BOARDS 2024

for #BPARMY

CHEMISTRY
SHORT NOTES

made With
By-Bharat Panchal Sir
&
Telegram-Bharat Panchal sir Chemistry
Guruji
Unacademy-Bharat Panchal
-

= so

&
↳ Instagram-bharatpanchal 92
 2
Chapterwise one shot
of class 12 Chemistry
Chapterwise PY . .

&q
Class 12 Chemistry
S
·

INDEX-

Haloalkanes and Haloarene -

:3
1
Alcohol, Phenol and Ethers - .5
3

5 -

9
solution -

Electrochemistry -
9 -
12
12 15
Chemical Kinetics -
-

d-and -Block elements -

15-19
Co-ordination compounds -@
20 -
23

Amines >
-
23 -
26

Aldehyde, Ketones and Carb Acid- .

26-30
Biomolecule -
31 -
35

To help in our

Journey
, you
can donate
Haloalkance R-I) R-BU > R-U > R-F ①
Hydrogen atom im
· B Pt.
Order >
-

aliphatic hydrocarbons replaced by ·

M P+
.

of pisomer is more than that of

halogen . Ortho and meta due to .
symmetry
R-X (X = F 4, Br, I)
, the
·

density increases with increase in

Classification : >
no
of carbon atoms , halogen atoms and
10 R-CH, X
-

atomic mass of the halogen atom

.

· Haloalkanes--2 :

Re-CH-X
·

Solubility Although Haloalkanes, are polar

but they can not form
Hydrogen bond
> 3
-
Ry-C-X with water molecule hence they are
X insoluble in water and soluble in Organic
·
Allylic Halide -
I solvents
-

CH CH-CH2 = -X Ly Finkel Stein Reaction

NaI> R-I + NaX
·

Benzyl Halide Vinyl Halide Anyl Halide R-X +

A cetone

X Swarts Reaction
Th
* X
<T E
-
F

- R- X
AgF HgF , Cof
,
or
SbE R-F
Preparation
ICER-X +
H0

rop dol BX-pocTheBeste Properties

(X BVz In)
Chemical
=
>

e
L
NaBr H2SO4
, R-BU + NaHSO4 + HO
Elimination Reaction
,

OH KU + HO
From Alkene Mark
X
CH-Ct , CH = CH
+
y R- CH-CH
.

R-CH = CH
2
+HY ,
By
Le
R-CH Benzon'
peroxide
&
=
CH + HBL R-CH-CHL
Anti-Markonikovj
Acc -
to Saytzef Rule
Rule
Test of reaction, prefered
↑ ic C
= + Bu y BUCH -CH, Br
, /unsaturation ) In elimination
alkenes is one in which double
C-atom are more alkylated.
C C
bonded
Halogenation ; -CH-CH
Hs-Ct-CH - CHy y
+ CHjCHiCh
34 B
major
> CHy-CHTCHt
Preparation of Haloarenes CHy-CHyCA-CH >
-

CHy -CH, -CH

80 %

=
CHz
X 20 %

ErroTox
I
I Ag, KOH alcohol
High Polarity
>
-
>
-

- R-X Al .
KOH >
- Alkene > low
-

Polarity
.

X
I
--
Reaction with Metal
Lo
On
R-X +
Mg- >
Ether R-Mg-X
X
Griguard Reagent
OH /1
/
I O
I /
CH-4 +
Mg A CH-Mel
X Grig hard Reagent

Physical Properties Griguard reagent are highly reactive

and react with any source of
.P
B < Mol Mass
give Hydrocarbons
.

proton to
BP C Surface Area

BPC / Branching
 I
WURTZ REACTION Resonance in Haloarenes :
&
R-X + 2 Na + X-R PhR-R +2 NaX
I Ary Halides are less reactive towards
Nucleophilic substitution reaction because
FITTIG REACTION C-C bond acquire partial double boud

X *
due to resonance result the bond
E
as a

EXX + 2 Na +
Ether cleavage in Haloarenes is difficult than
WURTZ FITTIG REACTION halo alkanes
+ i
A,
.

it
+

x
T
i-
lit >

R-7,
-

#
R-X + [Na + X -3) her
-
is
Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction :
when an atom or

group of atom is replaced by nucleophile

Su
x
15
5

-+ + No 2 + :
leaving group .

Su (Unimolecular Nucleophilic SN2 (Bimolecular Nucleophilis)

CH CH3 H
-

Steps ↑ H

, no [H0 ...... 4]
I

⑭ (B -
Br = ch- + Bo · c -
a + -

ins it it /

Hori
CH3 Chz
⑲
I
I
++ OH
by C OH
>
-

CHz
-
-

c
CH5
'cH -
'CHs
Reactivity : 720710
3
order Reactivity Order 1072 % 30
·
Polar Protic solvent is used ·
Inversion of Conti takes place
·
Racemisation takes place ·
Nucleophile attack from opp-side
Aq, NaOH
, R-OH + KX
RONG Williamson Syn Electrophilic Substitution Rxn
; R-O-R + Nay
is outhoand
KIN
R-CN + KX
Halo group on benzene wing
;
para directing due to
+R esfect
AgCN- R-NC +
AgX C
Xz/feNy
+I
I
- = X
KNOz >
#i
-

> R-ONO + KX
Halogenation
AgNOs * 4
> R-NO2 + AgX e

+
NO
_

I
COUs HNOs
#I
.
-

R-X -

Y
,

Conc
/A> H2SO4
R-NHTHX
-
·

INO2
C
"So H
I
-
Conc H2SO4 I

AGX Hi E
,
.

R-C00Ag R-COOR' + - >

-

,
+
,

'Sop
Y
KCN is bredominantly ionic the attachment a
CH
CH C
I
,
I -

-
takes place mainly through carbon atom >
-

All
lit ,
Autry -C

'Cy
3
.

and thus form cyanide U

is covalent in nature Con
+N
CH, COC
AgCN >
*
1 1
-OCHs
-

nitrogen is free to donate the ec Anhy Alsts .

pair forming isocyanide .

Para isomer is the major product
 Alcohol ,
Phenol and Ethers
Alcohol Phenol Ether
HCHO
i) RMg X
> I' alcohol
Of ii) H2O /H +
R-H HR-OH [ R-0-RI

-RMg
RCHO 2
:
alco e
>
stri str si
109
0
-H -
is RMg*
I

-
~
..

-
ke CH R-CO-R Alco e .
↳

CH
-
3
-T
ch
- "
>
-
>
11 7 .
+

due to
due to double due to Lucas Test (Lucas Reagent HU + InC)
IP-LP
bond character bulky alkyl
repulsion I'alcohol 2
:
alcohol I' alcohol
and sp" hybridised .
group

Types of Alcohol
R-CH-OH +HU

↓ zuc
R-CH-OH +HY
d -OH + He

je Le ze ↓ zucz ↓ zucz
R-CH -4 + H R
Re O
RYCH-OH R-CH 4 + He R
,
, 4+
-

ROCH-OH -
-

C OH
R-
, Turbidity
Alcohol appears on Turbidity appear Turbidity
Benzyl Vinyl Alcohol in min
Allel Alcohol heating 5 .

appears
immediately
.
CHy-CHICH-CH, -OH [CHe-OH CH = CH-OH

Methods of Preparation Preparation of Phenol

Toe
e
CH -
4 + 99, KOH >
-

CHz-OH TKU
E
101 + NaOH ,
Na
,
from Compound
Carbonyl

SO3H
P
CHz-C-H +He
ArPt CHy-CH, -OH X
O
H Lo,I
II
A
Nell
,
CH3-C-CHy + H CHz-CH-CHs NH2
ND/H
10
- C-
Los LocI
O ,

R--OHGAlHa
0 -5 C
°

< R-CH
HO
Cumene Process Cis
Acid Catalysed ,
from Alkene : Ch COOH
-°
-

o
lol,
Y Hydration CH -
CH-CH3 ,
, , I
+/Ho
Kol
-

#5 CHz-I
C-

vi Ley
-
= < + 40
+ Os -

Hydroboration Oxidation Ryn -

Physical Properties
(BHs) - (CH-CH -CHEB Due to
strong hydrogen bonding blo
·

CHy -CH =
CH +
,
molecules
of alcohol, they have higher
CH-CH2-OH + Hy BO /) H20c OH-
,
bpt
alkane
as

having
comp are & to molecules of
same molecular mass.

from Griguard Reagent :

·

As molecular weight increases

O 0 MgBy let also increases and
H-C H + H, 0 >
-
surface area
-H
(HyMg BU
-

+ >
-
H- there is increase in van der
CHs Waal force. As R
a esult m pt
Mg <Op
.

CHy-CH2OH +
increases.
 incssee
The bptof Phenoincreases
HU
·
with
G
>
CH5-4 H0
-

+
anhy 2nd
*
.

HI

Nature of Phenol : Redpx C2Hs + I + H2O

PUs
Cats-C + POU
(OH) 10) 2 ) 3. HC
°
x +
order of acidity ,

electron
withdrawing group like NO
-

SOM
-
X -CHO -COOH increase acidic , GH5-4 + SO
,
+ HU
, ,

to -I
strength due effect while
NH3
electron donating group like -R , -OR >
C2H5-NH2 + HO
zuCz
decrease acidic strength due to +I
NG
effect C2Hs-OH
-

> C2H5-ONG
Na IONG
X
y
Loy t H2 CHsCOOH
ONG y CHCOOGHs
NaOH
Loy
X
, + HO H2SO4
In 413K
> <qHy-O-GHs
/-
- 1 0 1 + Zno
Distillation -
#
NH3 --
NH2 CHCHO &B CH COOH
>
y
zuCz 1/I + HO
OH H2SO4 CH
l
443KYCH +H O
=
PUst ,

I
2 ,

/
I
-
T
Ko + H O
,

Los -COU
NAOH Ex 100-EY
Cl

573K
Y CHCHO + H
>

OH
BUz
Br /I- By
Water
Y s

1
-
Iz + NaOH CHIs
-Be
2 4 6 Tri
, ,
-

① xidation
bromo
OH OH Phenol
BUz
-- Br

E
I
-
Los + E
CS2 Palcohol Aldehyde
0. and D-Bromo Phenol
: Alcohol
2 I Ketone
OH
Conc HNOs 50]
.

NOL/I- NOz No Ray

Alcohol
-
y
lo I
-
30 >
-
conc H2SO4
YNO
.

R-O-B'CnHantsO
,

2 ,
4 6
,
-
Trinito Phenol Ethers
Conc H, SO4

orsogt To
.

Preparation
y
-
+

99, the

Los NO2of
HNOs H
Dehydration of Alcohol
·
--
Conc
-/
2(CH5 OH) S-
C2H5-0 GH5 -

OH 'NO2
KOLBE'S NaOH + CO2 /-
C
- COOH 413K
Reaction
Y 101 salicylic
2(kH5 4)
H +

AggO (H5-0-GH5
- Acid · - + x
OH
Reimer-Tiemann CHUz KOH
+ &
salicyldehyde

I
- - CHO
RXN Ht
Y 101
-
Williamson Synthesis (SN2)
0-R' R-O R' + NaX
R-X
.
>
-
O +N -

NacCu 07

Ky
Oxidation Rxy I' ether will form
,
Y
Benzoquinone
·
If alkyl halide is
Hiso ,
is 30 alkene will form
·
If alkyl halide
!
 ②
Ke
OCHs
Chemical Properties S
Brc in CH COO
, X
C
Bu
e

I
Bromination 10
-X
+

Ethers are less reactive than alcohols

is Ortho and
Oct
Alkoxy ion bara
Oct
·

Conc HNOz ↳ NO
the
activates
Tol
it
directing benzene
.

- 1 I + ,

OCH
O
Sub H SO4
Sing electrophilic . conc -I
towards .
,
X

+ ↑ - no
:OCH3 OCHy
O, Los
I
II
OCHs ,

/#
I
L- /-
OCHy
-xfll/
↳) 1
-

CHGame As a Lo
xx I
L--CHy
..
E Y I

↑
,

:CH
L-
El Ex
&
=>
R-O-R + HX > R-OH + R-X
CHy--4
-

/an

R -

HX EC Acylation
> Als
L
-
+ R x
.

- (
+ -

OCHs
OCHy f

Ko,
-
Coch
order of reactivity HI < HBO > HC -

1I
,
O +

YOCH
forHelpcan donee
,

Polyhalogen SOLUTIONS
compounds is
-t
↓ a homogeneous mixture of two or

pure
more substance
in
Svent-Dissolvea
th Chloroform (Trichloromethane, CHUs) solute Dissolved i

C Hy + 3C4 night > CHUz + 3U4

smaller Quantity
.
controlled
oxidation
.
e
g Sugar ,
Salt .
e
g Water , Milk .

- Iodoform (triiodoform , CHI3)

CHyCOCHy +
372 + &NaOU -
CHIyX + 3NaI + CHyCOONG
+
3 Ho
Carbon Tetra Chloride [CC(+ ]

is CH4 Sunlight C4 + THC

+ #42 ,

ii) CHU + 42 s C4 + CHC

CDP is a ,
,
colourless non-inflammable poisonous liquid ,
soluble in alcohol and ether
.

Usesasolvent for
oils ,fats,resinxtinguisher >
- solution exit in Single phase
> Particle size in solution is less than 1 um
DDT (bb' - Dichloro Diphenyl trichlow ethane)
-

Dilute Solution :
Large amount Solvent
of
-
goodt
4
- concentrated Solution : Small amount of Solven
-'
K
is
-

-
Chloral
2 2-bis 14-chloro
, Aqueou Solution Solvent Water
Chlorobenzene Phenyl)
Solution : Solvent is other
1 , 1, 1 -

richlow ethane Non-Aqueous

than
-

water

·
Mass Percentage (t) =

Mans
g solute in sol
x100
Pressure No significant effect .

⑥
of solution
Volume Percentage Volume of Solute insol HENRY'S LAW The partial pressure
(b) :
-
X10o
the in vapour phase is proportional
volume Solution
of of gas
in solution.
to the mole fraction of gas
massbyVolume (W) : Maxi
Volume
of solute
of Soln
see
is
X loo
p :
Kn Kn is Henry's Constant ·

Parts Per million (ppm). part of componentyo

all component soll
·
value of kn increases with increase in temp
.
of
Mass Fraction
·
solubility decrease with increase in KH
(x)
solutenation
=

Effect of temperature :

As dissolution is an
Mole Fraction (K) = exothermic process i.e solubility of
Gases in Liquid decrease with increase
Un
An ((B
:
:

in temperature.
th
Unitless
AtC(B = 2 ,
mole fraction is a
quantity
.
Vapour Pressure : the bressure ,
exerted

Molarity (M) Number of moles of solute by the vapour m

per like of solution

. equilibrium with the
Liquid/solution at
a particular temperature
gmoles &solute
M:
= WB X
m
factor
. Weaker intermolecular forces greater
i the vapour pressure
molL" or
.

Unit =
M or Molar
·

Temperature T, V P also
. increases
.

Molality (m) : Number of moles of solute

per kg man of solvent 2 Molarity depends upon temperature but

molality doesn't
ofsolute = W
m-gmdes
X
g , Application of Henn's Law e

Relation ship blw Molarity and Molality :

·
Scuba divers suffer from bende
·
Climbers suffer from anoxia
.
M-
> Molarity
dMMBcmKg)
M :
M-molality RAOULT'S LAW :
partial Vapour The
MB - Molar
a
a
in
Kg component is equal
,
pressure of a

to the yapour pressure of that

SOLUBILITY : Maximum amount that can
component in pure state multiplied
be dissolved in a specific
by the mole fraction of that component .

amount of solvent at a specific temperature.

PA =
baXia PB bX)(B =

Factors Affecting SinL

for Volatile solute For Non-Volatile Solut

Solule and Solvent - Polar

Nature of
PT =
PA + PB Pt =
PA
solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non
bolar solutes dissolve in Non-polar P PAAXCIA
:

solvents. i e
.
like dissolve like .

temperature
Effect of
Exothermic AH : -Ve Endothermic Atitre

Solubility decreases solubility increases

with increase in with increase in
temperature temperature
 B Ot q Solution
⑰
Tb +
.

Neb: KABX100g <i + BP a e

Solvent

Ko-molal
elevation
constant
Ou

E
ebullioscopic
constant
me
molality
Note-value
-

of Kr
depende
upon
nature of
Solvent

Freezing Point (ATS)

Depression in F Pt of
Azeotrope
.

: These are liquid mixture

a solution

which distil over without change containing a non-volatile solute is always

i composition lower than F P+
.

& pure solvent and

the deviation are known as win. this difference in freezing pointh

in
poiling azeotropes
called depression freezing point .

g C2HsOH HO
.
e +

A Tf =
k1W
h
-

deviation are known as max .

i]
m 1 =

boiling azeotrobes .
e
g HNOs
+
HO * Tf =
K
used to calcul-
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES -
ale M2 for
normal
Depends upon number of moles of solute
. molecules
Relative lowering of Vapour Dressure Relative

lowering of vabour pressure is equal to

Kf - molal depression or
Cryoscobic
constant
the of solute in the solution constant
mole
fraction .

Pi P
BX Tof
-

>
- =C =
Al =
T1 -

pi
of V P i colligative broberty
not a if freezing point of bure solvent
Lowering
-
.
=

-
RLVP is a colligative Property T =
freezing point of solution

pi-V.P of bure solvent

-
mass of solute
KFXM
ATf =

M= Molar Mass & Solvent

P V P & Solution
-
-

+NWBBN
.

Wi -
Mass & Solvent M2-Molar Mass & solute .

g
Elevation in Boiling Point => My -
B Ot-

of solution
containing a non-volatile solute is
OSMOTIC PRESSURE :
always higher than
boiling pointa
pure solvent and this difference in External pressure used to stop
boiling point is called elevation osmosis
in boiling point A Tb =
Tb-Th i =
LIRT
V
* Tb = KbM
5 M = 1 RXT
MB =

ATb = Kb V
 ↑
D egree
of Association (X) and Van't Hoff factor (i)

③
Ifa molecules of a substance A associate to form An
T =
Osmotic pressure = Temperature
T and x is the degree of association then ,

R Ga Constant An

editen
HA
V Volume
= -

enikalebnamEme E
=

used to calculate M2 for macromolecules

ISOTONIC SOLUTION :
i association dissociation
have
= 1 no or

Two solution same

it particles undergoes dissociation
Osmotic pressure (π) ike particles undergoes association

eg Daline Solution (0 9 % ) .
and Blood
. ·
calculate the molarity of 9 8 % (wlu) .

solution of H2SO4 if the density

YA7 TB
& the solution is 1 029ML <Molar
.

El ↳
Solu
Hypotonic Solution
mans of HSO4 905M01")
C
Hypertonic
:

have High Osmotic Have low osmotic Man of Solute =

9 89 .

bressure pressure Man d Solution :

1009
Reverse Osmosis Density of Solution : 1 . 02
9 mL-
When a pressure more than Sol
the is applied to the
: Vol of Soll :

osmotic pressure
solution solvent may pass from the
Sol
Density of
,

into 98
solution the solvent through
Hagmc 039ML
:
=
. : 0 0984
.

the semi-permeable membrane

e
g desalination of sea water
.

*
Number of moles Solute
of ,
n :

9 : 01 . bl i

ABNORMAL MOLECULAR MASS

Molarity
Aero
Moles ofSolee
:
In some cases ,
observed colligative properties deviate from their normal
calculated values due to association or dissociation of
molecules

-Pag
.

Colligative Property < - = 102M

MB

Higher values observed in case of association

ef benzene
Lower values observed in case
of dissociation e g KC
.
·
for a 5 % solution of Urea (Molar Mass

VAN'T HOFF FACTOR (i)

ratio of observed value of
=
609/moll calculate the osmotic

colligative property to the calculated value of colligative pressure at 300K 2020

0821( atm +-mol1)

property
.
TR : 0 .

i
&
served ColligativePropea
berty Am
or 1 = normal molecular mass -
Molality (m) of urea solution
observed molecular mass

1000 somm
or
= no of particles after association or dissociation ·

number of particles initially

T
Colligative Property and Van't Host factor
ATb

ATF
=

=
i kom
KAM
i for
KCI +E,
strong electrolyte
NaU = 2
MqSOy
,
like
=
2
000 On
a

π I CRT
K2SOn 3
Aly(SOn)s 5 Osmotic pressure (i) CRT
= = =

, =

is
OPs = e

= 0 .
877 X 0 0821X 300 . = 2 1 6 atm
.

Degree of Dissociation (4) and Van't Holf factor (i) h

if one molecule of a substance gets dissociated into Calculate the
·

solubility of CO2 in
I particles and < is the degree of dissociation then water at 248K under 760 mmHg .

Ckn for in water at 298K is

!·
A - Up CO2
initially 1 mol D
1 25 X 106 mm +eg)
.

At 09 .
1 X -
Ux

e
Total no gmoles
equilibrium
at
= 1-4 + <
af C0.
Solubility : =

I45 60s
 < Electrochemistry 3 = Salt
Bridge $ its functions : ④
Electrolyte : Those substance which dissociate into ions a U-shaped
concenterated
glass
sol
tube
containing
of an
in their aqueous soll on
passing electricity are known as
inert electrolyte like KIKNO3
electrolyte egNace
, ke K2501 in agar- agar form
Non-Electrolyte :
Those substance which whose one end is dipped
in beaker and
2nd end
doesn't dissociate into ions in their
one

is dipped in another beaker

.

aqueous solution on
passing electricity
is known as non-electrolyte
.
e
g Sugar Urea Glucose function
passage of one electrolyte into
,
i) Prevent the another
,
.

ii) It complete the inner cell circuit.

iii) It maintains the electrical neutrility of soll in both half

cells.
iv) used to connect both the beakers
.
which dissociate
into ions
.
completely
which dissociate partiea

.
e
g HU HNOs , H2SO4 Ch e .

G NHAOH CaCOM),
Electrochemical Cell/Galvanic Cell/Voltaic Cell : -

, .
,

It is used to
CHyCOOH etc convert chemical energy into electrical
energy
.
.

CONDUCTORS beakers
·
we take two

Metallic Conductors Electrolytic Conductors Ist beaker we

In take In
·

rod dipped in Insof sol"

·
flow of
electricity is due to the flow of electricity is due to ·
In Ind beaker we take
flow of ex the flow of ione .
Cu rod dipped in CUSO - sol"
electronic Also known as ionic
Also known as
Bridge b used to connect
·

conductors.
·

Salt
conductors.
both the beaker
·
electricity takes place· Flow of electricity takes place
flow of
Oxidation takes place at
without the decomposition of by the decomposition of
·

substance substance . zu rod in Ist beaker

·
The electrical conduction decreases
. The electrical conduction increases
·
Reduction takes place at ca
increase of temp. God in and beaker
withincrease oftemperaturea
with ·
Oxidation half Rxu
.

because increase of temp ,

increase zn >
- T+ Lee
which
produce hinderance in i dissociation or decrease 'm ·
Reduction half Ryn
the flow of electron
- interionic attraction
-
Cuf+ + 28 > Ce
-

well
low as as
Heigh Only low voltage of current &
· ·

Overall In + Cuf + > In

- + h

voltage of current pass can can bass

through electrolytic
metallic conductors Conductor
through
fe, Al . Naok
g Ag g Na4 etc
.
e ete e
. .
,
,
Electrode Potential
the tendency of an electrode to either
Factors
Influencing Electrolytic Conduction
· :
lose or
gam eo when it is placed in its own solution
.

S
>
Nature of Electrolyte
-
:

larger the no -

of ions more is conductance ↓ ↓

Oxidation Potential Potential
,

Nature of Solvent :
Reduction
>
electrolytes ionize in in
-

The water but not electrode electrode

The tendency of an The tendency of an

organicsolvents likebenzenebecausewatere polarwhesa to lose ea to

gain eo

Polar solvents
-
STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE (S H E) Device which is . .
used to
calculate standard electrode
res
>
solute-Solvent attractions/solvation or
Hydration : Potential electrode
-

of any .

solvation of ions lesser is conductance

larger the
,
>
- It can act as oxidation
both
as well as Reduction Potential .

>
Temperature :

because the tempincreases ,theconductance a

-

increases . As Anode
&H
+

.
e e

So , number of ions as well as the speed of ions increase

-

>
-

Dilution : ions
As dilution increases ,
the number of of a
weak 2 H+ +200 -
> Ha
speed increases
.

electrolyte as well as their and so

conductance also increases

.

Bharat Panchal Sir Electrochemical Series

.
9 What is Cell ? Arrangement of various electrodes in the
Am
.
It
into
is a device which used to convert one form of energy increasing order
of standard reduction potential
.
another form of energy.

Ente
Li - Lithium - . 05 V
3
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL ELECTROLYTIC CELL
ca calcium
-

2 87V
-

- .

Al - Aluminium -
1 66 U
.

zne Zinc -
0 .
76U
Fe Iron
+
-

0 .
44 V
It Ni Nickel 0
-
25V
-
.

Livldol
-

Ob - lead -

0 13 U .

E H
Cute
-
Hydrogen 0 .
00V
C4 >
- copper +0 34V
'Gol
.

3·d

sidstis-
Ag- Silver
Br-Bromine
+ 0

H 08V .
.
SOV

34d Au - Gold ↑ I 50V .

Bharat Panchal-Chemistry Guruji 2 . o

 Application
1) Comparison of Relative Reducing Power Oxidising Power or .
Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions
⑩
·

Resistance : It is the obstruction to the flow of electric

2)
Predicting the feasibility spontaneity of Redox or a
Reaction through the conductor YOR//
current -

metal will reach with dilute is directly proportional to its (1) and length inversely
Predicting whether a will
3) It

mineral acids evolve and Not proportional to area of crossection (A)

Hydrogen gas or .

4) Activity or
reactivity of metals
. RC or R =

S
- specific Resistance
5 ) .
calculation of the EMF of a cell .
or
.
Resistivity
Unit of Resistance = ohn (2)
EM F =
Ecell :

ER-En ohm metre (2m)

of Resistivity
. .

Unit =

Ecathode EAnode
:

Conductance :
-

inverse of resistance .
·

The
Freduction Foxidation
=

B*
-

Nerust Eq
, a =
* = =
K
Dependence of EMF on concenteration of electrolyte is who -
and
Unit of conductance ohnt or or or siemens .

temperature
Nernst eq, for half cell Rxn
"
CONDUCTIVITY :
inverse of resistivity is called conductivity
·

The

MNTtheoTrM's
especific conductance)
unit :
ohm" (m-
I
G=
* When Aiknd = Lim

G : K
Em electrode potential
of metal under given condition material is its conductance
conductivity
=

of a

Em : electrode potential of metal under standard condition when it is

long
Im and its area of
R Mol cross section is 1m2
gas constant 8 314 = JK
.

: .

MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY
Temp in Kelvin
:
T
·

conductivity of all the ions

=

It is the
F Faraday constant (96500 (mol)
of an electrolyte in sol
:

produced by dis
solving 19 mole
n =
20 8 to loss or gain in reaction It is denoted Am
by
·

<m KXV Or Am
K KX
=
:
=

Em Em-
Ollig .
Molarity
=

n
y
+

Units : ohm "cm2 moltor s cm2 molt

For cell : Note

St
*

-aA + bB =CC + dD R =
called cell constant denoted by
G
*
= = RI

Ecell-allgCCTd
Ecell :

.
8 Discuss the variation of conductivity and molar conductivity
of with concentration (NCERT)

ligi
Am of strong electrolytes the molar conductivity
Ecell :

Ecell-Oral . In
increases
case

slightly with dilution as mobility of ions increase .

,

weak electrolytes dege in

Ecel-0591 lege
the
increase caseof dilution
equilibrium
=> e
of ionisation therefore there is ,
a

where Oc is concentration Quotient large increase in molar conductivity with dilution

.

Conductivity is conductance between two

At equilibrium Ecell = O and &c =
Kc opposite faces of one centimetre cube
. On dilution ,
no
of
ions cm3
ber decreases therefore conductivity decreases
Fill 91 (at 298K)
. ligKc
= 0 on dilution

CHICOOH Ni =
limiting molar conductivity
standard When concentration approaches
Maximum
molar conductivitthe
Gibbs or work done #4 =
-If Eels zeros the limiting molas
free by cell
energy KU
. conductivity

Calculate the emf of following cell at 298K :

Mg/Mg2 // Cuf
+
/Cu
10 001 M)
EmgCtINg - 2 37V
=

20 0001m)
.

KOHLRAUSCHLAW
,

Eint/u = 0 3AV.

is
Limiting molar conductivity of an

Excell ER-E) 34 -C-2 37) electrolyte the sum of individual contribution of

Am > 0 2 FIV
=
. = - . . .

anion and cation of electrolyte

.

Ai NmAt NmB-
Eiels-591 log
ise
Feel : AB = +

NiAt limiting -
molar conductivity of cation.

71-0591 ligMgET] limiting conductivity of Anion.

= 2 .
NinB : molar

Applications :

calculation of limiting molar conductivity of weak

-

i)
electrolyte
F1-591 Ha
.
2
log
=
ii) calculation of the Degree of Dissociation
.

= > molarconductivityataneit.h
Degree of Dissociation () m -

CONC C - .

2 71-0 02955 =2 68V

=
.
.
.

iii) Calculation of dissociation constant of weak electrolyte:

= Calculate standard Gibbs free energy change for the

C Concentration issociation
given reaction
Cut Dissociation constant (Kc)
-
: +
In + Cu
:

zn + -

Am DG = -
HF Excel Given Exell = Hop .

=
2 X96500 X / 10
.
=

= -

212300 J mol =
-
212 3K] moll
.
 determine
BATTERIES
·
suggest a way to the Ni value of water .

which
Am
These are source of electrical energy
di di
·

-- Am CHO) = H+ + OH-
may have one or more
in series
cells connected
.

find m CHC) Aim (NaOH) and Aim (Nase) ↳

out Then
compact and
We
, Good quality battery should be light,
Min (H2O) = Mim CHC) + Am (NaOH) -Am(NaU)
is
its
voltage should not vary
PRIMARY BATTERIES
during its use
.
⑪
9 The conductivity of 0 20M
.

solution of k4 at 298K after

redationoccuronlyonceand
.

or e
use
The
0 .

0248 Sc .
m -. Calculate its molar conductivity
.
NCFRE a period of time , battery
becomes dead
An DRY CELL OR LECLANCHE CELL
Kloo
Am
08x1000
:
124SCMP is
: :
This cell consist as In cod act as ahode
(H) Terminal

is carbon rod which is

A metnatunck
Aim for are 126 4 +25 9 and and cathode
9 . Nale
,
HU and CHLOON .

,
.

Mo2
91 0 S Cm2mol"
.

respectively Calculate
Scm2mol"
N for CH COOH.
-O
· surrounded by bowdered
At Anode-
NiNaC SiNat SinC
A + 126 4 > zinc Vessel (Anode)
: = .
-

Scm2 mol - > Porous paperlining In In't tree

>
-
hi HU JiHt + did #25 9
-

: = .

At Cathode

:Graphite
e ne
Cathed
dinCHy C00- + SiNat S1 0 S ( mmol" -
-

CHyCOONa
·

am
: =

MnOL + 2NH4T 2 NH + HO
. .

+ 220 - MYO, +

we have to calculate in CHz(00H Xin CHy 100- + MinHt :

in is cell has a potential of 1 5V
. .

↳> Terminal

operating & +-0 390 5 ScMCmol = .

MERCURY CELL Anode

It consistqf zinc-mercury amalgam as .

Faraday's Law of Electrolysis :

~
Anodecab
en(ing) The cathode paste of mercuric oxide CHg0)
-

is a

tecingo
(Amalgam . The electrolyte
and Carbon powder consist of
First Law :
a mixture
The mass of substance deposit or liberated at separabe of Koll and Ino .

At Anude
any electrode e

proportional to the amount of charge

during
lecbolysis is directly In + 201- >
- Ino + HO + Reo
At cathode
-

1
passed. Hg + 2017
HgO+ HO teO
>
-

Mathematically WXQ [ I C/] =

ZnO +Hg
* WX IXt
In + HgO ->

[IX+ 09] =

W = Z NIXE
#The potential of a mercury cell is
approximately 1 . 35V
.

we mass substance deposit/liberate

of ions
& electrochemical equivalent It remains constant as in the overall cell reaction no

Armas
z :

6500
:
It current to time are involved in solution. Thus it lasts longer
.

Uses of MercuryCell
9 what do you mean by Faraday constant ? It is suitable for low current devices
like watches,
Are charge of one mole of ec
heaving aids , toys .
ete

= 6 022. X1023 X 1 .
6 X10 - 1 => 96487 (mol
(molt
Secondary Batteries
1 96500
A secondary cell after use can be recharged
Second Law : -When it
same amount of electricity passed through by passing current it in opposite direction so that can
two different electrolyte connected in series , amount be used
again A good secondary cell
. undergo large no can a .

of substance deposited at electrodes is directly proportional of discharging and charging cycles .

to their equivalent weight .

Nickel-Cadmium battery , Li-ion battery.
eg lead
storage Battery,
LEAD-STORAGE BATTERY :
AmountgAg deposit tgACa
-

it consist lead anode

of a
② and lead oxide cathode. A 38 %
Ano
I I
④
Cathode
solution of sulphuric acid acts
as
electrolyte. Each cell give

#
.
9 A solution of CusO1 is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a
the
voltage of 21 so this
current of 1 5 amperes What is th
of coppeo r cell i to give
mass sufficient
.

depo sited at cathode the

Am ,
ACC to Rxn Cu2 + + 220 > C
Voltage of 12 % . These
voltaic cells are separated
.
-

=> I

ob
- -

W = IXIXE =
an yIXt =
AX!
. 5 Xo
by thin fibre glass sheet .

UXF

During Discharging
are
10 .

29389 ,
the cell reactions
A solution of NiCNOz, is electrolysed between platinum electrodes
AT ANODE
Pb + S042 PbSO4 + 220
-

m ikel
using a
will be
current
of 5.0 ampere for 20 minutes What . mass of
deposited at the cathode ! (At man of Ni 58 7) NCERT
AT CATHODE
= .

An Acc to Reaction
-
- Nik + Ni heo >
-
PbO
,
+ So, + 44 + + 200 > PbSO+ + -

CHO
A Man 8.650X 50Xo
W IXIXE #Xt = The Overall Cell
:
= Rx :
00X
-

g 2PbS0 + + CHO
P6
Pb0g + &H
,30 , >
-

⑨ How much
charge is required current is passed through terminal
During charging the

Youapport
.

,
(i) 1 mol of Alt to Al from external source. The reactions are reveused

Matters
the electrode reaction is
Al3 ++ 300 - Al it is commonly used in automobiles, power
charge required 3f :
inverters
-

FUEL CELL :

-3x9650CEg0oltenCalSee a
-

(ii) 20 Ca
fuels
chemical energy from combustion of
.

09 9 is a
like
hydrogen methane andmethand
conved
,

If
dog of (a required =

If.
209 of a
required :
 ⑫
excient i is
highly

Kodecanoe
It is
↑
compared to the

↓
method when
efficiency of thermal bower blant
(40 % )
~ side product is water which When one or more substance undergo a
change which
Oz doesn't cause pollution . results in the formation of a new product ,
called chemical
In and oxygen reaction.
the cell
,
hydrogen
are bubbled through porous Carbon
CHEMICAL KINETICS is the branch of chemistry which
electrodes into aqueous sodium
,

hydroxide divided deals with the stuity of satee of chemical reaction

blatinum
solution .

Finely their mechanism and the conditions in which rat

or palladium acts as a catalyst
i
-

can .
altered
providing
be
⑭It was used
for electrical power
. The water vabours were
Apollo space programme ON THE BASIS OF SPEED
produced condensed and added to the drinking i) VERY FAST REACTION : Some reaction such as
·
water supply for astronauts ionic reactions occur very
At Cathode fast e .

g AgNOs + NaCl >

- AgL + NaNOz
+20 >
- HOU-
02 + 2 H0 + ii) VERY SLOW REACTION : Some reactions are
slow ie takes
At Anode months to in completion
very
Nee years
2H + +OK - >
-
THO + moisele
goRusting of ironinthepresenceo
e . air and
Overall
< H2 + Oc >
- CH, O
cell Rx

iii) MODERATE REACTION : Those reactions which are

very gloc nor neither

very fast but takes place at moderate speed

.

inversion of cane sugar

e .

g
#s CsH1206 CsH1206
< I2H22011 +
HO +

fructose Glucose
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF STEPS =>
COMPLEX REACTIONS
ELEMENTARY REACTIONS When a sequence of elementary
us the
reactions gives product called
complex reaction each step in a
The reactions taking place
,

complex reaction is called elementary Rx"

in called
.

one step are

slowest step is called rate
elementary reaction
determining .
step

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION :

is the change in molar
Chemical Kinetics
It
concentration taking
&

species parti the chemical reaction

of
per unit time .

for the reaction A > B

*
Effect of Temperature of reaction :
-

on rate -

A
disappearanceof
Rate of
of reaction increases with increase in temperature
The rate
m concgA
Arrhenius proposed an equation that related temperature
Time taken
=

-
and rate constant for a reaction quantitavely
Rate of disappearance
& B
Acc to Arrhenius Equation /

Increase inCOUCGB
.

Intercept =
109 , . A
= =

As an

-
K = Ac - EaIRT NOTE
slope =
-Ea The concentration of reactant
where
- -

2 303 & decreases , so it

the R X"
.

rate constant of log , K

K
sign while
=

represent by-re
.

,
A = Arrhenius factor/frequency the conc
of product increases
factor
it by the sign
"
So represented .
I pre exponential faity
1/ T
Ea = Activation Energy TYPES OF RATE OF REACTION :
Constant
R Universal Gas
Ea E , Ene taneous
=

enk -enk , =
-

Average Rate Rate

T =
Temp in Kelvin
Jason
.
,

change in molar conc. change in molar conc greaten

Taking
enc
In both sides reactant and product and product at a given
Ink = luAe-EaIRT
=

Ea i
of
at a given interval of time instant of time.

enK =
·
-

Ea
RT
+ InA 2 303
.

10Gk Elee =
Alg
Reaction
. Rate of
-ARR + ATP)
It
Inst
Rate of Reaction
-

d +A =

↳ At temp T
, ,
RELATION BETWEEN RATE OF REACTION AND STOICHIOMETRY

enk =
InA - I -- Q
RTI
logk =Task(e ·
Rate of Rxn
A +B > C + D

-A dB +
] +A
-
-

= = =

↳ At temp T2 &
where
is clear from stoichiometry of reaction
It
enKs
-
④ ) 2A -x C+D
SUA -EG Ea-Activation Energy
·

that the rate Of disappearance

=

of A
T R - Gas Constant
i twice the velocity of formation of <&D

operating -
 So
,
rate
of reaction can be given as below
SURFACE AREA ⑬
Rate @Ron higher
-den HAND: +A Oce
Greater the surface area of reactant
=
N i the rate of reaction . It is observed that if
,

reactant is a solid substance thenwate of reaction depends

e
q
.
5BV + BrO +
upon the size of its particles
cas . cagt cas ) Cg
A piece of wood slowly but it burns rapidly
.

burn
.
e
g.
Rate of Reaction =

-H ABrY =
-BrOj =
AH =

ABR = ATHS when cut into small pieces .

EXPOSURE TO RADIATION :

me RATE OF REACTION increases rapidly in presence

The rate of some reactions
of radiation (UV and visible

MOLL" see Moll" min -

Photons of UV and visible light having high energy
: Mo minovar =
or dissociates chemical bonds of reactants rapidly which
or MoLL hat innease the 9 ate of reaction .

Consider a
general reaction : 12th
Indark
> ance(Sloc batte
, &44 (withosio
> CC
aA + bB -
RATE LAW
Rate of Rate of Reaction is directly proportional to
reaction >
-

- dA - AdB] + d
i = =
the product of molar concentration of reactant and
each raise power their coefficient on which
dA
to
of disappearace &
rate A : -
the
rate of reaction actually depends
Product
rate of disappearanceg B
-d aA bB Rate Cons fant
:
+ >
-

actual
used & or
specific
rate
Reaction

Rated appearance of C : +
A Rate & Rxn =TA] < BJP
1X10
of disappearance of Bis
the ↳ Rate
9AtB &
TYBG
+ &D
,
rate
molon law for any reaction can not be predicted
determined
(i) Rate gRX" (ii) Rate of change in conc .

q A and theoretically but must be

experimentally
Am Rate & disappearance B ,
-B = 1X10-3 moll RATE CONSTANT :
rate constant is equal to rate
RategRxn reactant
-HdA of reaction when concentration of each
dB Ad Ed
=
= =
=

becomes unity
.
Rate & Rx"
-dB 5 X1
: 0x10-2 0 ORDER
1X1 :
.
=
= .

mol(-s-t It is the sum of powers acc to rate law

(ii) Rate &
Change in
CongA-dA =
R. O .
R = 0 5 X10- he e
.

Lulgul
expression .
Rate of Rxn = KTA) <
TBTP >
- Order =
<+ B

enties
Rate of change in Conc &C Bale
.

of Constant

&D 3XROR = 3X0 5 x

+
.

-
. 5x10
2 molls) Indicates the speed of reaction Greater the value ,

of rate constant faster is the reaction

EmmeAFFECTING
.
,

RATE OF REACTION )
·

Every reaction has a particular value of rate

constant at a particular temperature.
·
CONCENTERATION OF REACTANT:
It is observed that rate
·
) The rate constant for the same reaction differs
of decreases
reaction with time . We know that initially with temperature.
the conc of reactant is maximum so the rate of change value of rate constant for a reaction does
.

e The
in conc is also maximum
.
. As the cons
y reactant decreases
when the rate of reaction also decreases
not depend upon the concenteration of reactant
It means that the rate of reaction is
directly proportional to the conc of reactant
·
) The unit of rate constant is dependent on the
order
of reaction
.
·
TEMPERATURE OF SYSTEM :
reactions approximately increas , therale a
generally of
. MOLECULARITY OF REACTION
↑n other words the rate of ,
reaction also decreases
on
decreasing temp
. Generally , the rate of reaction mixture The total number of atoms , ions or molecules of the
increases two to three times on
increasing temp upto 20 ° reactant which collide effectively to
give product
·
NATURE OF REACTANT : is termed as its molecularity .

In a chemical reaction old bonch

broken and new bond are formed A >
- Product Molecularity 1 3
are
NHyNO2 Ne + CH, O
=
, >
-

So , the reactivity of substance depends on

Product ,
breaking and formation of specific bonds -
2A >
-
Molecularity =
C Y
&HI -H + F2
A + B >
- Product Molecularity C "INO
,
2 NO + Oc >
- 2NO, Cfast) + O > &NO
-

.
A + B+ C >
- Product , Molecularity = 3
2CO + 02 >
-
2102 C Sloc
Characteristic of Molecularity :

·
EFFECT Of CATALYST :
catalyst
·

Molecularity of a reaction is always an integer

values (a
increaseththe rat of reaction It can not have fractional or zero Zero
·
a
stance which
without any chemical molecularity implies effective collisions blu
that no
undergoing
&
them reactant molecule takes place i.e reaction doesn't
change in .

It is considered that occur at all)

.

presence of catalyst decrease judged by balanced chemical

Molecularity
· can be a
Ron
the reactant
activation energy of · for a complex reaction molecularity has no
significance
which increase
,
the rate of .
N2O5 -
<NO + EO molecularity = 1 CHI-H2 + I ,
mole = 2
 ORDER OF REACTION
⑭
↑

Integrated Rate Equation

The order of a reaction is defined as the sum of powers first Order
to which the concentivation term are raised in rate Those reaction whose rate depende upon one
law equation. concentration term of reactant .

A+2B -> C +D R > P -

Rate law R :
KEAJM [BJU (experimental . ined
Rate of Reaction < [R] Put value
of I in eqQ

.eR =a e
InR
-
=
Kt + I
order wist Aim order wat B = a
,
SUR
- =
Kt-InRo
Overall order of given reaction :
mth
OnRo-InR =
Kt
4 What is the order of reaction ?
(Integerating both
luR
.

I BS.
.
Sides =
kE
Am Rate law, R :
K [A] [B] 2

/&R KI

=
order of reaction It 25
=

Inlegerationhe
: or .

OnR 15 + I
Characteristics of Order of
=

a Reaction :

) It represents the number of species whose concentration value of

to get the I UNIT MolL-S-1
·
=

affects the rate of reaction directly

.
+ =
0 R :
Ro
,

. lg
t & 03
obtained by adding
=

·
) Reaction order can be all the exponents -
InRo =
I
of the concentrationHume in rate expression .

· The stoichiometric coefficients

corresponding to each

"X
-

species in the balanced reaction have

-
the 4
no effect on

order of the reaction

log ty
) The reaction
·
order of a chemical reaction is always (a >6)
- d
↑
defiled with thehelpofreactant concenteration e
Y
t (a-
>
-
(a- )
-

>
slowest step is determining
-

· for a complex reaction , the rate

step .

Zero Order Reaction

Zero Order Reaction :
Those reaction whose rate depends
upon zero concentration terms of reactant
KCAJH + Ughs
-

Rate :

& HC :
[NcO >
- &N + Oc R P
Rate of Reaction
·
< TRI
First Order Reaction :
Rate KTA] 2H2Oc &H, + 02 d R Kt + I
-

>
-
K
=
-

:
:

Second Order Reaction -

R :
Kt-Ro
-
dTR) : K. dt
Rate :
KTAJE Ro-R = Kt
& B S < .

Integerating both sides

=
eq C+
Os >
- CO + O
1
-

SAIRY :
K/dt
2 NO &NO + O
>
-
R
E Integeration
-
-

Kt + 1
-

=
constant
UNIT OF RATE CONSTANT
to
get the value
of I
(MOLL-1)""Sect (atml'h -
-

·
K =
K = sect
t =
0 R =
Ro ↑
, ↑
Zero order
(MOL1) Sec > MOLLY
n=
Y
0 +

K =
-
Sec -
Ro : I (
" "
First order - > "(ac- (a +1)
(moll1sect is sec
-

> >
-

ni2 K :
Put I in equation 1

Second order n= 2 K :
(Moll) Sect = molt L sect Half life of a Reaction :
The time in which the concentration
Half Order n =
K :
(mol(1) "t sect i mol [Y2 sect of a reactant is reduced to one half of its initial Cons .

It is represented by
the reaction tyz
9.

Identify order

Essenge aBieGod
(i) K =
2 3X10-5L mollst
. >
- Order = & first
(ii) ener
K :
3 X10-4 S-1 ~> Order :
1

&. The conversion of molecules X to Y follows second

order kinetics , if concentration of X is increased to t
R
:

three times how will it affect the rate of formation

8Y !
+ =

ty2 ,
R :
Rolz

A The reaction is X-> > Y

t
Rooki
:

Acc to rate law

rate : K [XJL collision Frequency o of collisions ber second
If [X) is increased to 3 times then is
ber unit volume of . It
mixture
reacting
,

rate = K[3XJC
generally denoted
by I
rate =
9 K[X]E consider the biomolecular reaction
=> 9 xrate
At B >
- Product
Thus, rate d reaction becomes a times and hence

colipsiontheor
rate of Acc to
ihneases
formation of 9 times .

:
Es
a
 Elements
PSEUDO FIRST ORDER REACTION
Reaction which are not
truely of the first order but under
d-and -Block
certain conditions reactions of first
⑲
become order are called

Pseudo first order Reactions

.
d-Block elements
eg Acid catalysed inversion of cane sugar Those elements in which the last ex
> CoH2O + GHI2Os enters in the -subshell of penultimate shell
P2H22011 + HO
cexcess)
Glucose Fructose General Electronic Configuration -
(n-1)dI-10 ns0-2
Rate : K [CIzHcO11]
Acid Catalysed hydrolysis of ethyl acetate
.

y
CH #T CaMgOH
COOCHs + H2O CHyCOOH +

(excess)
Rate :
K [CU> (00 GH5]
Both of the above reactions are biomolecular but are found
to be the first order because water is present in such a
large excess that its concentration remains almost constant
during the reaction.

P Y&
. .

.
9 A reaction is second order ,
writ a reactant How ·
is the
rate
of reaction affected
concentration of of the
subdivided into four series
reactant is They are .
NCERT (2009 , 2012 2014)
,

(i) doubled (ii) reduced to half

A :
Rate : K [A]E
(2012
[A] 29 rate K
4K9
:
: :
,
4 time
[A] :
19 ,
rate :
<[A]E AKAd : :
he
Ah
& . A first order is found is have a rate constant
K 5 5X 10-14 Sect Find half life of the reaction
.
in
= . ·

The d-block elements which the atoms or jons have

Half life for a first order Reaction 'n NCERT incomplete d-orbitals are called transition elements
.

+= : : 126X103 3zn ,Cd andHg havecompletelyfilledC-2) &-Orbis see

5 5 X10-14 other transition .
elements
.

of >3 5730X
2
& The half life for radioactive decay .
There are four series
of d-block elements
.

An archaeological artifact contained wood that had 3 d Series (Sc to In

only 80 % of the C found in living tree. Estimate 40 Series CY to (a)

age the sample 5d Series
Hg)
of NCERT
(La and Hf to
6d Series
JAC and Rf to (u)
A Radioactive decay follows first order Kinetice
Electronic Configuration : By-Bharat Panchal fix
Decay
As
[K) :
I
21 Sc-Scandium [Ar]18 3d4 .
S&

Ti-Titanium 3d 2 Us
?
5730 22. [Ar]18
Vanadian [Ar] 18 303 492
23:
-

Eos lg [A) &N57S0x0 86

+ =

: .
-
Chromium g
[A : ]18 39 4USI

25. Mn-Manganese [Ar]18 305 US3

26. Fe-Iron [Ar]18 3d 6 4SE
1845 Yequ 7
[Ar] 18 3d US
-

:
Co-Cobalt
-

27 .

28
. Ni-Nickel [Ar]18 Jd8us2
9 A first order reaction takes 20 minutes for 20 % 18
3 d 4 st
10
29. C4-Copper JAr]
decomposition . Calculate +
3d'492
Y2 C lg to = 0 0969 .
) 30. zu-zinc ↑ AU]18

:deg
Am
Cr2 + [A2]18 30445
.

:
-
>
-
24
to half
=E zu
cy3 +
>
- [Ar]1838450 (Stable due
filled tzg)
% 08
o
x0
sadn't >
-
[A2]'8 Id"US (fully filled)
9
158X10-3 [Ar]18 3d 450

sacut
= 0 0 .
11158 : 11 .

>
-

tye :

Ot =
0 69 .

-62 1 mill
. [A8]18 490
°
.
>
- 30
1 I .
158 X 10
-
3

All the Best O safe

3+
- [Ar]'839545 :
Chalf filled)
Atomic Radius
As we
from left to
right , atomic radis
e
q Tic , MUgN , FezN, Ho S6
.
and TiHi7 et

The interstitial compounds are very hard

.

O
(6
first decreases largely , then decreases slowly retain have
,

and increases in the end the series

metallicconductivity ,
high m . pt
of .

and are chemically inert

This decrease in atomic radii Alloy formation : -
in the
beginning is due to Alloys are homogeneous solid solution
the increase in Many of d-block elements
effective nuclear form alloys because
they
havesimilaratomic radie due to
where
charge with the increase in
atomic number the the alom of other metal .

with the increase in Alloys thus formed and often have high
number
20 in (n-1) & subshell
of Mopt
.

e Brass (C + In) Bronze (Cu + Sn)

the screening
effect of these d-electrons on the outermost g .

,
Us-electrons also increases
. This increased screening By-Bharat Panchal fix
Magnetic Properties :
effect counterbalances the effect increased nuclear of Tiamagnetic substances are rebelled
charge , therefore the Atomic radii remains by magnetic field while
paramagnetic substances
almost attracted
same are
by magnetic field
.
n the end ·

of the series
eoe e
ro Those substance which are attracted very strongly
repulsion takes place so the size atom increases
.
of by the applied field are called benomagnetic
IONICRADIUS
the d-block elements and their compounds
in general ,
ione
of the same oxidation Many of
is due
state in a
given series show progressive decrease are
paramagnetic in nature it to

in radius with increase in atomic number due the presence unpaired

Co in incomplete
increase in of
to the effective nuclear charge
d-orbitals
Radii FeC +> Fe3 ]
+
Ionic Radius 4
+ [ionic no
of unpairedeo
The
Paramagnetic Nature 4
·

-
Oxi State
.

Melting and Boiling Point

High mpt and B Pt moment (2) 1 Th
+2) B M
Magnetic
.
: .

j
due
first increase and then decrease
to increase and decrease in n is number i
number of unpaired electrons
o unpaired co
Magneton
because the strength of bond
depends on number
of unpaired co complex formation : -

d-block elements form

Many of
Note ->
Tungsten (W) has the highest Mot complex compound
. because

Mercury CHg) is the only metal in liquid form (i) They have atomic radi
>
-
. small

Metallic Character Lis High Nuclear charge

vii) Presence vacant d-orbital
·
show all the properties of general .
metals
of so they can
·

strength of metallic bond a number accept lone pair of co from ligands -

q increase the chance and

20
unpaired which
Catalytic Properties : -
By-Bharat Panchal fix
makethebondstronga while In is soft me one
Transition elements and their
catalytic
a
show
·

componade properties due to variable

oxidation state and their ability
Enthalby of Atomisation : to adopt

bond due
They have strong metallic multiple oxidation state .

to which they have high enthalpy

[02TSsOsContactProsis
of e .

g
atomization
Ionisation Energy : -
By-Bharat Panchal fix Fe

Lies blu S-and b-block elements

C The presence of unpaired eo's in incomplete d-orbitals,

more thansblockbut less thanbblock elementstod hence

wide
possess the
capacity
to absorb and re-emit

range of energies which is used as an

as the effective nuclear charge increases .

activation energy
.
IE < Effective Nuclear charge formation ofColoured Ions : -

e o is
it unpaired
IE
of In Ca and
Hg is very High due to
fully
· ·

,
present complex is coloured transition
filled orbitals , due to d-d
and also paramagnetic in nature
·
IE
of 5d and 60 series elements is Id
more than
eo is absent
if unpaired ,

and 4d elements due to lanthanide and complex to the absence of

or compound is due
Activide contraction . d-d transition and diamagnetic in nature
e
g CusOn is blue
formation of Interstitial Compounds : -
.

in colour while
eg
e
Transition metals have a
tendency is
zuson
to form interstitial compounds with
H, C , B Natoms
colourless
11--
or
q
.

teg
They are usually non-Stoichiome
tric and are neither typically
ionic nor covalent.
Oxidation state :
due to the
-show large number of oxidation state
participation of both (n-1)d and us electrons
⑰
in bonding in different compounds. Oxide formation : -

many of the d-block elements forms

oxides
of different types because
of the presence of
so
many different oxidation state .

Ne AcidicCharacter < Oxi State .

Ionic Character a Oxi State

. .

·
Mn shows maximum number
of oxidation state due to
the presence of maximum number of unpaired co F-Block Elements : -

Elements in which last eo

·
Osmium (Os) show+ 8 Oxidation state enters in f-orbital
of bre-penultimate shell
>
-

Cuft is more stable than cy't because it undergoes

in aqueous General Electronic **
disproportionation Reaction soll : (n-2) + (n-1) do "Us
configuration
& Cult >
-
Cust +he
Noth The
ability of oxygen to stabilise these high
Oxidation state exceeds that of fluorine because

oxygen can form double bond while fluorine form

single bond .

By-Bharat Panchal fix

As a result
highest Mn
fluoride is Mufy 4t series
whereas the highest oxide is Mn207 -
Or

Electrode Potential : -
Lanthanoid Series
The stability of a compound Or

depends upon electrode potential and it further Ist Inner Transition

depends upon. Series
ii) Enthalby of atomisation/sublimation
(i) Ionisation outhalby
(ii) Hydration enthalpy
By-Bharat Panchol fix

Area" + Oxidation State :

M
-

Mcs) > <99) Automisation The oxidation

= + Ve common state of
lauthanoid is + 3 with +2 and +4
Anyd Aionisation He
Aamt
=
·

* H =
-
Ve Lanth avoid Contraction : -

I E Hydration
Mig
.

The regular decrease in the atomic

Mcg) >
-

and ionic radii increase in

of lanthanoids with the
atomic number
from left to right in Lanthanoid
series is called lanthanoid contraction .

cause of Lanthanoid contraction

>
- increase in effective nuclear charge
Door
screening effect of 47 electrons
>
-
.

consequences of Lanthanoid contraction

rateparation
the
of lanthanides is difficult as there little
difference in their size due to which they
have similar chemical
properties
.

There is regular trend for MET/M Basic from left

no Standard electrode strength of hydroxides decreases
·

potential due to irregularities in ionisation

the to right
enthalpies and enthalpy of atomisation ·
covalent character of hydroxides increases from HOR.

The size 3rd transition series elements is similar

copper is the only metal having positive value of of
·

to the size
of 2nd transition series·
E so it does not liberate the hydrogen gas from
acids
Chemical Reactivity : -

By-Bharat Panchol Six By-Bharat Panchol Six Use

& lanthanides
chemical in glass industry
reactivity 4 L
·

Eo
·
As an oxidising agent
·

E (M2 /M) + is very less (move-ve) except Ca ·

In
making magnetic
and & e chronic behaviour
so these metals are highly reactive
·

oxidising power <E

·
In
making alloy steel
which is in
used
making
·

Reducing Power C bullets .

Eo Mischmetal
g
.
e

Clauthanides + fets

- C + Ca + Al
 COMPOUNDS OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS
for Help
·
Potassium Dichromate ·
Potassium Permanganate
you can donate
⑱
>K (v 07) 6 KM4O4)
, y

Chemical (v 07)
Reactivity - Potassium Richromate (K, ,
it is prepared
03

Bone
He
; from chromite ore
Acid
2
O With Step: conversion of temochromate into sodium
chromate
Heated With With halogens
Lass < In > LnXz
N with + FeCUgO - + 16NaOH +
70f - 8Naj (UO4 +
[FeOy
With 420 Yellow +
8C02
Heated E In Step -2 into
JOM) +He Conversion of sodium chromate
La L inc sodium dichromate
2 Nat +HO
Uses Na CrO
, + + CHU >
-
NaCrOf
Lanthanoids for steels for
1) are used the production of alloy
-

Step-3 orange
plates and pibes into
ii) of lanthanoid is used in Mg-based Conversion of sodium dichromate
Mischmetal alloy
alloy to produce bullets , shell and lighten flint.
potassium dichromate
used catalyst in &Nall
lanthanoids
O7+
as
(iii) Mixed Oxides of are
K Cr
N9 2K >
-

cracking of betroleum , Cr207 + , ,

LivI some lanthanum oxides are used as phosphorus in Orange Crystals

television screen
chromates and dichromates are interconvertible
ACTINOIDS
These the elements in which last eo

,
are S
Cr O Crou
-

filled in 5f-orbitals. The activoids are radioactive elements , ↳

Ht
Electronic Confi structure...
confi. 5f"16d""Is dichromate ion (Cu, 072)
(COy2-f
electronic
The general chromate ion

irregularities in the electronic configuration of activoids O

It
is due to stabilities offy f 7, f' occupancies
O O

TES
of 5f-orbital .
Co x
o Co
o !-- -
similarities btw Lanthanoids and Actinoids Lo-
· Both exhibit +3 Oxidation state predominantly Properties
·

Both are electropositive and have high reactivity. 1) These moderately soluble in cold
Contraction , there is actinoid contraction also
are
orange red crystals ,
·
Like Lanthanoid water but in hot water
.

readily soluble
Difference blu lanthanoids and Actinoids 2) Action of heat

Lanthanoids Actinoids

show + 3
OXi State
4kCryOq => 4K
,
CuOp + 2CUzOy + 30
,
They mainly
. .

Oxi State They

show +3 3 ) Action of Alkali-
· .
.
.

like
+2 and Oxidation state Higher oxidate
+ ↓ +F
and
C,Oz
6
also exist + 4, + 5 + + 2KOH >
-
2 KCrOf +
HO
boor
They have boor shielding They have 2
·
even
K2CrOp +
y SO 4
H - K
Cr20 7 + K, SOT HO
.

,
effect shielding effect

They are
paramagnetic and
·

They are also paramagnetic Cros <CrO

but their magnetic
their
can
paramagnetic character
be explained easily Character can't be explained
1)
Oxidising Property
-
behave as a powerful
KCr 07 >

to They have tendency (UCL)

oxidising
·
more
have tendency
they agent in
less
·

Cu () is into
form complexes to form complexes Changed
·

These are non-radioactive

. These are radioactive Ionic Reaction
2C3
+

except bromethium substance

.
(0 - + kH
+
+6
8
>
-
+
7H
Application of Actinoids Molecular Reaction
Activoids are used in nuclear
(SOM), + 4 H 0
·

K (v
reactors for the production of electricity
. kCr207 +
+H2SO4 >
-

, SO4 +
> ,
+ 370]
·
Actinoids are also used for the synthesis of
transuvanic elements .
↳ It
oxidise
CO2
⑲
Oxalic acid +H
>
-
,
ETF2 3+
(ferrous salt to Ferri e
SO
,
>
-

HqSUD
MS > S
(sulphide to Sulphur I -T2
-

*
SO, > S04 (Sulphite to Sulphate) HeO, O
-

>
-

SO2 >
- H
, 50p
(Sulphur di oxide to
SulphuricAcia) Oxidising Reactions in Neutral Medium ...

HX >
X2 Chalogen
-

2 KMnO D 2MnO2 + 3 [0]

Acid to
Halogen) +HO -2 KOH +
suft-
> suft
MnOT +
CHO + 32 O -MnO
,
+ 40H-

ethyl alcohol acetic acid

It oxidise
>
acetaldehyde
-

>
-

4
~
CHROMYL CHLORIDE TEST > S
-

This test is done for

the identification of
MnSO + >
- MnOa
C-ions analysis,
during salt
potassium dichromate is heated with conc .
H, So
N9S20s > Na
-

, SO (thiosulphate
to sulphate
and a salt
having C-Ceq Nall, KU) and reddish
brown vapours of chromyl chloride are obtained
.
Oxidising Reactions in Alkaline Medium

KaCuOf + 4KU +6H

,
SOs >
-

2CrO U + 6KUSO
, , +
+3
H 2kMnOn +H -MOP + H2O + To]
disinfectant in
Uses It is used as an
oxidising agent ,
K MnP +
- MnO +OH + 3 [0] X2
HO >
,

leather and in chromy , -

-

volumetric analysis ,
for tanning in ,

chloride test
[KMnOx H2O MnOc + 2 KOH + To]
.

+ >
-

physical properties
.
reddish orange colour
Crystalline Ionic solid having bright
MnO 2 H20 + 320 MnOi + 404-
· ,

insoluble in alcohol, acetoke

.
et + >
-
it
· is soluble in waer and
density around 2 67 9cm-
it is with NOTE
.

·
odourless ,

Potassium
The overall reactions in alkalinemedium is
-
Permanganate (KMnO4) same as in neutral
kMnO+ is prepared from medium.
byrolusite
(MhO2) ore
. structure of
↳ Pyrolusite (MnO2) react with alkali metal hydroxide -
CKOU) MnO
Mno
to
give botassium manganate
O- il
2MnOc + 4K0H + 0 -
> 2K
I
, MnOGTLHO Mu
/
(dark green) MN
-
o
·
↳
Potassium of -or
manganate disproportionate in acid
Tetrahedral Permanganate ion
Tetrahedralmanganate ion
or alkali to give potassium bermanganate
green) (paramagnetic purple (Diamagnetic
2 K, MaOx + 42 >
- 2 KMnO ++ EKL
USES
of
Properties oxidant in the
preparation
solid soluble It is used as an

crystalline
·

kMnO+ is dark purple Black ,

organic compounds. ie.

.

Cotonsilkdecolonisationof
in warm water
.

bleachingofLoo
·

2)
.

Action of Heat-
on
heating ,
it decomposes

2KMnOp-KyMnOp A MnOc + Oc

3 ) In Acidic Medium
for Help
.

+ [MnSO+ +
34,0 + 5T0]
2kMnOx 3H SO + > K, SO4
-
+
,

Mult + 4H, O
MnOn + 8H
+
+ 528 >
-

you can donate

It oxidise
T2 + >
-

fet (ferrous saft into Ferric Salt

HpS >S
-
 Ambientate ligands
Those ligand which have O
20
CO ORDINATION .
two donor atoms but use one atom to attach with
a central metal atom So these
COMPOUNDS are monodentale ligands
.

e.g CN-(Gyand SCN-(thiocyand

NC
Cisocyano) 3 NCS -

Cisothiocyand
Transition metals large
form a .
no
Negative ligands which have negative charge
complex compounds in which the metal atoms are bound Neutral ligands

l
Symbol of Name of charge On
to a number
of anions or neutral molecule by sharing lig and lig and e

geo such compound are known a s jo-ordenation

.
CN- Cyanido
ligand NH ammine O

Compounds. P Chlorido II CH-NH2 Methylamine O

Br
-

Difference blu Double Salt and Co-ordination Compound Bromide I

-

O
I- iodido-1 HO 49,44

Co-ordination Compounds
NO
, Nitrito-N -
I NO Nitosyl O
Double Salt I

Of-ititoo
ONO-
-
.

SO Carbonyl O

They usually contain two simple

-
I
>
simple salts from which this
carbonyl O
-

- The CS
NOz- Nitrato
salts in equimolar proportion
-i

they are formed may or SCN- thiocyano I

OHz Phosphine O
-

NCS isothiocyane I
-
-

not be in equimolar prob

.
>
-
They are ionic compound and
may CH 200-
,
Acetato -
I
&P Triphenyl Phosphine O

onlymayormaynotbeone
H- Hydrido -I
This GIVCG
do not contain any co-ordinate 02- OXO -
2 HNCSN
E -
O

bond 02- beroxo

Pyridine
always contain co-ordinate bond 50,
2 -
Sulphito z E
C

soyd- Sulpuato
The properties of the double
· 2
Methyl
-

The D
properties of the Coordin Coj2-carbonato
-
2
CHz
salts are the same as those ration compounds are
its constituent compounds Bidentale
of -

different from its constituent

- Bidentale
gly glycenato
In the double salt metal ion. In a co-ordination compound
ox-oxalat ethane th mine
·

eno
their normal valency the metal ion
show satisfy its two type of valencies called
primary and secondary valency
. chelating ligands : -

·
A double salt loses its ·
A co-ordination compound It is closed ring type compound formed
identity in the solution by polydentate
retain its identify in its ligand (chelating ligand) on binding
solution.
to
e .

g K
, SOy. Alz (SO4)y 24 H, 0 .

e
g
.

Kn [Fe(CN) , ]
central metal atom
Importance
e
q MEN CH2 it forms
.

stable
-

o
more
- Types of Co-ordination compounds

M-
* complex , called
Cationic Complex Anionic Complex Neutral Complex
chelating effect

ComplexionCla complexion use

carry
e -
ve charge
complex
carry any
doesn't in softening & Hard water
Detection metal ion
·
4-
eg [fe ((N)6] charge of
[ COCNH3) s ] < +
.

.
e
g [Ni(CO)+ &
·
separation f-block
of elements -

so-ordination Entity
The
Ligands the atoms ions or molecules which can donate
central metal atom and the ligands
which to it are enclosed in
, are
directly attached square
the lonepairgeo
tocentralmetalabmbyCo-ordinal
osee
bracket and called coordination sphere or co-ordination
e
g [Fe(CN))]
4 is called Coordination sphere. entity
-

Denticity of ligands : counter Ion

The number of donor atoms present
The ionisable written outside the square
in the ligand is called its denticity
. On the basis of groups
bracket and are called counter ion. .
e
g KATfe (CN)s]
denticity ligands of different forms as : are
where Ky ione are called counter ion
monodentale , bidentate tridentate , tetramentate polydentate ,
,

hexidentate etc Co-ordination Polyhedron

The spatial arrangement of the
.

Monumentate liganch when ligands around the central metal atom is called co-ordination
ligand is a bound to a metal ion
polyhedron e.g
through a
single donor atom
.
e
g C-, Bu CN-

H: ,
Nils ,
Co

Bidentale ligands Co-ordination Number

When a
ligand can bird
through two donor
The total number of Co-ordinate
atoms -

bond formed by
oxalato ethane ,e ligands with central metal atom
e
g ,
Glycinato (414)
-diamine Co-ordination
,
Number :
<Number of ligand X
Denticity)
900- CH2-NHz
CH -COO
2
g ku [Fe((N)6]
.

[CoU , (en), ]'t

CH HN
-

NH
-

-
-

C N
. = 6 X1 = 6 C N . =
2 X1 + 2 x 2 = 6

Polydentate ligands Oxidation Number

When have than two The
a
ligand more
charge present on the central
donating sites. metal atom in a co-ordination compound is called
e
g EDTA
.
(Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate Ion) oxidation number. It is always positive.
.
e
g Kn[fe (CN)6]

si -CH2-CH-NCH
ooch 200-
-

+
,

CH COO- 44 66 D (
OOCH2 + 2
-

, c = 0 =

Donor Atoms >

- 6

Hexadentate ligands .
 ON

Homoleptic
THE BASIS Of LIGANDS
in which only one tybe of ligands are present
·
[NiCl4]E-
agNift-[Ar]'S 398 use
④
e
. K4 Ife (CN)6]
Heteroleptic in which different type 4/1kb/y / Y XIIX
of ligands are present
4S LI
e
g [COU CenIz]C 3a
.

hybridisation Geometry tetrahedral

- Sb3 -
Nomenclature of Co-ordination Compounds
It is paramagnetic in nature
.
e
. Kyife(CN))]
g

- potassium hexacyanide ferrate (I

Vet2 18 B M
°

u Yucn + 2)
=
=
+
= .

· [Cr4(120)]NOs >
-
Hetraaquadichloride chromium (#) nitrate
&
[Ni(CN) +]
-

Tetraammie Chlorido nitro-N-Cobalt (#

o
·
[CoU (NO2) (NHz)y]NOs -

nitrate
Ky[fe ((204)] Potassium ti oxalato ferrate(#) [Ar)'8 IdOGse
2gNi2
· - + -

Ky [Co(CN)s(NO)] potassium benta cyanido nitrosyl cobalate /I

im
·
e

·
[Co 4 (en) ] Soy dichloride bis Cethane-1 2-diamine) Cobalt
=
,
30
C sulphate
·
[COULOND (en12's Chlorido bis Cethane-1, 2-diamine) vitito-o
CN is a
strong ligand so pairing of
estable
X
Cobalt (H) ion
illt
·

·
[Ni (CO)+] +
RetracarbonySnickel (d)
· Li IA) Hy] - Lithium tetrahydrido aluminate (#) 30
hybridisation - dSp3
Werner Theory · Metals possess two types of valencies
, Geometry
- Square plana
called brimary ionisable valency coxidation number
diamagnetic in
or

and
It is nature.
secondary or non-ionisable valency he (Co-ordinatin
The
primary valencies non-directional
.
·
are
CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY :
complex show property
·
The compound do not any
and Metal-Ligand bond is in
ionic . So, there
nature
central metal atom ligands present
-

of the the
in it .
is electrostatic force of attraction blu metal and

eigands
Valence Bond Theory :
-

The
ligands are treated as
negative centres and
these negative centres are So arranged around
ACC to this
theory , metal-ligand bond arises
central metal atom that here is minimum repulsion
due to the donation electron pair from ligands
of blu them
to central metal atom
.

the ion under the In a free transition metal ion all the fired-
metal atom
-
,
or
influence of ligands can use (n-1)d , us , up , no
orbitals have equal energies (degenerate orbitals /
Orbitals for hybridisation
but when it takes part in complex formation
these d-orbitals split in two parts
Hybridisation CoN Geometry Example
.

it is calledd-d transition or crystal

Sp 2 linear
[Ag(CN) ) field splitting
.
,

Trigonal planar [HgIzT for Octahedral for Tetrahedral Complex

-

Sb2 3 Complex
sp3 4 Tetrahedral [NiCOln] zu
square planar > Ni(CN))
dsp2 4
square pyramidal Fe(CO),
dSb3 5
3+
d <Sp3 6 Octahedral (inner [Cr (NH3)))
Sp3d2 6 Octahedral (outer) (fefg73-
3+
e
g [Co(NHs), ]
.

shake of d-orbitals

3
Cost - [Ar] 183d6
At
&A
> =

27C03
+
likkk 1 / / I
3d US 4K
↳ NHS is a
strong ligand so
pairing gee
takes place

TlyklXX * XIXI
Spectrochemical Series :
3d us 40 - it is arrangement of all ligands
diamagnetic of increasing
in order CFSE value is called
hybridisation >
- d <sp3
spectrochemical series · The ligands with small value
Octahedral u (
I+ 2)
ligands
Geometry
=
- of CFSE are called weak and the
ligands
0 BoM
with higher value of CFSE are called strong ligand
inner
=

orbital complex
I <BU-(S2-LSCN- > C- < F-LOH-LOX
-

< H2O <NCs- < NHs) en < NO <CN-(CO

-

,
 ISOMERISM - Tetrahedral complexes do not show Geometrical isomerism
coordination compounds
which
Two or more
have same molecular formula but have different -Square planar complexes of formula [MXg(2] <X and L
central are unidentate
ways of attachment of their ligands to the ligands) show geometrical isomerism
. The

two
metal atom and have different properties. These are called X
ligands may be arranged adjacent to each
isomers. The phenomenon is known as isomerism
. other in a cis-isomer or opposite to each other in a
trans isomer
I SOMERISM
④
-

I
↓ de

Ni Man
structural Isomers Stereo Isomers

arises due
in the str
to

. of
the difference
Coordination
arises due
spatial
to the

arrangement
different
of
-
compounde ligands around the metal ion
C

cis Trans
↳
Ionisation
↳
Geometrical isomerism
Hydrate
↳
-
optical isomerism Octahedral complexes with C N-6
co-ordination
.
.

Tybe-MYchs
[CoCNMs) U
↳ e
Linkage q
.

1) IONISATION
)

ISOMERISM L ..........
I 1x X

=
!
isomerism arises
M
:
This due to :
:
x
exchange
...

of ionisable
...

anion with anionic

ligands. e g .

L
e
g [CoBU (H20)5 ] TC) and [Co4 (H,0)5] +
cis
. -

Br X
Trans
5 Co
(NHy)gSOa]Br and [CoCNHs)5 Br]SO- Type-MXzA2 <X-unidentate
A-Bidentate
2) HYDRATE ISOMERISM Or SOLVATE ISOMERISM
In this X
ligands
X
ligands)
isomerism water is taken as solvent. It has different

- -
,

Of water in the
. . .

no molecule coordination sphere and ...

C
outside it
M
e
g
A
-

i -
[COCH, 0) j Us [CoCH O 4 ] U 2 H O .......

, , , , ,
.

,
/
- A Cis X Trans
[COCH Ols Us] .

3 H0
,

* In Octahedral Complexes of the formula [MAjXs]

CO ORDINATION ISOMERISM e
g [CoCNHy) (NOdy]
.

tybe of isomerism
occurs when ,
This
is interchange blu cationic and
anionic
there of ligands NOW
of different metal ion present in a complex
.
complexes

.......
NH NH,
NI
-.......
......

-
-
-

it -
,
-

:i
. /NO
-

.
28 X
- --
[CoCNHy) , ] [CU(CN)6]
-
... --

and - Co
(NH3)s] [Co(CN)s) !-
,
[Cr - -
T Co i - -
NOL NOz
-

a
LINKAGE ISOMESISM
. Hy
isomerism is shown by the NO
,
This type of NO 2
coordination compounds ambidentate ligands fac facial
having
-

mer-meridional .

e
g [Co
(NH)s (NO) JU
.

and [CoCNHs)5 CONO)]U

same
ligands occuby same ligands are in
one face of
STEREO ISOMERISM an octahedron one plane

Geometrical Hi -
OPTICAL ISOMERS
I somerism
optica merism - optical isomerism is common in
These the comp lexes
are Octahedral complexes
This isomerism is common
which have chiral str. The .
*
The
involving
bidentate ligands
in complexes with CN446 equimolar mixture of 'd'and 'l'isomer is termed
Pair of stereisomers are the
as the
.

Geometrical isomers mirror vacemic mixture

are of images of each other
two tybe but
may not be superimposed
-
Trans isomer can't show optical isomers
is On the stereoisomers
. These O
e
G . C 4

·
mirror 4

!
same ligands are images are called e -

-
I Men
....

present at adjacent
position
enautioners
. The enantiomers P -........
Pt i
,
② ② which rotate the plane (en-
· bolarised lig It in a clockwise mirror

direction is called dextrorotatory O

a ②
To (d) Or (H)
O
eg
<CoCNH3)
same
ligands are and the enautioner which rotate
4I

i
in anti 2
bresent at opposite position
the plane bolarised light

i
Clockwise direction

!Title
is laevorotatory e
· ·
(l) OU +
:...
>Co <en - ena
·.....
Co

4
l
missor
 eq [M(AA),
X
,
]
"+

+
C +
DIAZONIUM SALT-
Diazonium salts are written
⑭
cis-5 Colenl , 42] 7
as RN+X where
-

"Fien
e

+ iMinor
↳= aryl group
- ,
....
X-ion can be CIT Br ; HSOG and BF
-
i L
Co
Li
Not group is called diazonium salt
......
Len NHSO
In
-
e L
q Lit
.

METAL CARBONYLS Lit /

Complex compounds that
contain ↳ benzene diazonium ↳ benzene diazonium
carbonys ligands only are termed as metal carbonyl chloride hydrogen sulbhate
eq NiC CO) & Fe(CD) 5 CV((0) 6 STABILITY OF MIAZONUM SALT
CO CO Arenediazonium salts

co 00e
I
are stable than the alkyl diatonium salts
more . This can
Ni
be accounted on the basis
of R effect
co CO
·

Tetrahedral Trigonal
Bipyramidal Octahedral

BONDING IN METAL CARBONYLS

↳
In metal metal-carbon bond has
carbonyls ,
the both
S- and b-character
,
Co
ligand attach itself to metal atom
from the carbon atom to form Metal-carbon . It is
bond
a
weak donor
M-> c

on the
bond is formed by donation of love bair of the 20
Preparation (Diazotization Rx2 > -

carbonyl carbon to the vacant orbital of metal NIN U

-

NM2
↳
M-C
from the
it bond is formed by the donation of a pair of eo -

hi + NANO2 + 244 * + NaH2HO

filled d-orbital of the metal to vacant

antibouding *
Orbital of CO This property of back bonding Diazonium salts are prepared and used only in
.

which stabilise the

metal-ligand bond is termed as
solution because in solid state
synergic effect
an
aqueous
they explode
-MED : -
MED : PHYSICAL PROPERDES
Benzene diazonium chloride is a
-overlap colourless Crystalline solid and is readily soluble
Donation of lone bair of 20 from carbon in water It is stable in cold water but reacts
.

atom into a vacant orbital of the metal

. . It also decomposes easily
with water when warmed &

in the dry state

&m I &
cof ·
D
.

&
~
·
Benzene diazonium fluoroborate is water insoluble
+ >
-
:
CEO :
and
0
t C
>
-

- f D +
stable at room temperature.

↑
CHEMICAL REACTION -

Overlap Cut HsPO2/HO

,
,
LOT + Net + HyPOs + U

I
Donation of 28 from a filled metal d-orbital
into a vacant CHICHOH
antibondingi-orbital of CO
. Y
-
101 + N2 + HC + CHCHO

·
-

CuBul HBV>

a tha I
/
sandmeyer
curing Reaction
-

4
Not H -
I
Factors
Affecting Stability of a complex
TotBut N Gattermann
Rxy
charge central metal atom central metal
- MB -
·

on as charge on
& + N2
Lo,
-

arom increases , of complex increases

stability X CN

KCN/UCN
I
·
Nature of - + N2
·
metalion-stability order is Ja + & < 5d Series
L (benzonitile)
Nature of =
ligands strong field ligands form more KI
Tl
-

> + N2 + KC
Stable complex -

a
·

Presence N2CBF)
of Chelate Ring
-

More HBFA
Stability
:
More the chelation

To e
(4
,

-
HC Balz-Schiemann
·
Effect of Multidentate ligands :
·
If the ligands are
H28I H2SO4
multidentate the stability of complex increases X
Nat
,
,
AZO D YE TEST
Co-ordination Compounds Boiling
-significance of
MR +T
/On Nyon
· In
Biological System b-hydroxyazobenzene
corange)
↳ In Medicinal Chemistry Ex-NaC + H-EX-NH ,
>
- Ex-NXYNH
In Analytical 6-aminobenzene
 AMINES
Amines are considered as amino
Preparation of Amines :-
of hydrocarbons or alkyl derivatives Reduction of Alkyl Nitrile
of ammonia LiAl H4

Aliphatic amino compounds

>
R-CH2NH2
are called amino alkanes and arom. R-CEN
-
atic amines are called amino NG
arenes
2.g CHyNHa , CzH5NH <ENH , , Ethanol
>
RCHyNH2
RX" is used for ascent of amine

R-NH> Primary Amines (1) Reduction of Nitroalkane :

Raney Ni
R-NH-R Secondary amines (2) X-NO2 Y
--
Ferme -
NH2
10/ H2/P+
Y
lol
R-N-R Tertiary Amines (30 / y >
-
R SU/HCI X

Reduction with Fe/tcs is preferred

STRUCTURE OF AMINES : Reduction of Amides :
O

D -
R "uNH
G
LiAlHay RCH, NH2 +
HO
N Pyramidal
-
shake of Amine
Reduction of amides give amine
H with same number of carbons
.

Hofmann Ammonolysis Method :

NOMENCLATURE
NHz RX
RX RTH > R, NH
393K ,

CHj-CHz-CH -NH2 Propan-1-amine sid

-
(2)
RX
CHy -CH-CHz
Nitz Propan-2-amine > RiNi *
x(RaNt) X-
(3)
N, N-Dith
one
CHz-CHy-NI-CyHg butan-1-amine order of reactivity >
- RI > RBU > RC

*
I amine is obtained
CH-CH2-NH, Prob-2-en-lamine major
2 as
CH2 =

N product when excess of NHy is taken

NH2 --

I II Aniline Lol D-Bromo

-

& HOFMAN BROMAMIDE DEGRADATION :

Bu aniline
CH3 4 NaOH Es RNH+ <NaB
CH
-
N CH-

,
RCONH2 + BU >
+

k
X
N
,
N-Dimethyl + N9 CO
, >
+2 H, D
benzenamine
↳ Amines
formed contains one

carbon less than that present in

NH -

(CH2) -NH
c
the amide.
Hexane-1 6-diamine
,
GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDE SYN .
·

Alkyl amines are stronger bases than NHz

⑳
O
Basic nature of aliphatic amines increases
i
·

-
-
of NH , TTY [NK O *
with increase
i
in the number
effect of alkyl
of alkyl
X -
groups e +I
group
-Yo
.

- P
increases their basicity .

-ONE

Loc
order of basicity in gaseous phase...
·

/- NaOH (a9 )
R >
-
,
Tol + RNH
30 amine > 2'amine > lamine >
- Ona NHz

In
aqueous phase ,
solvation effect and
↳ Only 10 amines can be synthesized steric hindrance ,
besides inductive

by this method effect of alkyl group decid the basic

C Aromatic 1 amines can not be °

strength of alkyl amines
.

prepared by this method as awyl ↳ when alkyl group is ethyl group

halide do not undergo nucleophilic CC2HstyNH) (CHstzN) <2 HjNH, > NHz
sub RXU with potassium phthalimide
.

↳ when alkyl group is methyl group

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
(CH3lzNM < CHgNH2) (CH3)zN > NHz

PHYSICAL STATE * BASIC NATURE of aniline or

any
The lower aliphatic amine would be less than that

amines are gases with fishy odour 1 ,

of ammonia
.

amines with three or more carbon ↳ less basicity of quiline as compared to

atoms are liquid and ones

higher NH3 is attributed to -I effect of
are solid
. benzene
ring and delocalisation of
love pair of N .

COLOUR - Pure amines are colourless Note ERG like -OCH , CH increase
but develop colour on
keeping whereas
in air for
basic strength
long time decrease
E NG
.
like NOC , SOgH
SOLUBILITY = amines basic strength
.
Lower are readily
soluble in water ,
which
decreases in water and increases
&

i CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES

-

organic solvents with an increase m

molecular weight . FOR ALIPHATIC AMINES

BOLLING DOINT :
ALKYLATION
amines are
and 2
°
1

engaged in intermolecular association R-X + R'NH ** R-NHR" + RX

***
(20)
while
due to
Hydrogen bonding /
(IP)
RNR' + R-X >
-
R N
+
R'X
3. amines do not have intermol-
-
ecular association (due to absence (3) Quaternam
ammonium sat
& H-atoms
order of B . P+
of isomeric amines
. It yields a mixture of 12 and 3.
10 2 % 30 amines and also quarteruary ammonium
salt .

BASIC CHARACTER OF AMINES : ·

major product is obtained when

larger the value

of kp or smaller the amine is taken in excess
.
value of pky stronger ,
is the base
 O
ACYLATION Lox-NH (< H (0) ,
O
> ENH-C-CH
Aniline Pyridine
R/AU-N -G
CHyCOC or
Acetamilide
RIAU-N-H -

i (CHz (0), O
Base
BROMINATION
NH2 Br
O
26
H Bu /-
3 Br *
- -

The reaction is carried out in presence of L + I I 3HBU

-Br
+

a base stronger than

leg pyridine
which removes HC so formed and
↳ To
shifts equilibrium to
right side .
get monosubstituted desivative

Nice
NH eCH3 NH2
BENZOYLATION --
I
>
BVz 30H- /-
1 I
Los CHICOOH
3 O

R-NH2 + ExcOU - R-NHCO- + HG

Br -
CARBYLAMINE REACTION :

R-NH< R- NC + JKU NITRATION

+ CHU + 3K0H >
NM &
e +Nitro
+ 3H O
, HNOs , HSOy X -
11
> +
L/
-

288 K L
secondary and tertiary amines do not
No
nio (2 %)
show this reaction
. , C47 % )
(51 %(
is used AMINES
°
It as a test for 1
To get mono substituted para desirative

Mcoci Lo
NH2
REACTION WITH NITROUS ACID : NHCOCH3
I+
f
MNO Hiso ,
Tot
, -
>

R-NH2 + HONO >

- R-OH + H 4
2
+ HU

REACTION WITH ARYL SULPHONYL

SULPHONATION :
CHLORIDE HINSBERE
EX-SOU
REAGENT it
-- H2SO4 -
NHS HSOy 453 473K -

L)
10 Y
Lo/ >
-

RNH2 + Ex-SOpU T Ex-SOg NH-R

soluble in alkali N
C- I-
⑭H
20 10/
/
-
>
-

- I O I
&/
R NH
,
+
ExSO2U EXSOgNR2 sogH so
ze zwitter Ion

RyN + ESQU No Reaction

is
>
-
P-aminobenzene sulphonic acid
Reaction i used to distinguish blu the major product because distance
three classes of amines 1,2 and Jamines
.
blw-NH2 and SO3H is maximum
.

↳ sulphahilic acid exist in

AROMATIC AMINES
ZWITTER ION FORM ·

NH2 group is Ortho and bara directing

and powerful activating .
group for Help

Activating effect of NH group In aniline you can donate

-

can be controlled by protecting the

with
NH2 group by acetylation
-

acetic anhydride and then carrying

out the desired substitution Ry ALDEHYDE , KETONE AND
CARBOXYLIC ACID
-
 PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES
In Organic compounds containing carbon- AND KETONES :

oxygen double bond ( = c 0) =

called
carbonyl
↳ CnHanO
. Their
group general
&
formula 1) By Oxidation of
P C C .
alcohols
-

R
:

CHO
⑰
R-CH2-OH > -

-H
I
Alcohol Aldehyde
R-C -
R
R-CH-R'
CrOs
> R-G RI
O
-

Aldehyde Ketone
OH : alcohol
2 Ketone
The carbonyl compound in which

carbonyl group is bonded to an oxygen 2. .

By Dehydrogenation of Alcohols
atom of hydroxyl group C-04) Oare CU/573K
> R-CHO
known as
caboxylic acid R-K-OH R-CH2-OH
, alcohol aldehyde
(1573K
Nomenclature of Aldehyde
R-CH-R'
die .
2 alcohol
>
R-4 isetone
O
O
II
II .
3 By Ozonolysis of Alkenes :

- methanal CH
=
4 ethanael

sch
H e CHs'c
is
H
P - = 0 - HCHO
D 11 (ii) Zu .
H 0
, Chz
II pentanal H
H · 4 .

By Hydration of Alkynes Of
2 Chloropentanal dil He SO4
.
L
- I
O CH
O CHECH > CH =
I I
II
dil HgSOy
H H
Tautomerism
> CH-CHO
3-Methyl butanal Butanal
All other alkynes give ketones
.

Riksonn R-C
Nomenclature of Ketones
D
11 "
D
R-CECH
Ketone
L- Tautomerism R-C-CHz
CHy CH3 10
-
/CH 3
>

Propanone Acetophenone
cacetone) (methyl Phenyl Ketone)
By Heating (a Salt
of Acid
O
ROOC > R-CO-R
1
/-
O
II , ca - + CaCOs
L-
10 I lol ROOC
- -
-
2 pentanone By Decarboxylation and Dehydration of
benzophenone
O Aromatic Acids
11 O
It
I COOH +HCOOH
A
EXCHO + HO + CO,
3-hexanone
3-Methyl-2-butanone
MO > <jlOCHy tHO +
>
-
* COOH + HO0e-CH,
STRUCTURE OF CARBONYL GROUP

1200
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDE ONLY
L
.
1 C-SP2 hybridization
C =O .
2 Bond is 1200
>
-
ROSENMUND REDUCTION
angle
:

O
3 .
30 boud ,
1 π bond O
H2 Pd/BaSOy RAM
4 .

Carbon-oxygen R "C ,
> + HU

IT Acid Chloride aldehyde

double bond consist 1 c &
i H2 , PdIBaSOn -CHO
E ·
L
I-Fac 7
Lo! Benzaldehyd
C-0 3 . Carbon
- Oxygen bond of
is polar in Nature >
- STEPHEN REDUCTION
6) In Carbonyl 96 C+ is electrophilic
R-CEN SUCh/H4 R-CHINH E R-CHO
0-8 Nucleophilic Partial
Reduction
 ETARD REACTION : and others due to dipole-dipole interactions But
their bpt are lower than alcohols. ⑱
RFCHs + CrO2ClYr > TCHCOCUOI SOLUBILITY :
Lower members
of aldehyde and
complex
Hz0
+ -
> CHO Kelones are soluble in water because of H-Bond
x :01 Benzaldehyde
-
The solubility of aldehyde and kelones decreases
By Side Chain Chlorination of Methylbenzene rapidly on increasing the length of alkyl chain.

followed All aldehyde and kelones are fairly soluble in

by Hydrolysis :

organic solvent -

-CHCl
- -
CHS Cl/hU He -CHO
lol , -
I of CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- *
-/

Tolene Benzal Chloride Benzaldehyde

Polar Nature of Carbonyl Group > =

Commercial method to manufacture of Benzaldehyde

The polarity of Carbonyl group arise due to high
GATTERMAN- KOCH REACTION :
electronegativity of 0-atom
.

- CO , HU X CHO
Lis -
-

< 101 Nucleophile Center

Anhy AlCI/CuCl - Benzaldehyde
- Lewis Base)
electrophile center
PREPARATION OF KETONES C Lewis Acid)
·

from Acid Chloride

Acidity of -Hydrogen Atom :

2
R-Mg -X +
CdCkz >
-

R2Cd + ENG = c
The strong electron withdrawing effect
2 of carbonyl group and
G 4 Ryd
2R-G-R
resonance
+ - +
Cl
- -

Stabilisation of conjugate base

2) .
from Nitriles :
are responsible for the acidity of
4-hydrogen alom. .

Ether

[
O
CH CH2-CEN EXMgB O
-
-
+
>
-

-c -
->
-

- -
·
=
&
-

CA -CH-C
-
= N
↳ i
L! 'MgBr
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
10 Hy Ot
Cals-> 4 the reactivity of aldehyde is more than that
of kelones , due to
1 - Phenyl Propanone
4 Steric Reason ↳ Electronic Reason

3)
. Friedal Craft Acylation The
The attack of nucleophile presence of two
o = C-AVIR is
carbonyl carbon alkyl group in Ketones

ArR-e
I on
- --
hindered by the presence
Lo, +
/ of large substituent on
the electrophilicity of
Carbonyl carbon more
Ketones
effectively than aldehyde.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDE REDUCTION
AND KETONE

I
NaBHy or
> Alcohol
LiAlHy
·
Lower member of aldehyde and ketones
up to
C10 are colourless , volatile liquid Aldehyde zn -Hg/H4
while formaldehyde is a
gas at ordinary and
-

Clemmensen
> I CH ,

temp
. Higher members of both are solids Ketones Reduction
with fruity odour .

NH2 NH2 / OH -
-

higher
- ICH
·
Bo + & Carbonyl compounds are than
Wolf-Kishner
L

those of non-polar compounds , hydrocarbou Reduction

 )
(-G-O
CARBOXYLK ACID
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
⑳

I
HINIOR
; IceCN Ganohedrin The carboxyl group ,
consist
of a carbonyl gb
NaHSO3 attached to a hydroxyl group
IcxSoNa Bisulphite additionh
.

product
Aliphatic (R-COOH) or Aromatic (COOM)
ROH ROH

I >
-

I Their is CuttanOz
Dry HL DrY HC Acetal general formula

ito I
-
OCH2
H-COOH
> - - o'cH ,
Ketal CHz-COOH
Methanoic Acid Ethanoic Acid
Z
HN
-

N- Z (Formic Acid) Acid)

i
<C = CAcetic
z = OH, -NH2 , COOK

E NH2 CHy-CH-COOH cook Oxalic Acid

Propanoic Acid C Ethane-1, 2-dioic acid)

COOH
OXIDATION REACTION I
-- I cook
lol 11
KiCrO7/H + -
R-COOH
°
-

I
Benzoic Acid
2-Methyl cyclopentanc
2 [Ag (NH3) ] + CBenzene Carboxylic
,
i
2Ag + R100
-

&Only
Aldehydes] Acid)
1-carboxylic Acid
-
.

Tollen's Test

2(u2+ + 50H
& Only METHODS OF PREPARATION :
RC00
(UgOK
Y
·

+
Felling's test Aldehydes'
from alcohol by Oxidation :

Na OX methyl Ketone
·

Halo form
> CHXs + RC0O' Nat [and ethanal
CHICHOH
als KMnOn
.

CHCHO Ha CHICOOH
give this testy (ooH
CHOH O --
-
Los
>
-
key
REACTION DUE TO L-HYDROGEN

CH-(CH2)-OH -Os ,
CH-(Ct2), oe

=> OXIDATION Of ALDEHYDE AND KETONE

KMnOy
CHy-CHO >
-

CHy-COOH
[O]
O

kMnOu
CH-C-CH-CHz [0S
,

CHC00H + CH, COOH

Oxidation of Ketones is done with

difficulty acc . to Popoff's RULE i .

e

Kelonic group remain with smaller .

group

FROM ALKYL BENZENE

CHz cook
- kMnOy -
L >
-

CO 10) -
Benzoic Acid

COOU

-- CH KMnO4
I
X
10/Took pathalic
I I y -
-
↳
acid

CHCHy
OOH
-- Denzoic
KMHOy
-
101
Les >
- acie
-
 HYDROLYSIS OF NITRILES Acidity of Carboxylic Acid
2 Na
⑲
>
-
IRCOONa + H, ↑

RCONH T
R-CN
OH
T R-COOH
+ HO Acid
Carboxylic R-COOH NaOH
RCOONG + H, O
He
-
>

CH-CH-CN + HO
-
>
CHz-CH-CONH,
CHz-CH COOH NaHCO3 RCOONa + H2O + CU2
>

FROM GRIGNARD REAGENT

Carboxylic
· acic are stronger acid than
alcohols and many simple phenols but weak-
+
CH

M3Br
O = <= 0
=4
-
O

MB er the mineral acids

-
·

with
·
Electron drawing group stabilises
the carboxylate anion and strengthen
HO
the acid ,

CHy COOH + Mg < BH whereas

eo donating group
destabilises the
carboxylate anion and
FROM ACYL HALIDE
weakers the acid
.

R-COURCOOH +HE >

-
Rxn
involving cleavage of C-OH bond

↳ formation
CH COR CHLOOH + HL
of anhydride O &

FROM ACID DERIVATIVE

2R-COOH
Ht ,
A
< R " -" R
or P205 A

↳
R-102 -
difHL R-COOH Esterification :

or dif NGOH
R-COOH + R'OH RCOOR' +H
Ease of Hydrolysis ↳ RX with and SOC2 :
P45 Phy ,

RCOS) (RCOLO) RLOOH) RIONHE

RICOOH
-45 < RCOU + POL Me E

>
3 RCO4 HyPOs
+
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES SOCI
> RCO4 + S02 + H
·
Aliphatic carboxylic acids up to wine carbon
↳ Rx" with ammonia
atoms are colourless liquid at room temp

with unpleasant odour ·

the higher acid are RCOOH + NH3 - RCOO'NHT RCONH
,

like solid
wax -
RX4 involving -
COOH group
·
Reduction is LiAltylether
x RCH, OH
·
Due to presence of intermolecular forces the lower RLOOH or BcH6
(ii) Hy 0 +
carboxyl acids are freely miscible with water
But the solubility in water decreases
·
Decarboxylation
90
ROOTNT R-H + Na, COs
gradually due to increase in size of alkyl go
. A
↳ H. V ZRx
. (Hell Volhard Zelinsky Rxh)
stronger intermolecular forces increases
· is X2/RedP
CHy-COOH > CXs-COOH
the O
bipt of Monocarboxylic acids as
compared to the alcohols
of comparable
↳
Electrophilic Ring Substitution
molecular masses .

Carboxyl group acts as a

deactivating
and meta directing group
H-O-c-R
-

Cook
--

Brz/FeBUy
R-S10 /-
COOH ↑
-

1xI
-O-H---o
A -
By
-101- Conc HN& 3 -
coon
Le, t NO2
.

Carboxylic Aid
Hydrogen Bonding
m Conc H2SO4
They do not undergo Friedal craft reaction because
-
.. .
... carboxyl group is
deactivating group and

in Catalyst All , gets bonded to carboxyl

Alcohols group
Hydrogen Bonding
.
 Configuration of X-amino acids
④
·

Biomolecules COOH
COOH

Introduction
!N H NH2
:
If
Biomolecules are the organic compound
which form the basis of life in they build up
R CL-amino acid) R CD-amino acial
the
living system and responsible for their growth 1 H S) R HS)
and maintence CNH On . .

CNH On .

that relates biomolecule to living organism is amino acids L-amino acids

occuringoccur
The sequence >
- Naturally are
Biomolecules Cells living D-amino acids in antibiotics and
>
Organells > > Tissues -
Organs some
-
- -
-

organism bacterial cell walls-

Living
>
systems
-

are made up of various complex

biomolecules like carbohydrate ,
proteins nucleic acids,
,
Twitter ion : when a proton is migrated from carboxy
libids etc amino group ,
to dual ion is formed
Proteins group a
.

and carbohydrates are essential

constituents our food and this dual ion is called zwitter ion
.
of .

>
-
In addition , some simple molecules
like vitamins and mineral salts also play an
important role in the
function of organism
.
-

Amino Acids & Proteins it

The compounds containing amino group (-NH) and

Carboxylic group C-COOH) are called amino acids- Iso electric Point (PF)
R= H
zwitter ion which is
where , ,

alkyl or
electrically neutral only
can specific exist at a

arys group ph , that PH is called iso electric point

which is different for all amino acids.

Leucine PH
e.g pF q
= 6 0 .

>
-

except
active
glycine
in
(nN-(004) ,
others are optical
y
pF of Arginine PH = 10 .
.
8
nature
.

Classification
* of amino acids -
structure of amino acids :

R
=> C, B , M-amino acids depending upon the position of Of

respect =>
ni-CH-C0(higher pt)
to -cook R
-
NH2 with group .

I
Neutral having one-NH and one-cook group f

I
as anion
- .

MN-CH-100-
,
,

-P-cook (glycine
-

eg Nt R
Zwitter ion
I

Cisoelectric point)
#I HN-CH-COOH
>
- Acidic ,
having one-NH, and two-COOH groub .

as cation (low pH)

e NH
800c-C4-P-Cook (Aspartic Acile ·
ide =
peptides are condensation products of
two or more 2-amino acids.
Basic having more-NH and one-look

NTNM
two or
>
-
, , group .
R

e
g
MH
Clysine or HN-CH-COOH
f
+
EN-C-COOH M-cooH

HN-Kk25P-COOH
.

dipeptide.

* Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids :

--NH- is known as peptide linkage or peptide bond
.

those amino acids which can be synthesized by + 2 molecules of 4-amino acid form dipeptide.
non-essential amino acids
our body are known as
3 molecules of X-amino acid form tipeptide .

while which can't be synthesized

by our body so must be supplied through our >
-

Dipeptide has only one .

peptide boad
amino acids
diet are called essential .
Tripeptide has only two peptide bond .

Polypeptide :
condensation products of many amino acid
(110000) is known as poly peptide and those
bolypeptide which have molecular mass above

than 10000 u are called broteins .

·
teins
they are linear polymers of amino
acid .
 Str .

of Proteins : in this 20str

Any change .

i . e the sequence

⑫
of amino acid creat different brotein
2 )
.

Primary structure :
It simply reveals the sequence
a

of amino acids
.

2) Secondary structure :
x-helix str maintained by H-Bond .

orp-pleated sheet str When R is small .

groups
of Proteins :
-

Structure Secondary structure

3) Tertiary : The secondary str.
The folding and superimposition of proteins the shake in which
shake .
refers to a
long
of polypeptide chains
forms a compact globular polypeptide chain can exist.
termed as tertiary str
They are found to exist in two different
It is stabilised by covalent, ionic , H-Bond
and disulphide bonds
. types of str

4) Quaternary structure : The precise arrangement of x-helix sto. B-pleated sheek stri
constituents most common ways In this str all peptide
.
in which stretched
chanbolybe chain
are
the Basis blide
Classification on of Hydrolysis to
·

nearly
-

all possible H-Bond maximum extension

Simple Protein into and then laid side
by twisting
:

which
give only X-amino acid upon held
handed by side are
Hydrolysis
a
right
e
g albumin together by intermolecular
.

conjugated Protein :
These proteins give <-amino acid and screwChelit group H-Bond .

non protein part called prosthetic · each amino acid residue

, group
Tertiary str Proteins
of :
.

Protein Prosthetic Group the tertiary str ·

of proteins
represents overall folding of bolypeptide chains i .
e

structure
further folding of the secondary
It gives rise to 2 major molecular
shapes ie fibrous and Globular
The main forces which stabilize
the 20 and 30 str .

of proteins are H-Bond ,

Derived Proteins disulphide linkage , van der waal and electrostatic

These obtained by partial hydrolysis forces attraction
are
of .

of simple or conjugated Proteins

.

Polypeptides]
[Proteins
of Proteins
Proteoses Pebtones str
Quaternary
>
- >
- >
-
·

On the Basis of Molecular Shape some

of the proteins are

compo sed & two or more

I
polypeptide chains referred
Fibrous Protein Globular Protein to as subunits
The spatial arrange -

-ment
of these subunits
with respect to each

other is known as
quaternary structure

Denaturation of Proteins
The process that changes the
native protein is
3-D str -

o
called denaturation of proteins
.
It can be caused
by change .
in PH , change in temp
addition of electrolyte addition
,
solvent like water
of ,
alcohol , acetone .

Primary str of Proteins

. : Nucleic Acids : These are the polymers which are
Proteins may have one or
prepared by Nucleotide also known as polynucleotide
more polypeptide chains
> each polypeptide in a protein has amino acids nucleotide contain
-

a n....

linked with each other in a

specific sequence and
#) Pentose Sugar *) Nitrogeneous *) Phosphate
it is this
sequence of amino acids that is said Base group .

to be 10 str that
the of protein Pentose Sugar :
either ribose
·
5 Carbon sugar or

ribose
for Help deoxy
you can donate (not contain

oxygen at >
-

2nd position)
 Nitrogeneous Base Vitamins
I

pyrimidine
the organic compounds other than carbohydrates
,
Purine proteinsand fats which are required in the diet in
>
-
Adenine >
-

Thymine small amount to perform specific biological functions,

uracil maintain and nutritition are
Guanine
&

normal health , growth

>
-

>
-

Cytosine
⑬
>
-
called Vitamins
Two H-Bonds present between A & T CA = T basis of
solubility
are
Classification on the
while three
hydrogen bonds are present between
(84C(EG) fat Soluble Vitamins
and oils but insoluble VitaminsA D,E, are soluble ita
,
K
&

liver and adipose (fat

storing) tissues.

Water
Soluble
Vitamins-B group vitamins and I are
soluble in water
. Water soluble Vitamins must be
supplied regularly in diet because they are readily
excreted urine
m and can not be stored in
our body (except Vitamin B12)
Vitamin K is responsible for coagulation .
of blood

Structure of D N A .
-

consist
It of chain
two
polynucleotide
chains , each form a
right handed helical spiral
with tell bases in one turn of
the spiral
The two chains coil
to double helix and run in
Opposite direction. These are

held together by H -
Bonding .

Types of RNA
1) Messager RNA (M-RNA)
is produced in the
It
nucleus and carries information for the Synthesis
& protein .

2 .

) Transfer RNA
is found in cytoplasm
It . Its
function
is to collect amino acide from cytoplasm for ENZYMES
protein Synthesis
.
Enzymes are biocatalyst ,
almost all the enzymes

3 ) Ribosomal RNA (8-RNA)

are
globular proteins. They are generally named after the
for compound class of compound upon which
.

This provide site or

they work
brotein synthesis
e
.

g the enzyme that catalyse hydrolysis of maltose

into
glucose is named as maltase
·

functions of Nucleic Acid

Maltase
CI2H22O11 + HO >
- 2C6H 206
Direct the synthesis of protein
·

Maltose Glucose
Transfer the genetic
·
informations. Some Common Example
-blication : - Product
It is a process in which a molecule can substrate Name

duplicate
. Urea Urease CO2 + NHy
~
emplate It means battern ,
in the brocess of replication Maltose Maltase Glucose
& DNA the parent strand serves as template
. sucrose Glucose + fructose
,
Invertase

Gene Starch
the portion of DNA carrying information about Amylase Maltose
Proteins Amino Acids
specific protein is
a called gene . Trypsin
Genetic Code :The relation between the amino acid Mechanism
Of Enzyme Action -

and the the nucleotide triblet is called

genetic code .

codons the nucleotide bases in RNA function

amino
in
group of three (triblet) in coding
acid
.
These bases triblets are called codons
.

Characteristic feature of Enzyme :

·
Rate of Reaction :
They increase the rate of reaction
up to 106 to 107 times
.
·
Specific Nature -

crease catalyse the hydrolysis of area

Str .

o Glucose ⑭
and not methyl urea , so these are specific in nature
.

Optimum temperature
·
-

It i active at 20-30
%
·

ph of medium -

it is about 7
,
for bebsin 1 8-2 2
. .

,
for trypsin 7 5-8 3
. .

Concentration
· -
Dilute solutions are more effective
·
Amount of enzyme- Very small amount can accelerate
the reaction

Enzyme Inhibitors These compound inhibit the enzyme str offructose :

SteCBknown as anomericCarbonsee
· -

action , with the help such

of
compounds , the reaction can be controlled
.

HARMONES
These are the chemical substance which are
produced by endocrine ductless) in the
glands body .

Harmones acts as chemical messengers

.

some examples of ductless Cendocrine) glands are

thyroid , pitutary ,
adrenal , pancreas , testes and ovaries
.

Harmones are divided into three tybes :

is steroids (ii) Proteins cii Amines six membered cyclic
ring
fire membered Cyclic ring
C B

ReducingSugar Non ReducingSugar

Free Do not have any bree
Aldehydic or
·
·

aldehydic or Ketonic group

Ketonic group
.

Do not reduce Hollens

Felling soll
·

Reduce
soll
or Jollen's Reagent Reagent and
fehling
Carbohydrates These active boly hydro-
·

e .

g
Maltose a fructose .
e
g sucrose
are
optically
-xy aldehydes/Ketones or the substance which
Chemical Properties of Glucose
these hydrolysis are called carbohydrates
.
give on
CHO
General formula (x(H2O)y : CHO

(CH-0-9-CHy)
C CHOH)↑
Acetic
classification on the basis
of Hydrolysis *
Anhydride
·
Monosaccharides -
can not be hydrolysed further e g .

,
Glucos CHOH CH =
-0 - -

CHy
se
·

oligosaccharides-give 2-10 molecules Glucose Penta acetate

of monosaccharides
e
g
.

Glucose ,
fructose CHO COOH
·

Polysaccharides-give large no If monosaccharides ·

CHOH) (CHOH)-
e
g starch cellulose -
+ To]
, Glyconic

CHOH
.
.

acid
,

·
Preparation of Glucose :
CHOH
from Sucrose CHO COOH
HNOs
-IzH2sOll + MgO ITx (H206 +
(6H(206 3) CHOH) -
& (CHOM) A Saccharic
acid
glucose fructose CH
from
Starch
CHOH ,
OH

(CH100s) n + UH2O is n (H1206 glucose IN-OH

CHO CHO CH

as
structure " ·
aldehyde group (HOM HOM
ME H
1N O
<CH
-

CHO E one
HOME <
↳ - Y

(CHOH) +
E four 2 alcohol
CHOH ins Inor itO
Glucoxine
CH ,
OH One I alcohol 4- Hexque

HO
str (N
↳ -Glyceraldehyde d
.
-
CHO
D-Glucevaldehyde CH-
Glucose
C CHOH)-
HCN
CHO CHO
> (CHOH) Cyano hydrin
toH HotH CHOH
-

CHOH
It

CH OH CHOH
,
Mutarotation when either the two forms
D OHMRHS 2 means of inc HS.
of of glucose
means is dissolved in water there is
, a spontaneous
change in specific rotation till the
equilibrium
value
8 + 52 5 .
.
This is known as mutarotation .
 ,vilibrium
X-D1 + Glucose = EG = B-DH) Gluose The two monosaccharides are joined together by an
mixture
-

- III . 50 + 19 . 50 oxide linkage formed by loss

of a water molecule
This B is called
actually an other
group and

Importance of Carbohydrate
carbohydrates are essential for life in both blants and
glycosidis linkage.
④
na's- -- 0--tHO
·

animals -

·
they are major portion of our .
food
·

carbohydrates are used as storage molecule as starch

SUCROSE
in plants and in animals
glycogen .

cell wall
of bacteria and blants is made up of cellulose
·

L-D-Glucose
·

Honey has been used for a

long time as an instant t
source of energy
. B-D-Glucose
Epimers monosaccharides in configuration
·

differing at

a carbon other than anomeric carbon are called epimers

eg glucose and galactose differ in configuration at (4 ,
hence called epimers
.
MALTOSE

B-D-Galactose
t

B-D Glucose

Sugars and
Non-sugars LACTOSE
Oligosaccharides
and
monosaccharides
having sweet
·

taste , soluble in water are known as

sugars
water and B-D Galactose
insoluble not
-

Polysacchides which are in

t
sweet in taste are known as
non-sugars B-D-Glucose
⑳
· Marat Panchal
ir

Guruji 2
Bharat Panchal-Chemistry
. o

INVERSION OF SUCROSE -

DISACCHARIDES AND POLYSACCHARIDES -

but on hydrolysis either us on dentro-rotalyi

CARBOHYDRATES Hydrolysis Linkage Reducing enzyme invertase the solution is changed into
Property
,
Product
laevo-rotatory solution
.
sucrose 4-D Glucose & C- 1 (Glucose) & Non- As dextrorotatory sucrose is changed
(Disaccharide) B-D Fructose
(-2 (fructose) Reducing to laevo rotatory solutionafter hydrolysis
Maltose is called "invert
CDisaccharide)
X-D-Glucose C-1 Glucose &
Reducing The sucrose sugar"
C-4 Glucose
B-D-Galactose CoH1206
Lactose
(Disaccharide) & B-D-Glucose
C-1 (Galactose) &
C-4 (Glucose)
Reducing CIzH2201 + HO CoH1206 +

DC)· Glucose DH-Fructose

+ 66 50
Cellulose
.

B-D-Glucose C-1(Glucose) & NON- + 52 Go -

94 43
Cpolysaccharide)
. .

C-4 (Glucose) Reducing Since the laevo rotation of fructose (92 4") is .

Glycogen <-D-Glulose C-1 CGlucose) &

CPolysaccharide) Non- more than dextro rotation of glucose ( + 52 50) , the
Reducing
.

C-4 (Glucose)
mixture is laevo
rotatory .

MUTAROTATION
When
glucose
is dissolved in water
, Polysaccharides
then itsspecificrotationchange a equilibrium
into an
is units and it consist
specific rotation of
starch it a
polymer o -glucose
an
optically active substance to an equilibrium value
two components -

Amylose and Amylobectin

is called mutarotation
Amylose Amylopectin
The two anomers
of glucose
i .
e X D
-
glucose &

B-D Glucose in solution changes their specific rotation

to an equilibrium value which is therotation of a

chain str
straight
X-D Glucose =
Obermain
=> B-D-Glucose
(sp. rotation Str .
Especific
=+ 110
%

) C Sp rotation
. rotation
=
+ 52 5%
. =+ 19 2 % .

DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are the carbohydrates
which on hydrolysis with dilute acids or with
enzyme give two molecules of either same or

different monosaccharides