperation with the relevant departments of the Ministry;
• Implementation of approved programs for receiving these
delegations and persons;
• drawing up and coordinating the program of official delegations
of the country abroad;
• to assist in the organization of the work of foreign missions;
Assistance to other units in protocol matters;
• assistance in the organization of business meetings, as well as
control of compliance with the form and order of
correspondence with foreign officials.

16.Diplomatic recognition and its forms

Diplomatic recognition is the public acknowledgment by one
sovereign and independent state of the existence of another sovereign
and independent state. There are two forms of recognition of a new
state: de facto and de jure.
1) De facto: De facto is incomplete recognition. It means that, the
government of one state recognizes the mere existence of
another state establishes. At that time, this state can establish
 business relations, even if it does not establish diplomatic
relations with that state.
2) De jure: However, De jure is complete recognition. It means
that, de jure is the recognition of the new state through the
establishment of full diplomatic relations, the establishment of
embassies based on mutual agreement, and the development of
mutually beneficial relations.

17.Theories of recognition
There are two popular theories laid down for the purpose of
understanding the nature of recognition.
1) Constitutive theory: According to this theory, recognition is a
necessary condition for statehood and personality. It is a process
by which a political community acquires personality and becomes
a member of the family of nations. A state comes into existence
through recognition only and exclusively. Example of
Constitutive theory: Poland and Czechoslovakia were recognized
by the instrumentality of the treaty of Versailles. Germany was
divided into two parts after World War II by a treaty. Korea was
divided into two parts.
2) Declarative theory: This theory states that declaration is a mere
formality and has no legality as the existence of the state is a
mere question of fact. Every new state becomes a member of
nations IPSO FACTO by its coming into existence. This theory
say that recognition is not important. Example of declarative
theory: Taiwan is a democratic country and is adjoining areas
which Chinese territory. Only few countries recognize Taiwan
yet it had business dealings with almost every country.
 18.Functions of diplomatic missions
Permanent diplomatic relations are recognized only during the
opening of a diplomatic mission. According to the 1961 Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the functions of missions:
a) representation of the accredited state in the country where it
operates;
b) protection of the interests of the accredited state and its citizens
within the frameworks allowed by international law in the state
where it operates;
c) conducting negotiations with the government of the country
where it operates;
d) clarifying the conditions and events in the country where it
operates by all legal means and informing the government of the
accrediting country about it;
e) supporting friendly relations between sending and receiving
countries and developing their mutual relations in the field of
economy, culture and science.

19.Appointment of diplomatic representative.

Aggremen
The diplomatic staff includes:
ambassadors, envoys, counselors, trade representatives and their
deputies, special attaches (military, naval, and air) and their deputies,
first, second, and third secretaries and attachés
Members of the diplomatic staff must be citizens of the accrediting
state. However, with the consent of the receiving state, local citizens
and citizens of a third country can be included in the diplomatic staff
of the represented state. Members of the diplomatic staff are given
diplomatic ranks in accordance with the national legislation.

Aggreman means that, the government that has decided to send an

ambassador first obtains the consent (agreement) from the receiving
party. Agreement must be obtained confidentially. It is not allowed to
disclose the fact of making an agreement request, because the
disclosure of the refusal to the request can lead to the tension of
relations between the two countries. In most cases, this consent is
obtained. However, if the government of the receiving state considers
the proposed person to be ineligible, it may be rejected. If consent is
obtained, the candidate is considered persona grata, otherwise,
persona non grata. Usually, a negative response to a request for
consent is not given, a delay in the response is already a sign of
unwillingness to give it. The requested government usually tries not to
delay its response.

20.Classification of diplomatic representation and

their commencement of activity. Credential.
A diplomatic mission consists of a diplomatic representative duly
nominated by one state and accepted by another, together with his
staff and established in the diplomatic capital of the state. The head of
the diplomatic mission is considered to be the highest representative
of the sending state in the receiving state compared to all its
representatives operating on a permanent basis. Only head (or acting
head) of that mission is entirely responsible for its activities; his staff,
strictly speaking, have no direct representative function and merely
assist their head. After the agreement on the exchange of diplomatic
missions between the two states is reached, the stages of the
diplomatic mission's operation are listed below:
1) Asking the receiving state to agree to the appointment of a
specific person as the head of the diplomatic mission -
agreement.
2) Issuance of a relevant domestic act on the appointment of a
person as the head of a diplomatic mission after receiving an
agreement.
3) Submission of a document confirming his official status -
credentials to the person appointed as the head of the diplomatic
mission, to the relevant official of the receiving state.
The credentials are signed by the head of the accrediting state and
addressed to the head of the state receiving the diplomatic
representative.

Credential (lettres de creance) is a document that officially confirms

the ambassador's status as a representative of the state. The document
reflects request to believe and trust everything that the ambassador
will say on behalf of the head of state and his government; that is why
the document is called a credential.

21.Staff of the diplomatic mission

According to the Vienna Convention of 1961, staff of the diplomatic
mission is divided into three categories:
- diplomatic staff;
 - administrative and technical staff;
- service staff.
The 1961Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations usefully
defined the staff of a diplomatic mission as follows:
(a) The ‘head of the mission' is the person charged by the sending
state with the duty of acting in that capacity;

(b) the ‘members of the mission’ are the head of the mission
and the members of the staff of the mission;

(c) the ‘members of the staff of the mission’ are the members of the
diplomatic staff, of the administrative and technical staff
and of the service staff of the mission;

The diplomatic staff includes:

ambassadors, envoys, counselors, trade representatives and their
deputies, special attaches (military, naval, and air) and their deputies,
first, second, and third secretaries and attachés.

22.Commencement and termination of diplomatic

representation
After the agreement on the exchange of diplomatic missions between
the two states is reached, the stages of the diplomatic mission's
operation are listed below:
a) Asking the receiving state to agree to the appointment of a
specific person as the head of the diplomatic mission -
agreement.
b) Issuance of a relevant domestic act on the appointment of a
person as the head of a diplomatic mission after receiving an
agreement.
 c) Submission of a document confirming his official status -
credentials to the person appointed as the head of the diplomatic
mission, to the relevant official of the receiving state.
Termination of Diplomatic Representation:
The sending state may decide to recall its ambassador or diplomatic
representative.
The decision to recall a diplomat can be based on various reasons,
such as strained relations, policy changes, or the completion of the
diplomat's term.
a) Declaration of Persona Non Grata: If a host country is
dissatisfied with a diplomat, it can declare that diplomat
"persona non grata." This is a formal declaration stating that the
diplomat is unacceptable, and the sending state is expected to
recall them.
b) Breakdown of Diplomatic Relations: In more severe cases,
diplomatic relations between two countries may be severed
altogether. This could result from political conflicts, war, or
other major international incidents.
c) Withdrawal of Embassies: When diplomatic relations are
terminated, embassies or diplomatic missions are usually closed.
Diplomats and embassy staff are given a grace period to wrap up
affairs and leave the host country.
d) Announcement and Communication:Both countries typically
make official announcements regarding the termination of
diplomatic relations.The reasons for the termination may or may
not be disclosed, depending on diplomatic norms and the nature
of the situation
The credentials are signed by the head of the accrediting state and
addressed to the head of the state receiving the diplomatic
representative.
23.Diplomatic corpus. Doyen
The term "diplomatic corps" is used in a narrow and broad sense. In a
narrow sense, the diplomatic corps is understood as the sum of the
heads of all diplomatic missions in the state. In a broad sense, this
term includes members of the diplomatic staff of foreign diplomatic
missions in the country, as well as their family members.
The diplomatic corps mainly makes joint speeches during certain
ceremonies in the receiving state. The diplomatic corps is headed by
the doyen, the largest of the diplomatic representatives according to
their rank and time of accreditation. The longest-serving member in
the community should be its doyen.

24.Diplomatic relation bodies

Diplomatic relations involve both internal and external bodies within
a country. Here's a breakdown of these bodies:
Internal Bodies:
1) The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) is a government agency
responsible for managing a country's foreign relations. It serves
as the primary channel through which a nation communicates
with other countries, international organizations, and foreign
entities. The MFA plays a pivotal role in formulating and
implementing a country's foreign policy.
2) Legislature/Parliament: Plays a role in shaping foreign policy
through the approval of treaties, budgets for diplomatic
missions, and oversight of the executive branch's foreign policy
decisions.
3) Presidential or Prime Minister's Office: The head of state or
government often has a direct role in shaping and implementing
foreign policy.
External Bodies:
 1) The Diplomatic Corps refers to the collective body of diplomats
representing a particular country or a group of countries
abroad. These diplomats, often organized into a structured
hierarchy, work under the umbrella of the country's Ministry of
Foreign Affairs. The Diplomatic Corps plays a crucial role in
conducting and managing a country's foreign relations and
diplomatic activities.
2) Embassies and consulates are key components of a country's
diplomatic infrastructure, serving as official representations
abroad. They play distinct roles in facilitating diplomatic
relations, providing consular services, and promoting the
interests of their home country.

25.Foreign relations organs

Various organs and institutions play crucial roles in managing and
conducting foreign relations. These are:
Diplomatic Corps, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Embassies and
Consulates
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) is a government agency
responsible for managing a country's foreign relations. It serves as
the primary channel through which a nation communicates with
other countries, international organizations, and foreign entities. The
MFA plays a pivotal role in formulating and implementing a country's
foreign policy.
The Diplomatic Corps refers to the collective body of diplomats
representing a particular country or a group of countries abroad.
These diplomats, often organized into a structured hierarchy, work
under the umbrella of the country's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The
Diplomatic Corps plays a crucial role in conducting and managing a
country's foreign relations and diplomatic activities.
Embassies and consulates are key components of a country's
diplomatic infrastructure, serving as official representations abroad.
They play distinct roles in facilitating diplomatic relations, providing
consular services, and promoting the interests of their home country.

26.Central Organs of Foreign Policy (President,

government and legislative body)
Two groups of state bodies deal with foreign policy on a regular basis
in any given state:
1) the central of the state's foreign relations
2) foreign bodies of the state
Central bodies of diplomacy:
a) Head of State: According to international law, due to his official
position, the head of state represents the state without any
special power of attorney. The specific powers of the head of
state in the field of foreign relations are determined by the
constitutional system of each state. In presidential republics,
their powers are usually wider. Important agreements, foreign
policy acts and petitions are approved by the signature of the
head of state.
b) Government and head of government led by the Prime Minister
or Head of Government, plays a crucial role in shaping and
executing foreign policy. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
headed by the Foreign Minister, is a key component. This
ministry is responsible for managing diplomatic relations,
negotiating agreements, and representing the country's interests
abroad. Other ministries, such as defense and trade, may also
contribute to specific aspects of foreign policy.
c) Legislative organ: The roots of the implementation of certain
functions in the field of foreign relations by the supreme
 legislative body are proven by the experience of ancient slave
states. Thus, solving issues of war and peace in ancient Rome,
conducting negotiations with foreign countries, sending
diplomatic missions and ambassadors to foreign countries, etc.
such issues were related to the functions of the senate. In the
Middle Ages, even in states with a republican form of
government, the main issues of foreign relations were related to
the functions of the legislative body.

27.Ministry of Foreign Affairs

The main content of the activity of ministry of foreign affairs is
defending the rights and interests of one's state in the world of
international relations.
It consists of central apparatus, diplomatic missions and consular
institutions abroad.
Functions of MFA of Azerbaijan:
a) represents the Republic of Azerbaijan in relations with other states
and international organizations
b) The Ministry of Foreign Affairs heads the unified system of
diplomatic service bodies of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
c) The foreign and domestic policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan
ensures the dissemination of information about the country's
economic, social and cultural life abroad through the diplomatic
missions of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
d) Prepares drafts of international agreements of Azerbaijan, prepares
proposals on conclusion, execution, cancellation and termination of
agreements and submits them to the President of the Republic of
Azerbaijan for consideration in the established manner.
Headed by a minister who is appointed and dismissed by the President
of the Republic of Azerbaijan
He has deputies who are appointed and dismissed by the president.
The structure of the Ministry includes
ambassadors on special assignments, general secretariat,
territorial departments,
functional and administrative departments. The board of ministry
consists of the minister (head of the board), his deputies, as well as
other managers of the ministry.
The number and personal composition of the collegium members is
approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
Heads of territorial offices direct and coordinate the work of the
diplomatic missions of the Republic of Azerbaijan in these countries
according to the instructions of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

28.Accreditation steps of head of mission

Head of mission are divided into three classes:
a) ambassador or nuncios accredited to heads of state
b) envoys, ministers, and internuncio accredited to heads of state
c) charges d'affaires accredited to ministers for foreign affairs.
Accreditation step of head of mission:
1) Selection of candidates (who represents the sending state best and
who has deep personal links with the receiving state)
2) Request/granting of agreement
The receiving state is not obligated to give reasons to the sending
state for refusal or agreement.
The agreement can be revoked until the arrival of the head of the
mission.
29.Evolution of diplomatic privileges and
immunity
From ancient times to the present many civilizations, whether in the
Americas, Europe, the Middle East, or Africa, have respected the
inviolability of envoys. Necessity forced most cultures to accord
envoys basic protections because only then intercourse was possible
between peoples. All civilizations have recognized the importance of
protecting envoys from harm. The degree of protection, however,
varied with each culture. Over time, the position of the envoy
deteriorated in some civilizations, especially those that became
hegemonic and harbored universalistic pretensions and those that
regarded the others as barbarian. Although strangers were sometimes
welcomed, they were also feared. Early man insisted on disarming or
ritually purifying anyone who might have magical, potentially
harmful, powers. Envoys, like strangers, were feared but also
protected. The sacred status of messengers and heralds seems partly
ascribable to their allegedly supernatural powers. Insulting, injuring,
or killing an envoy incurred the death penalty. The first principle to
become firmly established was that of Diplomatic Immunity. The
institute of privileges and immunities occurred among the Australian
Aborigines as well as in the Institutes of Manu. During Ancient
periods, the first written indications of privileges and immunities
appear in the correspondence between Matusili iland Ramses. The
main sources on diplomacy in this period - also recognized the right
of a messenger to swift and unhindered passage. The two most
important documents, however, prior to the Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations, 1961 were the Havana Convention on
Diplomatic Officers 1928 and the Harvard Research Draft Convention
on Diplomatic Privileges and fimmunities of 1993. Personal
diplomatic immunities and privileges are granted to diplomats and
their family members living with them. The family usually includes
the diplomat's spouse and minor children. As a rule, a diplomat who is
not observed by his wife has the right to include his mother or sister
and minor sons and daughters in the family, provided that they live
with him.

30.Diplomatic pouch
A diplomatic pouch (or “bag”) is any properly identified and sealed
package, pouch, envelope, bag, or other container that is used to
transport official correspondence, documents, and other articles
intended for official use.
In accordance with Article 27.3 of the Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations (VCDR), properly designated diplomatic
pouches “shall not be opened or detained.” Although inspection of a
pouch by X-ray would not physically break the external seal(möhür)
of the shipment, such an action constitutes the modern-day electronic
equivalent of “opening” a pouch.
Diplomatic mail can be carried by a special diplomatic courier. A
diplomatic courier enjoys personal immunity and cannot be subjected
to any form of detention or arrest. This is usually a MFA servant
whose mission is confirmed by ministerial or embassy documents
confirming his status and indicating the number of cargo spaces that
make up diplomatic mail. In the absence of a permanent diplomatic
courier, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or a mission may appoint a
public servant traveling for other reasons as a diplomatic courier for a
special visit. He enjoys the immunity and personal immunity of a
permanent diplomatic courier while the diplomatic mail is in his
possession. In addition, according to recent practice, diplomatic mail
can be entrusted to the head of the flight crew.
61.American diplomacy
American diplomacy is different from that of most countries. The
whole of American society – the ‘nation’ – is in principle involved in
it, both as the source of the interests and the ideas on which the
country’s policy toward others is based and even as the body that
most authentically expresses it. The ‘first American diplomat’ was
the wily and worldly Benjamin Franklin. Unlike most European and
many other countries, the United States does not have a well-defined,
well-established diplomatic tradition. American diplomacy is shaped
by the country’s democratic character. The diplomatic factor in
American history is in truth difficult to isolate, and therefore to weigh
and to assess. Part of the problem is conceptual – the lack of a clear
distinction between ‘diplomacy’ and ‘foreign policy’. Public opinion
– emotion as well as conviction – is a powerful influence in the
making of US policy, including the way the country’s representatives
carry it out. Foreign affairs are conducted not just by diplomats – that
is, by delegated representatives of governments. Leaders – the
policymakers themselves – increasingly also are involved. The early
American consuls represented business (and themselves) perhaps
more than they did the US government in their substantive work, even
though they were politically appointed. Generally untrained and also
poorly compensated, they relied mostly on fees they could collect.
Most importantly, they were very loosely supervised. Like America’s
diplomats, even fewer in number, consuls functioned in the absence
of overall strategic direction or a comprehensive, spelled-out national
policy. The earliest US legations, headed by ministers, were
established in France (1779), the Netherlands (1781), Spain (1783),
the United Kingdom (1785), Portugal (1791), Prussia (1797), Russia
(1809), Sweden (1818), and Mexico (1825). Many American
presidents – including Thomas Jefferson, John Quincy Adams, and
Abraham Lincoln in the nineteenth century – have conducted
diplomacy themselves. They have done so especially from the time of
President Theodore Roosevelt, whose White House was a veritable
‘court’. President Woodrow Wilson marked a further new phase of
American diplomacy. President Franklin Roosevelt, as Commander
in-Chief in wartime, traveled for meetings in Casablanca, Cairo,
Tehran, and Yalta in order both to concert allied war plans and to
discuss postwar aims. Today, the position of Special Representatives
and of Special Envoys, chosen to deal with particular situations or
issues, has become more formalized. The late Richard Holbrooke,
negotiator of the Dayton Accords ending the violent conflict in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, subsequently was appointed Special
Representative for the Afghanistan–Pakistan region.
Career diplomats and political appointees:
political appointees (that is, people from any other professional
backgrounds who may equally be designated by an official
government to act as diplomats abroad)
Career diplomats- public servants with a steady professional
connection to the country's foreign ministry. The Department of
Foreign Affairs was the first of the executive departments established
under the Constitution, and two months later it was renamed the
Department of State. Since the founding of the Department, its
diplomats have played important roles in the nation’s history. The
Rogers Act of 1924 brought together diplomats and consuls (today in
a consular ‘cone’), hitherto in completely separate services, to form a
single, examination-based Foreign Service of the United States. The
US entry into the Second World War significantly enlarged the circle
of Americans, both men and women, involved in international work.
This factor, along with the democratic purpose of the US war effort
itself, considerably liberalized the Foreign Service. A principal goal
of the Foreign Service Act of 1946 was to reduce the distinction
between Foreign Service Officers (FSOs) and civil service staff
working for the department. The Act created a Foreign Service
Institute for language and other professional training of all personnel,
which raised but also equalized skill levels. The United States Foreign
Service is the primary personnel system used by the diplomatic
service of the United States federal government, under the aegis of
the United States Department of State. Created in 1924 by the Rogers
Act, the Foreign Service combined
all consular and diplomatic services of the U.S. government into one
administrative unit. In addition to the unit's function, the Rogers Act
defined a personnel system under which the United States Secretary
of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad.
Members of the Foreign Service are selected through a series of
written and oral examinations. They serve at any of the 265 United
States diplomatic missions around the world,
including embassies, consulates, and other facilities. Members of the
Foreign Service also staff the headquarters of the four foreign affairs
agencies:
the Department of State, headquartered at the Harry S Truman
Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.;
the Department of Agriculture;
the Department of Commerce;
and the United States Agency for International Development.

62.Establishment and organization of the

diplomatic service apparatus in the United States
The establishment and organization of the diplomatic service
apparatus in the United States fall under the purview of the
Department of State. The U.S. diplomatic service plays a crucial role
in representing the country's interests abroad, fostering international
relations, and conducting diplomacy. The Department of Foreign
Affairs was the first of the executive departments established under
the Constitution, and two months later it was renamed the Department
of State. Since the founding of the Department, its diplomats have
played important roles in the nation’s history. They secured support
from France, Spain, and the Netherlands that won America its
independence, and in the next two centuries U.S. diplomats have
continued to protect the nation’s citizens, promote its values, and
foster its commerce. The establishment and organization of the
diplomatic service apparatus in the United States fall under the
purview of the Department of State. The U.S. diplomatic service
plays a crucial role in representing the country's interests abroad,
fostering international relations, and conducting diplomacy. The US
entry into the Second World War significantly enlarged the circle of
Americans, both men and women, involved in international work.
This factor, along with the democratic purpose of the US war effort
itself, considerably liberalized the Foreign Service.
A principal goal of the Foreign Service Act of 1946 was to reduce the
distinction between Foreign Service Officers (FSOs) and civil service
staff working for the department. The Act created a Foreign Service
Institute for language and other professional training of all
personnel, which raised but also equalized skill levels. The United
States Foreign Service is the primary personnel system used by
the diplomatic service of the United States federal government,
under the aegis of the United States Department of State.
Created in 1924 by the Rogers Act, the Foreign Service combined
all consular and diplomatic services of the U.S. government into one
administrative unit. In addition to the unit's function, the Rogers Act
defined a personnel system under which the United States Secretary
of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad.

63.Dollar diplomacy
Dollar Diplomacy is a policy of promoting American economic
interests in other countries and using that economic power to achieve
American policy goals. Dollar diplomacy is the name given to the
early 20th- century American foreign policy that sought to use
American economic strength rather than military power to guarantee
U.S. national security and economic interests.
It is most associated with the administration of William Howard Taft
and its policy toward Latin America. American banks would be called
upon to finance loans to Latin American governments in need of
capital. This would create a dependent relationship with the countries,
providing a foothold for American interests. Dollar Diplomacy was
Taft's answer to the question of how to exert influence in foreign
countries, particularly Latin America.
He preferred economic dependence to military subservience
He figured it would help Latin American countries, while also helping
enrich some American businesses.
Purpose
◆To improve American businesses D which would lead to the growth
of the economy-implemented to seek a profit
◆To strengthen America financially and commercially
◆ Taft encouraged investors to invest in foreign markets (mostly
Latin America and Far East) to increase America's influence abroad
◆Investing in foreign economies means more allies for the United
States-Improves foreign relations
◆Taft believed the dollar diplomacy substituted "dollars for bullets":
An effective way of promoting peaceful foreign relations (No war)
One goal was to prevent foreign nations from gaining investment
foothold in large markets (America wanted to dominate key global
markets)

▷ One important focus of Dollar Diplomacy: Manchurian region of

China-Japan and Russia controlled railroads in this region, and Taft
wanted to prevent Japan and Russia from taking control of it and
colonizing the area
Taft's offer to the Japanese and Russians: that American bankers
would purchase the Manchurian railroads and return them to Chinese
control. Using the Monroe Doctrine, Taft forbade European investors
from entering Latin American markets.
This allowed the U.S. to control the markets.
His passive approach failed since there was economic instability in
many countries