SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMMUNICATION

DEPARTMENT OF ECE

10211EC115 Optical and Microwave Communication Systems

Question Bank with Answer

UNIT I OPTICAL FIBER FUNDAMENTALS - PART A

1. What are the advantages of optical communication?
The advantages of optical communication are 1.Low transmission losses 2.Electrical isolation 3.Small size
and weight 4.No electromagnetic interference
2. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?
The necessity of cladding for an optical fiber is i. To avoid leakage of light from the fiber , ii. To avoid
mechanical strength for the fiber. iii. To protect core from scratches and other mechanical damages.
3. List the advantages of single-mode fiber.
The advantages of single mode fiber are 1.No internal dispersion 2.Information capacity of single mode
fiber is large.
4. Define-Acceptance Angle
The maximum angle Фmax with which a ray of light can enter rough the entranceend of the fiber and still be
totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.
5. What is critical angle?
When we increase the incident angle with respect to normal, at some incidentangle, the dielectric of surface
and φ2 becomes 90 ˚ and such incident angle is called critical angle.
6. What are the conditions for total internal reflection?
The conditions for total internal reflections are: 1. The ray should travel from denser to rarer medium. i.e.
from core to clad region of the optical fiber. 2. The angle of incidence in the denser should greater than the
critical angle of that medium.
7. Differentiate between single-mode fiber and multi-mode fiber.
Single Mode fiber Multi-mode fiber
Only one ray passes through the fiber More than one ray passes through fiber at a time.
Coupling efficiency is less. Coupling efficiency is large.
LED is not suitable for single mode fiber. LED is suitable for multi-mode fiber
Intermodal dispersion is not present. Inter modal dispersion is present
Fabricating single mode fiber is difficult. Fabricating multi-mode fiber is easy.
8. Why step index single mode fiber preferred for long distance communication?
The step index single mode fiber is preferred for long distance communication because they exhibit higher
transmission bandwidth because of low fiber losses. They have superior transmission quality because of the
absence of the model noise. The installation of single mode fiber is easy and will not require any fiber
replacement over twenty plus years
9. Define-Mode-Field Diameter
The fundamental parameter of a single mode fiber is said to be the mode field diameter. It is possible to
determine the mode field diameter with the help of the fundamental LPo1 mode.
10. What are Meridonal rays?
Meridonal rays are the rays which follows zig -zag path when they travel through fiber and for every
reflection it will cross the fiber axis.
11. Differentiate between Meridonal rays and skew rays.
A Meridonal ray is a ray that passes through the axis of an optical fiber. A skew ray is a ray that travels in
anon-planar zig-zag path and never crosses the axis of an optical fiber.
12. What is meant by mode coupling?
The effect of coupling energy from one mode to another mode is known as mode coupling. The cause of
mode coupling is due to waveguide perturbations such as deviations of the fiber axis from straightness
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variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the Core-cladding interface and refractive index variations.
13. What are the methods of fiber splicing?
There are three methods of fiber splicing. They are Electric arc fusion splicing or fusion splicing
Mechanical splicing V-groove splicing or loose tube splicing.
14. Differentiate linear scattering from non-linear scattering.
Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of the optical power contained within one
propagating mode to be transferred linearly into a different mode. Non-linear scattering causes the optical
power from one mode to be transferred in either the forward or backward direction to the same or other
modes at different frequencies.
15. What are the types of material absorption losses in silica glass fibers?
The types of material absorption losses in the glass composition are 1.Absorption by impurity atoms in the
glass material 2.Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms in the glass material.
16. How do we minimize optical losses at the interface?
Optical losses at the interface can be minimized if 1.Jointed fiber ends are smooth 2.Perpendicular to fiber
axis 3.Two fiber axes are perfectly aligned.
17. What is meant by attenuation coefficient of a fiber?
If P(0) is the optical power in a fiber at the origin (at Z=0 ), then the power P(Z) at a distance z further down
the fiber is P(z)=P(0) e-αpz.
The above equation can be rewritten as αp = (1/z){P(0)/P(z)}.Where αp is the fiber attenuation coefficient
given in units of km-1
18. What is intrinsic absorption in optical fibers?
The absorption caused by the interaction with one or more of the major components of the glass is known as
intrinsic absorption.
19. What are the factors that cause Rayleigh scattering in optical fibers?
The in homogeneity’s of a random nature occurring on a small scale compared with the wavelength of the
light in optical fiber causes Rayleigh scattering.
20. What are the ways to reduce macro bending losses?
Ways to reduce macro bending losses are 1.Designing fibers with large relative refractive index
differences.2. Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
21. What are the factors that cause Mie scattering in optical fibers?
The non perfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide by the fiber imperfections causes Mie scattering in
optical fibers.
22. Define Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD).
Intra-modal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading arises from the
finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is known as Group Velocity
Dispersion.
23. What is meant by linear scattering?
Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of the optical power contained within one
propagating mode to be transferred linearly into a different mode.
24. What is waveguide dispersion?
Wave guide dispersion occurs because of a single mode fiber confines only about 80% of optical power to
the core. Dispersion arises since 20% of light propagates in cladding travels faster than the light confined to
the core. Amount of wave-guide dispersion depends on fiber design. Other factor for pulse spreading is
intermodal delay.
25. What is material dispersion?
Material dispersion arises from the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a function of
wavelength. Material dispersion is also referred to as chromatic dispersion. This causes a wavelength
dependence of group velocity of given mode. So it occurs because the index of refraction varies as a
function of optical wavelength. Material dispersion is an intra modal dispersion effect and is for particular
importance for single mode wavelength.
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PART B
1. Draw a block diagram of fiber optic communication system & describe the functions of each
component.

2. Explain the evolution of optical fiber communication.

First generation: The first generation of light wave systems uses Ga As semiconductor laser and the
operating region was near 0.8 micrometers. Other specifications of this generation are as under Bit rate: 45
Mb/s, Repeater spacing: 10 km
Second generation:
Bit rate : 100 Mb/s to 1.7 Gb/s, Repeater spacing : 50 km, Operating wavelength : 1.3 micro meter,
Semiconductor : In GaAsP
Third generation:
Bit rate : 10 Gb/s , Repeater spacing : 100 km, Operating wavelength : 1.55 micro meter
Fourth generation:
The fourth generation uses WDM techniques. Bit rate : 100 Tb/s, Repeater spacing : >10000 km, Operating
wavelength: 1.45 to 2.62 micrometer
Fifth generation:
The fifth generation uses Raman amplification techniques and optical solitions. Bit rate: 40-60 Gb/s,
Repeater spacing: 24000 km – 35000 km, Operating wavelength: 1.53 to 1.57 micrometer
3. Describe step index and graded index fibres.
Step index fiber:
 In this fiber data rate is very slow.
 The ray path of light propagation is looked like Zig Zag manner.
 Step index fiber of two types of fiber known as mono-mode fiber and multimode fiber.
 Coupling efficiency with fiber is very high.
 In step-index fiber the diameter of the core is about 50 -200 micrometers in the case of multimode
fiber while In 10 micrometers in the case of single-mode fiber.
 Attenuation is too much more.
 The refractive index of the core is high.
 The bandwidth is low.
 It is mostly used in the application of local network communication.
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Graded index fiber:

 Graded index fiber data rate is very high.
 The path of light is helical in manner.
 Graded index fiber is of only one type that are called as multimode fiber.
 Coupling efficiency is very low.
 While graded-index fiber the diameter of the core is about 50 micrometer in the case of uses
multimode fiber.
 Attenuation is less.
 The Refractive index is non-uniform.
 The bandwidth is high.
It is most commonly used in local and wide area networks

4. Discuss the various types of losses which affect the intensity of optical signal without disturbing the
shape of mode field profile. (or) Describe briefly various types of losses occurring in optical fiber.
Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs as light pulses
propagate through the length of the fiber. In optical fibers the attenuation is mainly caused by two physical
factors absorption and scattering losses. Absorption is because of fiber material and scattering due to
structural imperfection within the fiber. Nearly 90% of total attenuation is caused by Rayleigh scattering
only. Micro bending of optical fiber also contributes to the attenuation of signal.
The rate at which light is absorbed is dependent on the wavelength of the light and the characteristics of
particular glass. Glass is a silicon compound; by adding different additional chemicals to the basic silicon
dioxide the optical properties of the glass can be changed. The Rayleigh scattering is wavelength dependent
and reduces rapidly as the wavelength of the incident radiation increases. The attenuation of fiber is
governed by the materials from which it is fabricated, the manufacturing process and the refractive index
profile chosen.
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Losses due to curvature and losses caused by an abrupt change in radius of curvature are referred to as
‘bending losses. The sharp bend of a fiber causes significant radiative losses and there is also possibility of
mechanical failure.

Macro bending:
The change in spectral attenuation caused by macro bending is different to micro bending. Usually there are no peaks
and troughs because in a macro bending no light is coupled back into the core from the cladding as can happen in the
case of micro bends. The macro bending losses are cause by large scale bending of fiber. The losses are
eliminated when the bends are straightened. The losses can be minimized by not exceeding the long term
bend radii. The below figure illustrates macro bending.

Micro bending:
Micro bending is a loss due to small bending or distortions. This small micro bending is not visible. The
losses due to this are temperature related, tensile related or crush related.The effects of micro bending on
multimode fiber can result in increasing attenuation (depending on wavelength) to a series of periodic peaks
and troughs on the spectral attenuation curve. These effects can be minimized during installation and testing.

Rayleigh scattering describes the elastic scattering of light by particles which are much smaller than the
wavelength of light. The intensity of the scattered radiation is given by

where R is the distance between the particle and the observer, θ is the scattering angle, n is the
refractive index of the particle, and d is the diameter of the particle
5. Describe the material dispersion and wave guide dispersion in optical fiber.
Material Dispersion
Material dispersion is also called as chromatic dispersion. Material dispersion exists due to change
in index of refraction for different wavelengths. A light ray contains components of various
wavelengths centered at wavelength λ10. The time delay is different for different wavelength
components. This results in time dispersion of pulse at the receiving end of fiber. Figure shows
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index of refraction as a function of optical wavelength. The material dispersion for unit length
(L = 1) is given by

Figure Index of refraction as a function of wavelength

where,
c = Light velocity, λ = Center wavelength

= Second derivative of index of refraction w.r.t wavelength Negative sign shows that the upper
sideband signal (lowest wavelength) arrives before the lower sideband (highest wavelength). The
unit of dispersion is : ps/nm . km. The amount of material dispersion depends upon the chemical
composition of glass.

Waveguide Dispersion
Waveguide dispersion is caused by the difference in the index of refraction between the core and
cladding, resulting in a ‘drag’ effect between the core and cladding portions of the power.
Waveguide dispersion is significant only in fibers carrying fewer than 5-10 modes. Since
multimode optical fibers carry hundreds of modes, they will not have observable waveguide
dispersion. The group delay (τwg) arising due to waveguide dispersion

Where, b = Normalized propagation constant k = 2π / λ (group velocity)

Normalized frequency V,

The second term is waveguide dispersion and is mode dependent term..

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As frequency is a function of wavelength, the group velocity of the energy varies with frequency. The
produces additional losses (waveguide dispersion) and the propagation constant (b) varies with wavelength,
the causes of which are independent of material dispersion
6. With neat diagram, explain the fiber Splicing Techniques.

1. Fusion Splicing

Mechanical Splicing

2.1 V-Grooved Splicing

2.2 Elastic-Tube Splicing

7. Discuss about different types of connectors with a neat sketch.

Butt-jointed connectors
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Expanded beam connectors

8.Consider a 20 km long optical fiber that has an attenuation of 0.8dB/km at 1310 nm. Find the optical power P out,
if 200μW of optical power is launched into the fiber.
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9. The optical power launched into the fiber is 20µw.The transmission distance is 20km.The optical power at the
output of the fiber is 50 µw. Calculate the signal attenuation per unit length and the overall signal attenuation.