PROGRAMMING IN C CHAPTER 1 BASICS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE Hardware and Software are two terms we all have heard at some point or the other, In this chapter, we will briefly discuss about computer hardware and software. Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer. Computer Hardware is any part of the computer that we can . touch these parts. These are the primary electronic devices used to build up the computer. The computer system hardware comprises of four main components — 1, Input Device 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Memory 4. Output Device Computer input devices serve as an interface between the outside world and the computer for proper communication. CPU performs calculations and processing on the input data, to generate the output. The memory unit is used to store the data, the instructions and the output information. An output device is a piece of computer hardware that receives data from a computer and then translates that data into another form. That form may be audio, visual, textual, or hard copy such as a printed document. Computer software can be defined as a set of instructions or collection of programs which are designed and developed to Perform specific tasks. Software comprises the entire set of | Page 1.1a pee 4 routines associated with the Fer gystem. Software cannot be executed ery of instructions that directs sare perform a task is called a program, op eat the two main types of software are system, ication software. es, and procedut fa compu nd applis UMANN ARCHITECTURE ‘The modern computers are based on a stored-program concept by John Von Neumann. In this stored-program, concept, programs and data are stored in a separate storage unit called memories and are treated the same. This novel idea meant that a computer built with this architecture would be much easier to reprogram. Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later known as. Von-Neumann Architecture. It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU), Registers, Memory Unit and Inputs/Outputs. This architecture is also known as Princeton architecture. 11 VONNE duced Fig.11; Von Neumann Architecture . [ne ne) ‘The main components of Von Neumann Architecture are: 1, Central Processing Unit (CPU): The part of the computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is called the Central Processing Unit and is referred to as the CPU, The Central Processing Unit can also be defined as an electric circuit responsible for executing the instructions of a computer program. The major components of CPU are Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and a variety of registers. a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) performs the required micro-operations for executing the instructions. In simple words, ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract, etc.) and logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) operations to be carried out. b) Control Unit The Control Unit of a computer system controls the operations of components like ALU, memory and input/output devices. The Control Unit consists of a program counter that contains the address of the instructions to be fetched and an instruction register into which instructions are fetched from memory for execution. ¢) Registers Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data processed by the CPU are fetched from the registers. ii, Memory Unit A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits needed to transfer information in and out of the storage. The memory stores binary information in groups of bits called words. The internal structure of a memory unit is specified by the number of words it contains and the number of bits in each word, Two major types of memories are used in computer systems: Page 131, RAM (Random Access Memory) >. ROM (Read-Only Memory) iii, InpuyOutput Devices aa ¢ read into main memo inp “aaa Sab under the control of CPU input see gon, Output devices are used to output the information from a computer. If some results are evaluated by computer and it is stored in the computer, then with the help of output dovices, we can present them to the user, , \ iv, Buses \ Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting all major internal components to the CPU and memory, by the means of Buses, Types: ~4) Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and the processor. ~by Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data) between memory and processor. Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and ~ status signals from other devices) in order to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer 1.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES An input/output device, often known as an IO device, is any hardware that allows a human operator or other systems to interface with a computer. Input/output devices, as the name implies, are capable of delivering data (output) to and receiving data from a computer (input). An input/output (I/O) device is a piece of hardware that can take, output, or process data. It receives data as input and provides it to a computer, as well as sends computer data to storage media as a storage output. 1.21 Input Devices Input devices accept data and instructions from the user oF from another computer system, The most common input devices are: Page 14 1. Keyboard: Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions. Keyboard accepts letters, numbers and commands "from the user. A standard keyboard includes alphanumeric keys (Number keys and Alphabet keys), function keys (F1- F12), modifier keys(Shift and Control keys), cursor movement keys(up, down, left and right keys), space bar, escape key, numeric key pad(for numbers and mathematical operators), __ and some special keys (Page Up, Page Down, Home, Insert, Delete and End). i. When we are entering character input using keyboard, corresponding ASCII (American Standard Code for _ Information Interchange) will be taken and it will be converted _ into machine code. b Fig. 1.2: Keyboard The different types of keys seen in a keyboard are: a) Numeric Keys: It is used to enter numeric data or move the cursor, It usually consists of a set of 17 keys. b) Typing Keys: The letter keys (A-Z) and number keys (09) are among these keys. | Poserr FRAMING NS -pntrol Keys: These keys control the pointer and the screen, . ree are four directional arrow keys on it. Home, Eng Insert, Alternate(Alt), Delete, Control(Ctrl), etc., and Escape are all control keys (Esc). ‘ €) Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Tab, etc, and Print Screen are among the special function keys on the keyboard. ¢) Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 on the topmost row of the keyboard. ii, Mouse: ‘The mouse allows the user to select elements on the screen, such as tools and icons, It is also known as a pointing device because it helps to change the position of the pointer or cursor on the screen. The mouse consists of two buttons, a wheel at the top and a ball at the bottom of the mouse. When the ball moves, the cursor on the screen moves in the direction in which the ball rotates. The left button of the mouse is used to select an element and the right button, when clicked, displays the special options. The wheel is used for scrolling purpose. Fig. 1.3: Mouse iii, Scanner: A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a Photocopier. Its employed when there's information on paper that needs to be transferred to the computer's hard disc for subsequent manipulation, | Page 1.6 ‘Scanner collects images from the source and converts them to a digital format that may be saved on a disc. Before they are printed, these images can be modified. Fig 1.4: Scanner iv. Joystick: A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the cursor ‘on a computer screen. A spherical ball is attached to both the ‘bottom and top ends of the stick. Ina socket, the lower spherical ball slides. We can move the joystick in all four directions. The joystick’s function is comparable to that of a mouse. It is __ primarily used in CAD (Computer-Aided Design) and playing __ video games on the computer. Fig. 15: Joystick se ennrarerncntoe | Page 17ati, a Microphone! , evi one is an input device that was developed by Emig A mich tis used to convert sound waves into electric Berliner 1 {tthe audio into computers. It captures audio waves or input i i aves or nd waves int an electrical signal, which may be con t igital or analog signal Fig. 1.6: Microphone vi. Optical Character Reader (OCR): OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine-readable code, and stores the text on the system memory. Fig. 1.7: Optical Character Reader vii Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): MICR i steed i banks to process large volumes of cheques: I cognizing the magnetic encoding numbers printed Page 18 PROGRAMMING IN C at the bottom of a cheque. The numbers on the cheque are human readable, and are printed using an ink which contains fron particles. These numbers are magnetized. MICR uses magnetic ink character reader for character recognition. When a cheque is passed through Magnetic Ink Character Reader, the magnetic field causes the read head to recognize the characters or numbers of cheque. The reading speed of MICR is faster than OCR. Fig. 18: MICR viii. Optical Mark Reader (OMR): OMR is used to detect marks on a paper. The marks are recognized by their darkness. OMR uses an optical mark reader toread the marks, The OMR reader scans the forms, detects the mark that is positioned correctly on the paper and is darker than the surrounding paper, and passes this information to the computer for processing by application software. The pattern of marks is interpreted and stored in the computer. Fig. 1.9: OMR Page 19— —— BU oni Pen: i ix, Light type of pointing device that looks like a Pen. It Alight pen is @ a 1a menu item or to draw on the monitor can be used 10 jan optical system are enclosed in a tiny sereen. A photocell tube. ; «oof a light pen is moved across a monitor sen on the tip of a light pen is movi a a fe ia ptton is pushed, the photocell sensor ele vanes the screen location and provides a signal to the Cy, identifies the s men| Fig. 1.10: Light Pen x. Bar Code Reader: A barcode reader is a device that reads data that is bar-coded (data that is represented by light and dark lines). Bar-coded data is commonly used to mark things, number books, and so on. It could be a handheld scanner or part of a stationary scanner. A barcode reader scans a bar code image, converts it toan alphanumeric value, and then sends it to the computer to which it is connected. Fig. 1.11: Barcode reader Page 1.10 FROG NE xi, Web Camera; ‘A.webcam is an input device that captures moving images and converts them into a visual format your processor can decode. It uses an image sensor to detect images and then relays the data to your computer, Fig. 1.12: Webcam 1.22 Output Devices Output devices return processed data to the user or to another computer system. The most commonly used output devices are: i, Monitor: A monitor is the most commonly used output device that Produces visual displays generated by the computer. The display device is used for visual presentation of textual and graphical information. The monitors can be classified as Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors or Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors. The CRT monitors are large, occupy more Space in the computer, whereas LCD monitors are thin, light weighted and occupy lesser space. A monitor can be characterized by its monitor size and Tesolution, The monitor size is the length of the screen that is measured diagonally. The resolution of a screen is expressed as the number of picture elements or pixels of the screen. The Tesolution is also called the dot pitch. Page 1.11Fig. 1.13: Monitor ii, Printer: Printer is an output device that prints text or images on paper tr other media (like transparencies). By printing, we create What is known as a “hard copy”. There are different kinds of printers, which vary in their speed and print quality. FP | Fig. 1.14: Printer The two main types of printers are impact printers and non- impact printers, Impact printers include all printers that print by striking an ink ribbon, Impact printers use a print head containing a number of metal pins which strike an inked ribbon Placed between the print head and the paper. Line printers, dot ‘matrix printers are some of the impact printers. 1 Pace 1.19 ee In non-impact printers the printing heads do not strike the paper. Non-impact printers include laser printers, inkjet printers and thermal printers. Line Pinter (seria rine 2 imate princes) “hecmal (ae) riner Nowimpact. K—}_ taser Printer Inkjet Printer Fig. 1.15: Types of Printers Line Printer: Line printers are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line at a time. A line printer can print 150 lines to 3000 lines per minute. The limitations of line printer are they can print only one font, they cannot print graphics, the print quality is low and they are noisy to operate. But it can print large volume of text data very fast compared to the other printers. . . Dot Matrix Printer: The most popular serial printer is the dot matrix printer. It prints one line of 8 or 14 points at a time, with print head moving across a line. They are similar to typewriters. They are normally slow. The printing speed is around 300 characters per second. Thermal Printer: Thermal printers are printers that produce images by pushing electrically heated pins against special heat-sensitive paper. They are inexpensive and used widely in fax machines and calculators. Thermal printer paper tends to darken over time due to exposure to sunlight and heat. So, \reegsaw > an Aner Gate aloe a WEEK Op wo, W DR carnal DHINE BOS rors we a Laser Doan ang ly . oa tne dot hate PAM, TH sity of ste INAROR, One OF the jntors is thelr resolution & how. they lay down, The available dip\ at the low end to Around 1209 nters work by spraying ionizing ink tized plates in the ink’s path direct ver in the described shape, electromechanical transducer that converts an ral into sound, They are attached to computer ag devices. to provide audio output, such as wai and intemet audios. We can have built in speakers or peakers in a computer to warn end users with error ges and alerts. The audio drivers need to be talled in the computer to produce the audio output, The computer speakers vary widely in terms of quality and price, Fig. 1.16: Speakers es ee { Paipniiiws it) jy, Mlotter: A plotter Ina devicn that prints graphics in a variety of color formats with high-quality Imayes, I’ similar ty» printer, but with more advanced capabilities Plottor allows un to create pletures, 0) posteards, advertising wignn, charts, and varloun designs of the internal structure f building machines, ov well ax print large maps, architectural drawings, large-format printing, and create pictures, 0) pontcards, advertising signs, charts, and various desiyzis of the Internal structure of building machines, Fig. 1.17: Plotter v. Projector A projector is an output device that accepts data from a computer (output) and projects that data or information as a picture onto a wall or screen or any large surface. It does not have the ability to receive data from a user and also not capable of sending that data to another device. When we are showing video or images to a large group of people, a projector is more beneficial to use instead of a monitor because it displays data ona large surface that can be visible to a large number of people clearly, | Page 135aeons PROGRAMMINGING J __ ESSING UNIT iTRAL PROC! 13 CENTR: Unit (CPU), otherwise called the proces cessing ain of the computer. CPU Performs 41, Prc Central Rake ] wl operations. It stores data, intermedia ered d is consi” processing 4 types of data F ucion’ (program). CPU controls the Operati results, and in computer. It consists of Arithmetic Logic y, ofall parts of the ns fait) and Control Unit (CL 131 Arithmetic Logic Unit j 3 stem, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) ig he central processing unit, which g main =e ‘init and performs aritiereeaiaee ae 1 ons ALU consists of two unit: Arithmetic unitand Tog eaara arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is made available to it The arithmetic operations supported by the arithmetic unit are addition, subtract mliplction and division. All complex operations are dong by making repetitive use ofthe above operations, The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations. Logic unit performs comparisons of numbers, letters and special characters. Logic operations include testing for greater than, less than or equal to condition. (CU) Inthe computer sy Additionally, engineers can design the ALU to perform any type of operation. However, ALU becomes costlier as the operations become more complex because ALU destroys more heat and takes up more space in the CPU. This is the reason to make powerful ALU by engineers, which provides the surety that the CPU is fast and powerful as well. 13.2 Control Unit at fetched from the primary memory, 4 to etion is completely executed. It helps to y ins bers of entire instructions. Itis also nu! P Pointer (IP) in the Microprocessors, regis which recent! pe fete 14. MEMORY UNIT 4 : ved to load and run applications, such ag Memory is Oe ram, respond to commands, such as any edit, spreadsheet Pg eadsheet, ot toggle between multipy wwe made in The ‘chen we left the spreadsheet to check rogram such a6 being actively used by our computer aay is almost alwal ror] Peed) (a ————— : L RAM | ROM wn 4 DRAM 1 prom {Magnetic I spam | EPROM Opt U EEPROM. a Fig. 1.19: Types of Memory A memory unit is the collection of storage units or ean together. The memory unit stores the binary information in form of bits. Generally, memory/storage is classified into *¥° categories: Primary memory and Secondary memory. et il \ } | | 444 Primary Memory Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is used to store data and instructions during the processing of data. Primary memory is semiconductor memory. Primary memory is of two kinds: i, Random Access Memory (RAM) fi, Read Only Memory (ROM) ‘Random Access Memory (RAM) RAM (Random Access Memory) is the hardware in a computing device where the operating system (0S), application grams and data in current use are kept so they can be quickly reached by the device's processor. RAM is the main ‘memory ina computer. It is much faster to read from and write tothan other kinds of storage, such as a hard disk drive (HDD), solid-state drive (SSD) or optical drive. ‘Random Access Memory is volatile. That means data is retained in RAM as long as the computer is on, but it is lost when the ‘computer is turned off. When the computer is rel i, the OS and other files are reloaded into RAM, usually from an HDD or ). Because of its volatility, RAM cannot store permanent_ data. RAM can be compared to a person's short-term memory, and a hard disk drive to a person's long-term memory. Short term memory is focused on immediate work, but it can only keep a limited number of facts in view at any one time. RAM is similar in concept to a set of boxes in which each box can hold a0 or a 1, Each box has a unique address that is found by counting across the columns and down the rows. A set of RAM boxes is called an array, and each box is known as a cell. Tofind a specific cell, the RAM controller sends the column and Tow address down a thin electrical line etched into the chip. Each row and column in a RAM array have its own address line, Any data that's read flows back on a separate data line. RAM is physically small and stored in microchips. It's also Small in terms of the amount of data it can hold. Page 1.19v gig. 120: Random Access Memory ig. 1.2 «wo primary forms: Dynamic Random RAM come iP ttc Random Access Memory (6 aa Memory ORAM on Memory (D Takes up the ag device's RAM, and as was previoush Le wre a pase j ison to retain stored data. Fack Dene } it needs # Fae orlack of charge held in an electrical capaciton cell caste vnust be constantly refreshed with an electron, mai ey few milliseconds to compensate for Teaks from the caper, ‘A transistor serves as a gate, determining whether a capacitors value can be read of written. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) also needs constant power to hold on to data, but it doesn't need to be continually ~ refreshed the way DRAM does. InSRAM, instead of a capacitor holding the charge, the transistor acts as a switch, with one position serving as 1 and the other position as 0. Static RAM requires several transistors to retain one bit of data compared to dynamic RAM which needs only one transistor per bit. Asa result, SRAM chips are much larger and more expensive than an equivalent amount of DRAM. Read Only Memory (ROM) Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of storage medium that Permanently stores data on personal computers (PCS) am other electronic devices. It contains the programming needed fe me recrttich is essential for boot-up i panos input/output “tasks and holds programs or softwate instructions. This type of memory is often referred 10 firmware’ —how it is altered has been a source of desgt | Page 1.20 ne consideration throughout the evolution of the modern computer, ROM is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. Fig, 1.21: Read Only Memory The various types of ROMS are: « PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): PROM is read- only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is n ble. * EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no Teakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker. EEPROM. ically Erasable and Programmable Read Onl: Memory): EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and Programming take about 4 to 10 milliseconds, In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMSs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the Process of reprogramming is flexible but slow. Page 1.21secondary storage device refers to any non-volatile storage ice that is internal or external to the computer. It can be any forage device beyond the primary storage that enables nent data storage. A secondary storage device is also known as an auxiliary storage device, backup storage device, er 2 storage, or external storage. These devices store virtually programs and applications on a computer, including the perating system, device drivers, applications and general user data and instructions that are currently not being used by PU, but may be required later for processing, are stored in dary memory. Secondary memory has a high storage pacity than the primary memory. It is also cheaper than the memory. It takes longer time to access the data and ons stored in secondary memory than in primary R uM | a 14.2. Secondary Memory j ies | prover | ROM isa non-volatile is | paisa volatile memory which could, memory which could retain the data even, | ptm | Re data as 098 2 | when power is tumed retention | oweris supplied: | off i snrAMcan | Data stored i yred in RAM c inROM ening [D285 y atered. | only beread, | Peay, iter | Used to store the data It stores the instry | | that has to be currently | required during al | Use by CPU bootstrap of the | | temporarily. computer. ‘| a < | Itisa high-speed It is much slower | Spee | emery the RAM. al ‘The CPU cannot access | cpu | TheCPUcanaccess the | thedatastoredonit Interaction | data stored on it. unless the data is stored | | inRAM. | Sizeand | Largesize with higher | Small size with less Capacity | capacity. capacity. Used asin | PU Ceche, Primary | Firmware, Micro- es controllers Accessytty | TM data stored is easily | 1864808 Screen cs |e data stored is easly | ve 4 RAM Cost . ade ere Cheaper than RAM. Table 1,1 RAM vs ROM hi | Pave 122 Fig, 1.22: Types of Secondary Storage Devices Secondary storage media can be fixed or removable. Fixed ge media is an internal storage medium like a Hard Disk ; ae Ste Disk (SSD) that is fixed inside the computer. A ge medium that is portable and can be taken outside the mputer is termed removable storage media. The main benefit Page 123of removable fast dat . ations (SANs). V: devices include: Optical Memory cards, Floppy 4 Paper storage (punched tap a of using secondary storage devices is that, under the direct control of the operating system. For example, many organizations store their archival data or critical documents on secondary storage drives, which their main network cannot access to ensure their preservation whenever a data breach occurs. Since these drives do not interact directly with the main infrastructure and can be situated in a remote or secure site, it is unlikely that a hacker may access these drives unless they're physically stolen. factors is that they can provide I . ns associated with storage area a transer aS movable secondary. stora arises (CDs, DVDS, Blu-ray discs), icke, Magnetic tapes, Disk packs ang cz, punched cards). disks in storage Sequential Access Secondary Storage Devices In computing, Sequential Access Memory is a class of data storage devices that read their data in sequence. Sequential access devices are usually a form of magnetic memory. While sequential access memory is read in sequence, accesses can still be made to arbitrary locations by “seeking” to the requested. location. This operation, however, is often relatively inefficient, Magnetic sequential access memory is typically used for secondary storage in general-purpose computers due to their higher density at lower cost compared to RAM, as well as resistance to wear and non-volatility. Example of sequential access devices still in use include magnetic tapes. Historically, drum memory has also been used, * Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape memories are similar to the commonly used audio tape recorders. The tape medium on which data is recorded is sealed in a cartridge. The method of recording data js magnetic surface recording using a magnetic recording head. Magnetic tape is a serial access medium and so data cannot be randomly located. Fig. 1.23: Magnetic Tape Direct Access Secondary Storage Devices A direct-access storage device is another name for secondary storage devices that store data in discrete locations with a ique address, such as hard disk drives, optical drives and t magnetic storage devices. Direct-access storage devices low the host computer to access data directly from wherever is stored within the storage device because each data chunk saved in a discrete and separate location from other chunks, iplete with a unique address. This allows the computer to irectly point to that location to get the data. © Magnetic Disk A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization Process to write, rewrite and access data. It is covered with a ‘magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks, spots and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and floppy disks are common examples of magnetic disks. i. Floppy Disk: A floppy diskisa flexible disk with a magnetic coating on it, and it is packaged inside a protective plastic envelope. Early computers did not have CD-ROM drives or USB; floppy disks were the only way to install a new rogram ona computer or back up your information. These are among the oldest portable storage devices that could store up to 1.44 MB of data. Although there are still a few Page 1.25soppy diskettes, they are nop saays due tO Very Tittle meng 1 nowat 2000s, computers No longer shi ards © diehard commonly rae fick driv storage with fpr ERY Microsoft Winde ie eR mn internal floppy rive with them, ce and all the latest. Versigng | no longer include supp X | Fig. 1.24: Floppy Disk ii, Hard Disks: Itis a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data using magnetic storage, It is a non volatile storage device that can be modified or deleted _ n number of times without any problem, Most of the computers and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. Hard disk drive comprises a series of circular disks (just like phonograph records) called platters arranged one over the other almost ¥4 inches apart around a spindle. In every hard disk, the data is , recorded electromagnetically in the concentric circles ot we can say track present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a phonograph arm (but fixed in a position) to read the information present on the track The read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. | Itranges from a few GBs to a few and more TB. ' | : | Page 1.26 RE Oo aT Fig. 1.25: Hard Disk Drive The disk is divided into tracks, Each track is further divided into sectors. The point to be noted here is that outer tracks are bigger in size than the inner tracks but they contain the same number of sectors and have equal storage capacity. This is because the storage density is high in sectors of the inner tracks ‘whereas the bits are sparsely arranged in sectors of the outer tracks. Some space of every sectors used for formatting, So, the actual capacity of a sector is less than the given capacity. 2, mote See a Fig. 1.26: Hard Disk Architecture Page 127 ——«Optical Disk An optical i technigu computer st beams to read Bete Drive CD stands for Compact Disk, CD, i 2 iti, ~~ @ Flash memory Devices y computer disk that uses optical Stora, ygy to read and write data, If s es and teat stores data digitally and usgg ja oN write data, Following are some optical ck is a jnole It is a cheaper and Portable storage device. It is the most ‘commonly ied device to store data because is more reliable ar disks that use optical rays, usually lage, circul . hat and write data. They are very cheap as you can ce for less than a dolla 700 MB of storage space for 1. CDs cee in CD drives built into the CPU cabinet, are are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the a snd carry it with you. There are three types of CDs. Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with an integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these devices to our, ‘computers and pate ted ee data into them in a much faster and efficient way. These devices are v from 1GB to 256GB cially tad i SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, ic a. CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory): The like HDDs. It is more durable Geiss does ice manufacturer recorded the data on these CDs. optical disks inside like hard disks. It needs less power as Proprietary Software, audio or video are released compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and has 10x faster on ED-ROMS. 7 read and write speed as compared to hard disks. But, these ». CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable): The user can ee een a ee on maalensfincicn verve data ence on the CD-R. [cana as hard drives, their internal components are much pest ater different, Unlike hard drives, SSDs don’t have any moving CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewritable): Data ae ae care Sean ot edly be written and deleted on these storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using ee tedly non-volatile storage. Since SSDs haven't any moving parts, isks. i - they do not need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB to a DVD Drive: DVD stands for digital video display. DVD few and more TB. is an optical device that can store 15 times the data ‘SD Card: Itis knownas a Secure Digital Card. Itis generally by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multi used with electronic devices like phones, digital cameras, files that need high storage capacity. DVDs also com ete. to store larger data. It is portable and the size of the SD three varieties - read-only, recordable and rewritable. card is also small 80 that it can easily fit we aie Blu Ray Disk: Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical devices, It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, media that stores high definition (HD) video and other ‘multimedia files, BD uses a shorter wavelength laser than CD/DVD, enabling the writing arm to focus Sghtly onthe disk and pack in more data, BDs can UP to 128 GB of data. etc, Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. - printers, game consoles, etc. It is also used to store large amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a memory card on a computer you require a separate memory card reader. [Pent eeptisalso known as MMC jp satis generally used inveay nit c. It is an external devicg a che ., > tnuctions that are required dy, rin, The data eden are brought from the secondary ee a of da e RAM. For processing, it is r Fovces and stored in the R =a ia oy instructions are accessed from the Rane Ge inthe registers. The time taken tomove the data RAN 4 CPU registers is large. This affects the between ang ; Z rd RAM = of computer, and results in decreasing ie ince of CPU. Coche memory isa very high-speed memory placed in between RAM and CPU. Cache memory increases the speed of processing. Itis a storage buffer that stores the data that is sore ote temporarily and makes them available to CPUata te. During processing, CPU first checks cache for the ired data. If data is not found in cache, then it looks in the RAM or data. Cache memory is built into the processor, ana may also be located next to it on a separate chip between the PU and RAM. Cache memory is very expensive, and hence, willbe smaller in size, cao brown My hy 4.5 BUSES “Abus is a communication system in computer architecture that {transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers. The bus contains multiple wires (signal fines) with addressing information describing the memory Jocation of where the data is sent or retrieved. Each wire in the ‘bus carries a bit(s) of information, which means the more wires a bus has, the more information it can address. For example, a ‘computer with a 32-bit address bus can address 4 GB of memory, and a computer with a 36-bit bus can address 64 GB ‘of memory. A busis either a parallel or serial bus, and either an internal bus (local bus) or an external bus (expansion bus). i, Internal bus vs. External bus: An internal bus enables the "communication between internal components, such as a _ video card and memory. An external bus is capable of communicating with external peripherals, such as a USB or SCSI device. ‘fi, Parallel bus vs. Serial bus: A computer bus can transmit its data using either a parallel or serial method of communication. With a parallel bus, data is transmitted several bits at a time. However, with a serial bus, the data is transferred one bit at a time. The computer system makes use of different types of buses ‘such as address bus, data bus and control bus. The address bus, @ one-way pathway (ie, unidirectional) that allows information to pass in one direction only, carries information about where data is stored in memory. An address bus is a computer bus architecture used to transfer data between devices that are identified by the hardware address of the Physical memory (the physical address), which is stored in the form of binary numbers to enable the data bus to access memory storage. The address bus is used by the CPU ora direct memory access (DMA) enabled device to locate the physical eesnicate read/write commands, Ajj ard written by the CPU or DMA in the fey ‘OTM og a two-way pathway (bidirectional) ca; a 7 F i Oy eand fom thea onthe llow the CPU to direct and monitor what the different parts of The actual data (infor b ‘computer are doing. puscan transfer d ata to and from the memory of a i ; central processing unit (CPU) that aot ommunication between the CPU and control bus is necessary he A at 4 “ into or out of bus can alsOntae : running a proficient and functional system. Without the ; " nsf device's “engine.” A ae The spade which ine tion control bus the CPU cannot determine whether the system is between two computers. ‘Ormation i eiving or sending data. It is the control bus that regulates exchanged between components. is ae by a by which direction the write and read information need to go. The controller. Information coming from the , for ample, wi] | bus contains a control line for write instructions and a Slways travel at a much higher speed than data coming from ; main memory, it transmits a signal to the write command other components. e. The CPU also sends a signal to the read command line ‘Adata bus can operate asa parallel or serial bus depending, en it needs to read. This signal permits the CPU to receive or how the data is carried. A parallel bus is used in more ransmit data from main ae connections that must carry more than one bit at a time, Common examples include Peripheral Interconnect (PCI) Express and Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) connections. Data is carried on many wires simultaneously. Serial buses use a single wire to send and receive data between components, and usually consist of a relatively small amount of wires, so they're somewhat simpler than parallel connections. Common examples of a serial bus include Universal serial bus (USB) and serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) connections. Every computer also contains both intemal (or local) data buses and external Getz buses. A local data bus connects all the components ofthe otherboard, while an external one connects the motherboard ‘every other peripheral device, Th ee ps bi the control and timing signals needed to 2 computers ee OMPUlr activities, A control bus is what “ cies Processing unit (CPU) uses 4 pus equa” devices inside the machine over ast bolo shdete Lie cables or printed circuits Te it transmits command signals from [Periz Poge 133