CSE 30310 Design of

Concrete Structures
Lec# 2: Basics of
Structural Design
Dr Muhammad Riaz Ahmad
[email protected]
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering 1
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
1. General Introduction

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Steps Involved in Construction
1. The owner identifies a location and arranges
for necessary finance. Also chooses
Architect/ project manager, who in turn
chooses the various consultants (structural,
geotechnical, survey, etc.).
2. The project manager studies the applicable
by-laws and draws a plan of the structure in
such a way that it meets the town planning,
fire protection, health, and safety
requirements. The competent authority
approves the plan.

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Steps Involved in Construction
3. Procurement: Materials, equipments and services
required for project are procured such as tender
document, proposals or bids, and selecting
contractors, suppliers etc.
4. A land surveyor surveys the land and draws the
contours.
5. The geotechnical engineer investigates the site
conditions, level of water table, nature of soil
(whether expansive or not), and so forth, and
gives a soil report.
6. The form, shape, and size of the structure is
determined by the architect with the help of the
structural engineer, such that the resulting
structure is stable, economical, and efficiently 4
resists the external loads.
Steps Involved in Construction
7. Suitable materials of construction are selected after
considering the required performance, cost, supply,
availability of labour, and transportation to site.
8. The structural engineer estimates the probable loads
(dead, imposed, wind, snow, earthquake, etc.) that
will be acting on the structure.
9. A suitable structural analysis, mostly with the aid of
computers, is done to determine the internal forces
acting on various elements of the structural system
based on the various loads and their combinations.
10. The sizes of various elements are determined based
on critical loading conditions. The design should
ensure that the structure has adequate reliability,
serviceability and endurance.

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Steps Involved in Construction
12. The detailed structural drawings are then
prepared and approved by the structural
engineer.
13. The architect or project manager develops
detailed architectural drawings and
specifications.
14. Construction: Actual construction
including, excavation, foundation work and
structural construction takes placed in
regular inspection by engineers
15. Completion and Handover: project is
handed over to the clients and it enter
operational phase
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Roles and Responsibility of Designers
✓The objective of design should be the achievement of an acceptable
probability that the structure will perform satisfactorily for the
intended purpose during the design life.

✓With the appropriate degree of safety, the structure should sustain

all the loads and deformations during construction and its designed
life and also have adequate resistance to accidental loads and fire.

✓The designer should specify a grade and type of concrete that is

suitable for the environment, keep the structural layout and structural
details simple and use the maximum possible repetition of member
sections and connection details.
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Roles and Responsibility of Designers
The designer has to take several factors into consideration while
designing the structure as follows:
1. Material to be used
2. Arrangement of structural system (e.g., gravitational and
lateral load resisting system)
3. Method of fabrication (cast in situ or prefabricated)
4. Installation of services (lift, water supply, power, ventilation,
heating and cooling, etc.).
5. Safety, economy, and aesthetics
6. Required fire protection
7. Operating/Maintenance and life cycle costs

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2. Design Philosophy

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Design philosophy
1. Working stress method (Elastic design method)
The working stress method in which ultimate strengths of the
materials are divided by a factor of safety to provide design stresses
which are usually within the elastic range.
No longer in use!!!

 acting   allowable
e.g. For concrete  allowable = f c 3

For steel  allowable = f y 1.7

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Design philosophy
Limitations: Working stress method
1. Because it is based on an elastic stress distribution, it is not really
applicable to a semi-plastic material such as concrete, nor is it suitable
when the deformations are not proportional to the load, as in slender
columns. It has also been found to be unsafe when dealing with the
stability of structures subject to overturning forces.

2. It also does not predict ductility, strain compatibility, cracking and

deflection which is critical in behavior of RC structures.
3. Conservative and uneconomical design as it only consider
working stress which is much less than the ultimate strength.

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Design philosophy
2. Load Factor method
The load factor method in which the working loads are
multiplied by a factor of safety.
No longer in use!!!
R( f )  S (F )

In the load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should
be used in the calculations. As this method does not apply factors of
safety to the material stresses, it cannot directly take account of the
variability of the materials, and also it cannot be used to calculate the
deflections or cracking at working loads. Again, this is a design
method that has now been effectively superseded by modern limit
state design methods.
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Design philosophy
3. Limit state method (load and resistance factor design)
Strength design method is based on the philosophy of dividing
F.O.S. in such a way that Bigger part is applied on loads and
smaller part is applied on material strength.

{1 / F.O.S.2} Material Strength ≥ Applied Load x F.O.S.1

F.O.S.1 = Overload factor or Load Factor {greater than 1}

1/F.O.S.2 = Strength Reduction factor or Resistance Factor {less than 1}

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Design philosophy
3. Limit state method (load and resistance factor design)
A limit state can be defined as the state beyond which the
structure no longer fulfils the relevant design criteria, that is a
structure will become unfit for its intended use.
Benefits:
Saftey: Higher level of safety by considering various load combination and probabilities
Economical Design: More efficient use of materials, hence more economical
Realistic Approach: This approach is more close to the actual behavior of materials and
structures
Comprehensive: It undertake both the ultimate limit states and serviceability limit state of
structures in consideration.

However strength design method is complex and requires higher level of structural behavior
and statistical concepts

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Design philosophy
Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013
(HK2013)
• Code of Practice uses the limit state design method.
• Well-detailed and properly erected structures designed by the limit state method
will have acceptable probabilities that they will not reach a limit state.

•Limit states considered in this Code of Practice are either the ultimate limit state
(ULS) or the serviceability limit states (SLS).
•Limit state design of structure must ensure (1) structure is safe under worst loading
and (related to ULS) (2) during normal working conditions the deformation of
members does not detract the appearance, durability or performance of structure
(related to SLS)
In addition, consideration should be given to the requirement for fire resistance.
Equally important are the consideration of suitable materials, workmanship and
quality control.
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Design philosophy
Ultimate limit state (ULS)
Def: The state associated with collapse or with other similar forms of
failure ( very low probability of occurrence) .

Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of a structure as a rigid body.

Rupture of critical components causing partial or complete collapse.
Progressive collapse Minor local failure overloads causing adjacent
members to failure entire structure collapses.
Instability cased by deformations of structure causing buckling of
members.
Overturning, Buckling, Strength

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Design philosophy
Ultimate limit state (ULS)
This requires that the structure must be able to withstand the loads for which it is
designed to ensure the safety of people and the safety and stability of the structure.

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Design philosophy
Serviceability limit state (SLS)
Def: it is related to specified service requirement for a structure
or structural element.
Functional use of structure is disrupted, but collapse is not expected, more often
tolerated than an ultimate limit state since less danger of loss of life.
They are concerned with:
(a) the functioning of structure under normal use;
(b) the comfort of users; and
(c) the appearance of the structure.
Some of Serviceability limit states:
• Deflection
• Cracking
• Durability
• Excessive Vibration
• Fire resistance 18
Design philosophy
ULS or SLS failure?

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3. Critical Load
arrangements

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Design Load

Errors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes:

1. design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation;
2. possible unusual increases in the magnitude of the actions;
3. unforeseen stress redistributions;
4. constructional inaccuracies.

These cannot be ignored and are

considered by applying a partial factor
of safety (γf) on the characteristic
loads.

Partial factors of safety for loads (serviceability)

Design Situation Permanent actions Variable actions

All 1.0 1.0 21

Design material strength

Selection of γm depends on the

1. Strength of Material in actual member. This strength is different from the Lab tested
strength under controlled conditions
2. Severity of limit state being considered, hence higher values are taken for the ULS
than the SLS

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Loading combination for ULS analysis
Dead and imposed load 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
Determine Cross-sectional area of Steel Cable? fy =
500 N/mm2.
γm = 1.15 for steel

Calculations:

Design Stress = Characteristic yield stress/ γm

= 500/1.15 = 434 N/mm2
Design Value = 1.4x Dead Load + 1.6 Live Load = 1.4 x 30 + 1.6 x 2.0 = 7.4 kN = 7400 N

Cross-Section Area = Design Value / Design Stress = 7400/434 = 17.05 mm2

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Analysis of structure at ULS
Actions
1. Permanent actions (Dead Loads)
2. Variable actions (Live Loads)

Dead Loads Live Loads

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Analysis of structure at ULS
1. Applying moment and shear coefficients.
2. Manual calculations: students should be able to do so before
using computer analysis in order to understand the design
principles involved.
3. Computer analysis: familiarity with the use of Spread Sheets is
useful.

The primary objective of structural analysis is

to obtain a set of internal forces and moments throughout the

structure that are in equilibrium with the design loads for the
required loading combination.

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Critical load arrangements for ULS
1.40Gk + 1.60Q k 1.40G k+ 1.60Q k
1.0 G k

A C

(a) Loading arrangement for maximum sagging

moment at A and C

(b) Deflected shape

Three-span beam
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Critical load arrangement for ULS

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Critical load arrangement for ULS

For all of the above cases, the appropriate value of f for

adverse and beneficial conditions should be considered.

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4. Structural Analysis

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Analysis of beams
Point Load

Uniformly distributed Load

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Free Beam Calculator | Reactions, Bending, Shear Analysis
(civils.ai)
Analysis of beams (non-continuous beams)
The one-span simply supported beam carries a distributed permanent load
including self-weight of 25kN/m, a permanent concentrated partition load
of 40kN at mid-span and a distributed imposed load 10kN/m.

1.4×40=56 kN
P = 1.4 × 40 = 56 kN
(1.4×25 + 1.6×10) = 51kN/m w = 1.4 ×25 + 1.6 ×10)
= 51 kN/m

M = PL/4 + wL2/8
130 kN = 158 kN-M
28 kN V = (P+w x 4)/2 =130
28 kN
130 kN

158kNm

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Analysis of beams: (continuous beams)
G = 25 kN/m Q = 10 kN/m
k k
A B C D

6.0m 4.0m 6.0m

(1.40x25 + 1.60x10) (1.40x25 + 1.60x10)

(1.0x25)
(1)

(1.40x25 + 1.60x10)
(1.00x25) (1.00x25)
(2)

(1.40x25 + 1.60x10)

(3)

Continuous beam loading arrangement

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Analysis of beams
Fixed end moments (point loads)

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Analysis of beams
Fixed end moments (UDL)

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Analysis of beams
G = 25 kN/m Q = 10 kN/m
k k
A B C D

6.0m 4.0m 6.0m

(1.40x25 + 1.60x10) (1.40x25 + 1.60x10)

=51 kN/m (1.0x25)
=51 kN/m
(1) =25 kN/m

𝑤𝑙2 𝑤𝑙 2 𝑤𝑙 2 𝑤𝑙 2
0 − 8 + − + 8 0
51 kN/m 12 25 kN/m 12 51 kN/m

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Analysis of beams
First Load Case Moment distribution
A B C D
Stiffness ( k ) 3 I I 3 I
. .
4 L L 4 L
3 1 1 = 0.125
. = 0.125 = = 0.25
4 6 4
Distr. Factors 0.125
0.125 + 0.25
=1/3 =2/3 2/3 1/3

Load (kN-m) 51 (UDL) 25 (UDL) 51 (UDL)

0 0
F.E.M
-229.5 +33.3 -33.3 +229.5
Balance +65.4 +130.8 -130.8 -65.4

Carry over -65.4 +65.4

Balance +21.8 +43.6 -43.6 -21.8
Carry over -21.8 +21.8
Balance +7.3 +14.5 -14.5 -7.3
Carry over -7.3 +7.3
Balance +2.4 +4.9 -4.9 -2.4
Carry over -2.4 +2.4
Balance +0.8 +1.6 -1.6 -0.8
M (kN m) 0 -131.8 +131.8 -131.8 + 131.8 0
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Analysis of beams
First Load Case
= 2.6 m

= 168.2 kN-m

= 131 kN

= 175 kN
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Analysis of beams

132 132
(1) 82

168 168
90 90
(2) 12

72 72
149
149
(3)

161
161

Bending Moment Diagrams (kN.m)

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Free Beam Calculator | Reactions, Bending, Shear Analysis (civils.ai)
Analysis of beams

Shear Force Diagrams (kN)

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Analysis of beams
BM & SF Envelopes Design for hogging moment of
50% of midspan moment at end
span (HK2013, cl. 5.2.9.2)

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Analysis of beams
Continuous beams with approximately equal spans and uniform
loading

The ultimate bending moments and shearing forces in continuous beams of

three or more approximately equal spans without cantilevers can be obtained
using relevant coefficients provided that
(a) the spans differ by no more than 15 per cent of the longest span;
(b) the loading is uniform;
(c) the characteristic variable load does not exceed the characteristic
permanent load.

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Analysis of beams
Bending moment and shearing-force coefficients for
continuous beams
End Span Interior Span
0.11FL 0.08FL 0.08FL
(a)
Bending Moments
0.09FL 0.07FL

(b) 0.45F 0.55F

Shearing Forces

0.60F 0.55F
F= Total ultimate load on span = (1.40G k+ 1.60Q ) kN
k
L = Effective span (refer to HK2013 5.2.1.2)

Bending-moment and shearing-force coefficients for beams 42

5. Moment Redistribution

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Moment redistribution
The assumption of elastic behavior is reasonably true for low stress levels; but as a
section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plastic deformation will occur.
Hence redistributions of the elastic moments subject to certain limitations are allowed.
Reinforced concrete behaves in a manner midway between that of steel and concrete.
The stress-strain curves for the two materials show the elastoplastic behavior of steel
and the plastic behavior of concrete. A typical moment curvature diagram for a
reinforced concrete member is show.

Typical moment-curvature of an RC beam

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Moment redistribution

Plastic Analysis Theory:

If the moment is increased beyond the yield

moment, the outermost fibers that has
previously been stress to their yield point
will continue to have the same stress but
will yield, and the duty of providing the
necessary additional resisting moment will
fall on the fibers nearer to the natural axis.
When the stress distribution reaches fully
plastic distribution, a plastic hinge is said to
have formed because no additional moment
can be resisted at the section. The plastic
moment (Mp) is the moment that produce
full plasticity in all member cross section
and creates a plastic hinge.

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Moment redistribution
1. The max elastic bending occurs at
the fixed end. As the load is
increased aplastic hinge will form at
this point.
2. Introducing the plastic hinge
reduced the indeterminacy of the
structure and turned it to a statically
determinant structure. It still can
carry more load.
3. As additional load is applied, no
further moment can be carried at the
plastic hinge but other points in the
beam do still have reserved capacity
& so the B.M. at those locations can
increase.
4. By further increasing the load, the
stresses at another point will
increase and reach yield, resulting in
the formation of another plastic
hinge.
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Moment redistribution
Increasing load causes plastic
hinges to form at A and C when
w/unit length
moment capacity is reached.
Load
Moments at A and C can not
L
increase. Additional load induces
additional moment at B wL2 Elastic BMD
12 B M =M =M
A C u
Moment capacity is reached at B. A C
wL2
Plastic hinge forms at B in addition 24
to A and C. Beam collapses. Additional moments diagram
(Hinges at A and C)
Collapse and elastic BM diagram
are same shape. Elastic BM Collapse mechanism
diagram can be redistributed to give Elastic BMD (Collapse loads)
collapse diagram wL2 Final Collapse BMD
12

Moment redistribution - one-span beam

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Plastic hinge formation and Moment redistribution

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Formation of plastic hinges in structures
Moment redistribution

The requirement for moment redistribution:

• the moment at a section of a beam can be reduced without
exceeding the design moments at other sections
• the values of the column moments are not affected or reduced
• equilibrium is maintained between the internal and external
forces
• amount of redistribution is allowed up to 30% maximum (see
HK2013 code). 10% for unbraced frames > 4 storeys

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Moment redistribution

Redistribution of support moment

150 kN-m

1. Maximum design capacity at other section is

not compromised.
2. Column moments are not disturbed (150-112 =
138 before redistribution and 142-104 = 38 after
redistribution)
3. There is an equilibrium between internal and
externa forces.
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End of Lectures

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