Assignment 2

Task 1 – critically evaluate QM tools and techniques that are available and how these
may improve systems, and processes and support business objectives.
1250 words 178 words each

Topic sentence
Supporting evidence
Critical evaluation
Use tables for advantages and disadvantages summary table

7 Management Tools for Quality Control

MAY 8, 2019 BY PATRICIA LOTICH

Many organizations use quality tools to help monitor and manage

their quality initiatives.
There are several types of tools that can be used. However, there
are seven management tools for quality control that are the most
common.
Different tools are used for different problem-solving opportunities,
and many of the tools can be used in different ways.
The trick is to become familiar and comfortable with all of these
quality tools so you can pull the appropriate one out of your toolbox
when there is a problem that needs to be solved.

7 Management Tools For Quality

Control
1. Flowchart
Most of us are familiar with flowcharts. You have seen flowcharts of
reporting relationships in organizational structures.
Flowcharts are also used to document work process flows.
This tool is used when trying to determine where the bottlenecks or
breakdowns are in work processes.
Flow-charting the steps of a process provides a picture of what the
process looks like and can shed light on issues within the process.
Flowcharts are also used to show changes in a process when
improvements are made or to show a new workflow process.
This example provides a picture so those checking children in will
know the steps each takes depending on whether it is their first time
or a child who has been there before.

Example Flowchart
Transformation process risk management to sustainable corporate performance and quality
management: developing flowcharts for approved training organization

Ayse Kucuk Yilmaz

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology

ISSN: 0002-2667

Article publication date: 10 December 2019

Issue publication date: 22 January 2020

Flowchart method is useful to identify process risks in organizational

system transformation. Flowcharts simplify communication and
provide effective analysis of the process. Flowchart enables designing
plan which is suitable for aimed results. Flowcharts method provides
efficient coding and system analysis and program development phase
also serves as a guide while debugging errors. In this study, flowcharts
including all stages have been developed for transition to an ATO
authorization. With these flowcharts, all elements of the process and
the risks, threats and opportunities that may be faced can be
proactively identified together. Thus, improvements will be possible to
achieve the corporate objectives of the transformation and
reorganization process and increase the corporate performance with
optimum resource usage.

A FLOWCHART-BASED METHODOLOGY FOR PROCESS IMPROVEMENT Biren Prasad. EDS, Die

Ma_nagenent Gioup (DMG), ' Mid-SizE Car Divisioir, and Neal Strand. GM, Die Ma4ager_nent Group
(DMG), ' Mid-Siz-e Car Divisioh,

IFLOW methodology showed the power of "visual" techniques to process improvements. The
different types of shape-icons for the activities and line-icons for connectivity helped us to capture
the current (asis) process very easily. lt also allowed us to communicate the information through
simple iconic means than through plain words. By depicting the activities into suitable icons, team
members were able to visualize easily the entire process without much needs for explanations and
tutorials. The charts were easy to follow and quite self-explanatory. lt also provided a medium of
discussions for process improvements in many areas of our productivity concerns. The
implementations of the change process as a result of those improvements presented very little or no
resistance, from our employees. The members were also seen forthcoming in suggesting new
improvements in their own areas and compromising on many barriers that became vividly clear
when the entire process was flow-charted.

PLoS One. 2018; 13(6): e0195955.

Published online 2018 Jun 27. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195955

PMCID: PMC6021048

PMID: 29949595

Quality of flow diagram in systematic review and/or

meta-analysis

Therefore, this review suggests that the reporting quality of flow

diagram is less satisfactory, hence not maximizing the potential
benefit of the flow diagrams. A guideline with standardized flow
diagram is recommended to improve the quality of systematic
reviews, and to enable better reader comprehension of the review
process.
2. Check Sheet
A check sheet is a basic quality tool that is used to collect data. A
check sheet might be used to track the number of times a certain
incident happens.
As an example, a human resource department may track the
number of questions by employees, per category, per day.
In this particular check sheet the tool shows the total number of
questions received by the human resources department.
This information helps that department identify opportunities to
proactively share information with employees in an effort to reduce
the numbers of questions asked.

Example Check Sheet

Use and limitations of checklists. Other strategies for audits and inspections
September 2001

The Quality Assurance Journal 5(3):133 - 136

DOI:

10.1002/qaj.136

Checklists are tools commonly used by quality assurance (QA) unit professionals in inspections and audits
as they perform their customary tasks of verifying and checking compliance with various applicable
standards. An analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of checklist use is discussed in this article.
Excessive dependence on these auxiliary-checking systems can cause certain problems, and in some cases
their real usefulness is called into question. Alternative or complementary strategies are proposed in order
to optimise the rational use of checklists. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/64157/4374310/45-Checklist-quality-evaluation-
administrative-data-sources-2009.pdf/24ffb3dd-5509-4f7e-9683-4477be82ee60

2.2.2 Checklist For the evaluation of the Source and Metadata hyperdimension, the authors have
developed a checklist (Daas et al., 2008b; Daas et al., 2009). The checklist guides the user through
the quality indicators that need to be evaluated for both Source and Metadata. For the Data
hyperdimension a checklist cannot be used because of the large amount of calculations that need to
be performed. The best approach for this hyperdimension is the topic of current research. Because
of this, the quality aspects in the Data hyperdimension were not determined for the data sources
described in this paper. The Source and Metadata checklist can be used for a data source that is
already available (and used) by the NSI and for the evaluation of a new data source that could
potentially be used for statistics. The checklist is included in the Annex. The checklist guides the user
through the measurement methods for each of the quality indicators shown in tables 1 and 2. By
answering the questions in the checklist, the ‘value’ of every measurement method in tables 1 and 2
is determined. Since the predominant part of the methods in the Source and Metadata
hyperdimension are qualitative, usually a score has to be filled in. When problems are found or a
question cannot be answered completely, the user is guided in the steps to take. Apart from this,
additional space is included to write down remarks. Evaluation of the Metadata-part requires that
the user has a particular use in mind (Daas et al., 2008b).

https://www.foodfocus.co.za/assets/images/Whitepapers/
Whitepaper-Digital-Checklists-testo-Saveris-Retail-Chain-EN-
ZA.pdf
1. Lack of employee support When a food safety process prescribes cleaning a surface or checking
the temperature of a deep-freezer, for example, paper-based checklists contain only the steps to be
carried out and the time at which they must be finished. However, they provide no guidance of
which special factors need to be observed during the checks, and which corrective actions for
deviations are prescribed. Deviations or problems can occur, such as the violation of upper or lower
temperature limit values. These then need to be documented on paper, and action is often only
taken days or weeks later. In addition, the employees can only make handwritten comments, which
can lead to misinterpretation, depending on the handwriting. Paper-based checklists also provide no
possibility of visual documentation, e.g. in the form of photos. These however, would in many cases
considerably simplify the documentation. 2. Manipulation and pencil whipping If there is only low
interest in the completed checklists, and they are only looked at when an audit audit is scheduled,
then this can lead to the staff’s questioning the purpose of the documentation. As a result, the lists
are filled in incompletely and without enthusiasm. The appreciation of the relevance of the
compliance-relevant task and their completion on time is increasingly lost. It is not uncommon that
the checklists for the entire weekend are already filled in on Friday, or that missing entries are
completed later when an audit has been announced. Employees have the feeling they are
documenting everything simply for the audit and not for the safety of the consumer. 3. Time-
consuming analysis It is not just finding and filling in paper checklists which needs a lot of time and
effort. The analysis of completed checklists is also time-consuming and requires valuable
management resources. Analyzing possible weaknesses in a restaurant or store and gaining an
overview over the overall status of the food safety system is very complex using paper-based
documentation. The same applies to the comparison of individual sites with each other
(benchmarking).

3. Cause and Effect (fish bone) Diagram

A cause and effect diagram, also known as a fish-bone diagram
shows the many possible causes of a problem.
To use this tool, you need to first identify the problem you are trying
to solve and simply write it in the box (head of the fish) to the right.
Next, you will list the major causes of the problem on the spine of
the fish.
Causes are typically separated into categories of people, process,
materials and equipment.
Causes are then identified through brainstorming with a group
familiar with the problem.
Once all of the possible causes are identified, they can be used to
develop an improvement plan to help resolve the identified problem.

Example Cause and Effect (Fish Bone)

Diagram
https://www.ionos.com/startupguide/productivity/fishbone-diagram/
Advantages Disadvantages

✔ Encourages creativity when searching for the

✘ Requires discipline and simplicity in order to render the
diagram useful
causes of a problem

✘ Predefined categories (e.g. 5M) can limit creative

✔ Categorizes possible causes problem-solving avenues

✘ Complex correlations cannot be illustrated in the

✔ Working in a team opens up new perspectives fishbone diagram

✘ Does not provide solutions, but only illustrates the

✔ Causalities of causes are illustrated causes

✔ Encourages employees to contribute ideas

 Advantages Disadvantages

✔ Simplifies the problem

✔ Easy to use and easy to learn

Application Of Fishbone Diagram To Determine The Risk Of An Event With Multiple Causes
Article in Knowledge Management Research & Practice · January 2010

Fishbone diagram is a method used to determine the global risk of an event with multiple relevant
causes, relatively easy to apply. The application realized allows determining the risk of secondary
and main causes, of cause’s categories and of the global risk, allows structuring of treatment
measures on vulnerability areas, precisely oriented on the causes which determine high risk values.
Analysis of causes sequence can be a simple analyze which refers to the multitude of the causes and
their sequence, but can be completed with other representation and hierarchy elements for risks
treatment. Also, the method is used to simulate the dynamic of the process analyzed. There are no
instruments for risk analyze based exclusively on the Fishbone diagram. But there are instruments
which include elements of primary or complementary analyze of this type. The condition to
successfully apply the method proposed here is a correct evaluation of the probabilities, weights and
impact of the causes. As a result of this, the method is recommended especially for initial or
comparative analyzes. Applying the method in relatively more simple cases is an excellent
opportunity to understand the essence of risk analyze, of its bonds with establishing risk treatment
measures and the dynamic evolution of risk values depending on the application of these methods.

https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2020/03/fishbone-diagram/
Advantages and Disadvantages

There are a number of advantages and disadvantages associated with fishbone

diagrams.

Advantages
Being a visual tool, it is easy to understand and shows clearly the relationship
between cause and effect.
It helps you find the most likely cause of the problem.
You can apply the diagram to a range of problems.
By involving the whole team in the creation of the Ishikawa diagram the whole
team better understands the issues surrounding the problem.

Disadvantages
The fishbone diagram itself doesn’t help you to prioritize causes. All causes are
equally weighted in the diagram and you have to prioritize them yourself.
Brainstorming is often reliant on opinion rather than fact. The output from the
diagram is only as good as your brainstorming session.
The diagram is less useful for complex causal relationships and can become
unwieldy to use.
You may waste time discussing causes that have very little impact on the problem.

Summary
The Fishbone diagram (Ishikawa diagram) was developed in the 1960s and
provides a visual way to find the causes of a problem. It can be used in any
industry and for many purposes, including identifying manufacturing defects and
process improvement. The process of creating an Ishikawa diagram can also help
create a shared understanding of the problem amongst your team members.

4. Pareto Chart
A Pareto chart is a bar graph of data showing the largest number of
frequencies to the smallest.
In this example, we are looking at the number of product defects in
each of the listed categories.
When you look at the number of defects from the largest to the
smallest occurrences, it is easy to see how to prioritize
improvements efforts.
The most significant problems stand out and can be targeted first.

Example Pareto Chart

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-
pareto-chart/

Advantages :
 One of the essential and most important advantages of Pareto
analysis is that it simply helps to identify and determine main cause
i.e. root causes of defects or problems.
 Defects are firstly ranked in order of their severity i.e. in descending
order. Defects are organized from highest to lowest priority with
help of Pareto Chart. Defects that are on top with highest priority
are eliminated first or resolved first.
 With help of Pareto chart, one can also determine cumulative
impact of defect. In simple words, cumulative impact is an effect
that is being caused due to defect happening over a long period of
time.
 Pareto Chart also helps and provides a better explanation regarding
defects that are needed to resolved first. One can also decide and
plan about correct and important measures or actions that are
needed to be taken regarding defect.
 With help of Pareto chart, skills of individuals are also increased in
better ways like problem-solving skills, decision-making skills, etc. It
simply helps to improve important skills that are required because
when someone prepares a Pareto chart, it enables to organize
problems related to defect or anything into cohesive facts.
 It also helps in solving issues regarding problem-solving and
decision making, time management i.e. be at work on time or
personal, change management, etc.
 One can plan, analyze, and resolve problems or defects with help

of Pareto Chart.
Disadvantages :
 One of main disadvantages is that root cause analysis cannot be
done by itself in Pareto analysis. There is a requirement of tool i.e.
root cause analysis tool for determining or identify root causes or
major causes of defect.
 It does not represent severity of defect or any problem. It only
shows qualitative data.
 Pareto analysis only focuses on past data where damaged has
already happened. Yes, past data is essential too, but it’s not
necessary that it will be relevant in future scenarios also. Therefore,
it should focus on past data as well as present and future data also.
 Pareto analysis cannot be applied to all cases. It is limited to some
cases only.
 There are other disadvantages also like mistake in scoring
problems, mistake in applications, etc.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
272353122_Pareto_Analysis
Pareto analysis is based on the observation that operational results and economic wealth are not distributed
evenly and that some inputs contribute more than others. It is referred to as the 80/20 rule, a nomenclature
which has popularized a complex economic concept introduced by Vilfredo Pareto, a nineteenth-century
Italian economist. The underlying concept is that the majority of problems (roughly 80%) are often caused
by a small number of the sources (roughly 20%). The implication of the 80/20 rule is that most efforts are
not efficient and should be reduced. The strategic objective would be to leverage and maximize the efforts
that produce most of the results. In strategic management, Pareto analysis is linked to the analysis of an
organization's internal environment. It is particularly useful to identify internal strengths and weaknesses
through the evaluation of an organization's internal resources and capabilities, which are the source of its
core competencies and which in turn, create competitive advantage.

file:///C:/Users/rooke/Downloads/
APPLICATIONOFTHEPARETOANALYSISINPROJECTMANAGEMENT.pdf

Projects are specific endeavors which consist of a large number of activities, stakeholders, team
members and at the same have limited time and resources. This confrontation can lead to a large
number of problems that project managers have to solve in order to successfully implement a
project. Therefore it is necessary that project manager allocate the most critical activities or issues
that might endanger the planned implementation of the project. Pareto analysis is one of the tools
that can be used to extract critical activities or issues that arise in projects. So project managers can
pay attention to them. In this way, the project manager will be disburdened on analysis of those
items that do not have a big impact on the project until the resources will be able to focus on the
essential items that have a major impact on the success of the project.

5. Control Charts
Control charts or run charts are used to plot data points over time
and give a picture of the movement of that data.
These charts demonstrate when data is consistent or when there
are high or low outliers in the occurrences of data.
It focuses on monitoring performance over time by looking at the
variation in data points.
And it distinguishes between common cause and special cause
variations. The Dow Jones Industrial Average is a good example of
a control chart.

Example Control (Run) Charts

Disadvantages of Control Chart in Printing Quality Control over Solder Paste and Strategies for
Improvement

This paper takes the common control chart x − R as an example and discussed the advantages in the
process of application. When the boundary of control chart is determined, which only depends on
the sampling data to estimate and not consider the former conditions or other interfere or just
concerns the information of total and samples but ignores the acquired or existed information, it is
usually found that the conclusion may conflict with other judgment indexes. Thus, to solve the above
problems, we can use Bayes theory to introduce the proper “correction coefficient” to correct the
control parameters, which can high the accuracy of control limits and make the conclusion more
reasonable, reliable and believable.

https://cyberleninka.org/article/n/1079120/viewer
Benefits of using a control chart
 Understand the variations that are always present in processes. ...
 See when something is going wrong or may go wrong. ...
 Notice patterns within plotted points. ...
 Predict future performance.
 Generate new ideas for improving quality based on your analysis.
A disadvantage of control charts for variables and attributes is that they only use data from
the most recent measurement to draw conclusions about the process. This makes it
quite insensitive to shifts on the order of 1.5 standard deviations or less

Control Charts to Enhance Quality Nefise Gönül Şengöz

Control charts are important tools of statistical quality control to enhance quality. Quality
improvement methods have been applied in the last few 10 years to fulfill the needs of consumers.
The product has to retain the desired properties with the least possible defects, while maximizing
profit. There are natural variations in production, but there are also assignable causes which do not
form part of chance. Control charts are used to monitor production; in particular, their application
may serve as an “early warning” index regarding potential “out-of-control” processes. In order to
keep production under control, different control charts which are prepared for dissimilar cases are
established incorporating upper and lower control limits. There are a number of control charts in use
and are grouped mainly as control charts for variables and control charts for attributes. Points
plotted on the charts may reveal certain patterns, which in turn allows the user to obtain specific
information. Patterns showing deviations from normal behavior are raw material, machine setting or
measuring method, human, and environmental factors, inadvertently affecting the quality of
product. The information obtained from control charts assists the user to take corrective actions,
hence opting for specified nominal values enhancing as such quality. Keywords: qual

6. Histograms
Histograms are bar chart pictures of data that shows patterns that
fall within typical process conditions.
Changes in a process should trigger new collection of data.
A minimum of 50-75 data points should be gathered to ensure an
adequate number of data points have been collected.
The patterns that are detected demonstrate an analysis that helps
understand variation.
In this example, it shows that the receptionist received the most
phone calls about contribution statements for that period.

Example Histogram
https://histogramsdennard.weebly.com/pros-and-cons-of-
histograms.html
Although histograms are considered to be some of the most commonly used graphs to display data,
the histogram has many pros and cons hidden within its formulaic set up. Histograms allow viewers
to easily compare data, and in addition, they work well with large ranges of information. They are
also provide a more concrete from of consistency, as the intervals are always equal, a factor that
allows easy data transfer from frequency tables to histograms. Although useful in many different
cases, histograms are especially useful when dealing with large value ranges. For example, if a
sample of college students included over 2000 students, and we are collecting data concerning how
many times someone has driven their car outside of campus in the past year, the range could vary
from a person who has yet to find a reason to drive their car outside of campus to an individual who
feels the need to visit home every week. The range of data values would be very large, so in this case,
it would be convenient to use a histogram.
Although there are many instances where using a histogram would be considered convenient, there
are also many instances where using or interpreting a histogram could be troublesome as well. For
example, when interpreting a histogram, it is extremely difficult and practically impossible to extract
the exact amount of "input" in the histogram unless it is a frequency histogram. For example, if you
are given a histogram and asked how many people gave their data in a survey, it would be extremely
difficult to pinpoint an exact number. Histograms are often considered inconvenient when comparing
multiple categories, because even though you can compare several histograms side by side, it doesn't
quite create the desired effect.

The main advantages of a histogram are its simplicity and versatility. It

can be used in many different situations to offer an insightful look at
frequency distribution. For example, it can be used in sales and marketing
to develop the most effective pricing plans and marketing campaigns.20 Mar
2020
What are some limitations of histograms?
 It depends (too much) on the number of bins.
 It depends (too much) on variable's maximum and minimum.
 It doesn't allow to detect relevant values.
 It doesn't allow to discern continuous from discrete variables.
 It makes it hard to compare distributions.
 It's hard to make if you don't have all the data in memory.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
319572960_Histograms_Theory_and_Practice
The histogram is one of the most important graphical objects in statistical practice. In addition, the
histogram provides a consistent estimate of any density function with very few assumptions.
Construction of a density histogram with arbitrary mesh is described. Asymptotic theory of optimal
histograms is used to provide practical rules for choosing a bin width with real data. Cross-validation
is shown to provide useful estimates of both the bin width and the bin origin. Examples are displayed
using data from Sammy Sosa’s best year for hitting home runs. The histogram in pictorial form
provides the most common graphical summary of a random sample, as well an estimate of the
underlying probability density function. The data points are tabulated into a list of disjoint bins. The
invention of the histogram in the seventeenth century marked the transition to modern statistics.
Before, statistical data came in the form of lists of individual cases, or summary by category. Such
lists provide more of an inventory than any deep understanding. Thus an analysis of the causes of
death in the seventeenth century listed in England’s bills of mortality collected during the plague
years might be summarized by indicating the fraction dying from accidents, murder, being run over
by carts, or diseases such as smallpox, thrush, plague, etc. and might be depicted in a pie chart. In
1662, John Graunt (1662) analyzed the age of death from the bills of mortality and made a table,
which indicated a 36% chance of death in the first six years of life, a 24% chance in the next ten
1David W. Scott is Noah Harding Professor, Department of Statistics MS-138, Rice University,
Houston, TX 77251-1892 (email: [email protected]). This work was partially supported by NSF award
DMS-05- 05584, and ONR contract N00014-06-1-0060. 1 years, 15% in the next ten, then 9%, 6%,
and so on. This table of tables is the essence of a modern histogram and marked the beginning of
survival analysis by mortality tables. A single (continuous) quantity, age in this case, is analyzed to
determine the likelihood of all possible outcomes. In modern terminology, the quantity is called a
random variable, X, and the likelihood of possible outcomes is summarized by the cumulative
distribution function (cdf), F(x) = Prob(X ≤ x). If the random variable is assumed to be continuous and
its cdf differentiable, then the probability density function (pdf), f(x) = F ′ (x), provides an equivalent
summary. The histogram, properly scaled, may be thought of as an estimator of the pdf; see Scott
(1979). The proper construction of a histogram requires some notation. Let the kth bin interval, [tk,
tk+1), be denoted by Bk. Of course tk < tk+1 for all k. For convenience, we refer to t0 as the bin
origin. In many cases, t0 = 0. Let the width of the kth bin be denoted by hk = tk+1 − tk. Given a
random sample of size n, {x1, x2, . . . , xn}, the bin count in the kth bin may be computed as νk = Xn
i=1 I(xi ∈ Bk), k = . . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . Note that P k νk = n. Then the histogram in the kth bin is
defined as ˆf(x) = νk nhk , x ∈ Bk, ∀k. With this definition of a histogram, it is straightforward to check
that ˆf(x) ≥ 0 and that R ˆf(x) dx = 1, so that ˆf(x) is a proper density function. Often for graphical
purposes, the bin counts {νk} themselves are plotted. However, the bin counts are proportional to
ˆf(x) only when all of the bin widths are equal, say hk = h, for all bins Bk. Most elementary textbooks
recommend choosing bins of equal width, but failure to compute the proper histogram will lead to
severe distortion of the density distribution. Freedman et al. (1978) give a clear discussion and
description of the misperceptions that may result. The same caution holds if the bin frequencies,
{νk/n}, are plotted. For example, John Graunt’s mortality figures were computed over an unequal bin
mesh, which served to understate mortality in young children.

7. Scatter Diagrams
Scatter diagrams are graphs that show the relationship between
variables. Variables often represent possible causes and effect.
As an example, a scatter diagram might show the relationship
between how satisfied volunteers are that attend orientation
training.
The diagram shows the relationship between volunteer satisfaction
scores and volunteer orientation training.

Example Scatter Diagram

Each of these quality tools has unique advantages for certain

situations. And, not all tools are used for all problem-solving.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
220586609_Generalized_Scatter_Plots
Scatter Plots are one of the most powerful and most widely used techniques for visual data exploration. A
well-known problem is that scatter plots often have a high degree of overlap, which may occlude a
significant portion of the data values shown. In this paper, we propose the generalized scatter plot
technique, which allows an overlap-free representation of large data sets to fit entirely into the display. The
basic idea is to allow the analyst to optimize the degree of overlap and distortion to generate the best-
possible view. To allow an effective usage, we provide the capability to zoom smoothly between the
traditional and our generalized scatter plots. We identify an optimization function that takes overlap and
distortion of the visualization into acccount. We evaluate the generalized scatter plots according to this
optimization function, and show that there usually exists an optimal compromise between overlap and
distortion. Our generalized scatter plots have been applied successfully to a number of real-world IT
services applications, such as server performance monitoring, telephone service usage analysis and
financial data, demonstrating the benefits of the generalized scatter plots over traditional ones.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
7923211_The_Early_Origins_and_Development_of_the_Scatterplot
Of all the graphic forms used today, the scatterplot is arguably the most versatile, polymorphic, and
generally useful invention in the history of statistical graphics. Its use by Galton led to the discovery of
correlation and regression, and ultimately to much of present multivariate statistics. So, it is perhaps
surprising that there is no one widely credited with the invention of this idea. Even more surprising is that
there are few contenders for this title, and this question seems not to have been raised before. This article
traces some of the developments in the history of this graphical method, the origin of the term scatterplot,
the role it has played in the history of science, and some of its modern descendants. We suggest that the
origin of this method can be traced to its unique advantage: the possibility to discover regularity in
empirical data by smoothing and other graphic annotations to enhance visual perception.

Advantages of Scatter Diagrams:

1. Scatter diagrams are very easy to plot since we only need to locate and mark
some points on a piece of graph paper.
2. Scatter diagrams are easy to understand and interpret. If there is an upward
trend rising from the lower left-hand corner and going upward to the upper
right-hand corner, the correlation is positive since this reveals that the values
of the two variables move in the same direction. If, on the other hand, the
points depict a downward trend from the upper left-hand corner to the lower
right-hand corner, the correlation is negative since in this case, the values of
the two variables move in the opposite directions.
3. Outliers are isolated and do not affect the results. If a point is very far away
from where the majority of points are concentrated then that point can
simply be ignored for the purposes of correlation analysis.
4. A Scatter diagram helps in determining how strongly two variables are
related and predicts the behavior of the dependent variable as a measure of
the independent variable. If the points are very dense i.e., very close to each
 other, a fairly good amount of correlation may be expected between the two
variables. On the other hand, if the points are widely scattered, a poor
correlation may be expected between them.
5. This diagram is especially useful when one variable is easy to measure and
the other is not.
6. The scatter diagram enables us to obtain an approximate estimating line or
line of best fit by the free hand method. The method generally consists in
stretching a piece of thread through the plotted points to locate the best
possible line.

Scatterplot for Uncorrelated

Variables

Disadvantages of Scatter Diagrams:

1. It only depicts the direction but not the degree of correlation. We cannot say
if the degree of correlation between the two variables is 0.7 or 0.8 merely by
looking at the scatter diagrams. We need to calculate the coefficient of
correlation in order to get an accurate value for the degree of correlations
2. This method is useful only if there are a small number of data points. if there
are too many points to be plotted then the scatter diagram becomes too
cluttered and unreadable. It is impossible to draw any conclusion in such
cases.
3. This diagram does not show the relationship for more than two variables.
When dealing with three or more variables we need to calculate the partial
 correlation coefficients in order to understand the relationship between the
variables.

Task 2 – Demonstrate how QM tools and techniques may contribute to problem-

solving. Include at least one example of QM from recent literature that will better
support problem solving in the organisation.
1250 words

Explained briefly, the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle is a model for carrying out change. It is an
essential part of the lean manufacturing philosophy and a key prerequisite for continuous
improvement of people and processes.
First, proposed by Walter Shewhart and later developed by William Deming, the PDCA cycle
became a widespread framework for constant improvements in manufacturing, management, and
other areas.
PDCA is a simple four-stage method that enables teams to avoid recurring mistakes and improve
processes.
As we've explained, the PDCA's meaning let’s get deeper into the topic and learn more about the
cycle.

Where Does Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle

Come From?
The American statistician and physicist Walter Shewhart is considered the father of PDCA. He
was passionate about statistical analysis and quality improvement, and he built the foundation of
PDCA recorded in numerous publications.
Years later, inspired by Shewhart’s ideas, William Deming actually developed the model into a
learning and improvement cycle, becoming popular as PDCA. This is why the model is also
known as the Shewhart cycle or Deming cycle.
Explaining the PDCA Cycle in Detail

PDCA cycle is an iterative process for continually improving products, people, and services. It
became an integral part of what is known today as Lean management. The Plan-Do-Check-Act
model includes solutions testing, analyzing results, and improving the process.
For example, imagine that you have plenty of customer complaints about the slow response rate
of your support team. Then you will probably need to improve the way your team works to keep
customers satisfied. That is the point where PDCA comes into play.
Let’s take a closer look at the four stages of the PDCA process.
PLAN

At this stage, you will literally plan what needs to be done. Depending on the project's size,
planning can take a major part of your team’s efforts. It will usually consist of smaller steps so
that you can build a proper plan with fewer possibilities of failure.
Before you move to the next stage, you need to be sure that you answered some basic concerns:

 What is the core problem we need to solve?

 What resources do we need?
 What resources do we have?
 What is the best solution for fixing the problem with the available resources?
 In what conditions will the plan be considered successful? What are the goals?
Keep in mind, you and your team may need to go through the plan a couple of times before being
able to proceed. In this case, it is appropriate to use a technique for creating and maintaining open
feedback loops such as Hoshin Kanri Catchball. It will enable you to collect enough information
before you decide to proceed.
DO

After you have agreed on the plan, it is time to take action. At this stage, you will apply
everything that has been considered during the previous stage.
Be aware that unpredicted problems may occur at this phase. This is why, in a perfect situation,
you may first try to incorporate your plan on a small scale and in a controlled environment.
Standardization is something that will definitely help your team apply the plan smoothly. Make
sure that everybody knows their roles and responsibilities.
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CHECK

This is probably the most important stage of the PDCA cycle. If you want to clarify your plan,
avoid recurring mistakes, and apply continuous improvement successfully, you need to pay
enough attention to the CHECK phase.
Here, you need to audit your plan’s execution and see if your initial plan actually worked.
Moreover, your team will be able to identify problematic parts of the current process and
eliminate them in the future. If something went wrong during the process, you need to analyze it
and find the root cause of the problems.
ACT

Finally, you arrive at the last stage of the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle. Previously, you developed,
applied, and checked your plan. Now, you need to act.
If everything seems perfect and your team managed to achieve the original goals, then you can
proceed and apply your initial plan.
It can be appropriate to adopt the whole plan if objectives are met. Respectively, your PDCA
model will become the new standard baseline. However, every time you repeat a standardized
plan, remind your team to go through all steps again and try to improve carefully.
The PDCA cycle is a simple but powerful framework for fixing issues on any level of your
organization. It can be part of a bigger planning process, such as Hoshin Kanri.
The repetitive approach helps your team find and test solutions and improve them through a
waste-reducing cycle.
The PDCA process includes a mandatory commitment to continuous improvement, and it can
have a positive impact on productivity and efficiency.
Finally, keep in mind that the PDCA model requires a certain amount of time, and it may not be
appropriate for solving urgent issues.
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In Summary
Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle is a useful tool that can help your team solve problems much more
efficiently. PDCA has some significant advantages:

 It stimulates continuous improvement of people and processes.

 It lets your team test possible solutions on a small scale and in a controlled environment.
 It prevents the work process from recurring mistakes.
Plan do check action (PDCA) method: literature review and research issues
July 2020

Jurnal Sistem dan Manajemen Industri 4(1):72-81

DOI:

10.30656/jsmi.v4i1.2186

License

CC BY-NC-SA

Project:

Product Development

The development of the industry that is increasingly making businesses try to be competitive by increasing
technical knowledge and improving systems both internally and externally. PDCA is a quality
management system that is used as a continuous improve-ment tool that is widely used in the service and
manufacturing sectors. PDCA activities consist of four steps namely Plan, Do, Check, and Action with
repeated stages forming like a circle. PDCA is a continuous improvement tool that is widely used in the
services and manufacturing sector. The cycle of PDCA begins with smallto check possible effects on
systems, but then eventually progresses to larger and more specific improvements. The results of the
implementation PDCA method can be used to solve the problems of qualitative and quantitative data
problems that have been widely applied in the service and manufacturing sectors for continuous
improvement and as a work pattern in improving a process or system in an organization and increasing
productivity. The method used in this research is the literature review research paper has been published in
2015-2020 that have consistently applied the PDCA cycle. The result of this literature review is to describe
the relationship between thinking or gaps in theoretical and practical thinking about the application of the
PDCA method and the successful implementation in the service and manufacturing sectors as a
contribution to further research.

Application Of Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle For Quality And Productivity Improvement-A Review

 January 2017

 Pratik M Patel
 Vivek A Deshpande
The PDCA Cycle is a systematic series of steps for gaining valuable learning and knowledge for the
continual improvement of a product or process. PDCA is an iterative four-step quality improvement and
productivity improvement process typically used for the better of the business strategy. PDCA is a
successive cycle which starts off small to test potential effects on processes, but then gradually leads to
larger and more targeted change. Though the method is applicable to process, business and organization as
generally utilized by the industry, but this is an attempt to try and adopt the same at an individual level to
bring productivity improvement in individuals which will trigger an improvement in process and quality
for the organization at a bigger level. How this method would help an individual to become more
accountable which will ultimately enable a group, a product line and an organization to be able to make a
difference in improving the overall quality. The method tries to bring in changes to the traditional ways
how an individual does an activity and with few improvements, the overall productivity can be increased
that will ultimately benefit the organization.

https://www.ionos.com/startupguide/productivity/pdca-cycle/

PDCA is a wonderful tool for introducing improvements in a sustainable and thoughtful way.
Instead of changing the usual procedures with a spontaneous hair-jerk procedure, one proceeds
with small steps and always under close observations. However, this is also one of the big
disadvantages of the Deming cycle: You have to plan enough time for the model. PDCA does not
allow for rapid problem solving.

Advantages Disadvantages

✘ The unspecific definition can lead to incorrect use

✔ Can be helpful in all situations

✘ Changes must be planned over longer periods of time

✔ Simple assembly requires little instruction

✘ With the PDCA cycle, one reacts considering everything and

✔ The cyclical idea invites constant rarely acts proactively
improvement

✔ The iterative approach allows control and

analysis

The Pros and Cons of Deming Cycle or PDSA / PDCA

Firstly, PDSA is a simple and effective process to resolve a new and recurring problem in the
industry. In addition, it is a repeated approach that will allow you to measure results without a
waste of time. Moreover, it is a risk-free cycle to apply a small scale in the project; therefore,
no need to change the full process if it doesn’t work.

In contrast, the full process of the PDSA is slow when applying the four steps in the industry
to yield the final result. It is not a straightforward execution process that can apply to urgent
problem-solving issues. Additionally, you need to use some resources, including effective
team members, to ensure that each circle step is directed perfectly.

The Evolution of the Deming Cycle or PDSA

The Deming cycle has been evolved from time to time to make it an effective process. I will
discuss how the Deming cycle came to be and how it has evolved from time to time.
Dr. W. Edwards Deming

Deming was an American management consultant who graduated as an electrical engineer,

later concentrating on mathematical physics. He has become a famous person in the Japanese
industry for his work and initiatives after WWII. In addition, Dr. W. Edwards Deming got
recognition as one of the most influential Japanese manufacturing industries who are not
Japanese but American. He championed the work of Walter Shewhart, including total quality
management, statistic process control, and renamed the Shewhart Cycle. After all, He had a
great contribution to the rise of the post-war economic growth in Japan.

The Shewhart Cycle

Deming had been inspired by an American engineer Walter Andrew Shewhart who was also
a physicist and statistician. In 1939, Shewhart published a book on the Viewpoint of Quality
Control. It was the first book that articulated a three-stage systematic process of
specification, production, and inspection. These three stages were developed to test the
hypothesis of experiments. Finally, he mentioned that these stages should not go straight, but
they should go in a cycle. Thus, the Shewhart Cycle came up with the process of a circle.

The Deming Wheel

In 1950, Deming analyzed Shewhart’s Cycle to modify it. He introduced a new version of
Shewhart’s Cycle: a four-step of design, production, sales, and research. This cycle has been
known as the Deming’s Circle or Deming Wheel.

PDCA

Some Japanese executives probably modify the Deming cycle or Deming wheel into Plan, Do
Check, Act (PDCA), although the exact reason for changing the term name is unclear. This
four-step cycle was introduced to identify the problems in the industry and solve them by
applying four steps together. The prime objective of this cycle is to standardize if the results
are satisfying.
TQM With Continuous Improvement Tools
TQM Seeks to Improve Quality and Performance
•••
BY
MARTIN MURRAY

Updated on November 30, 2019

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a popular approach to quality in a business. It

seeks to improve quality and performance which will meet or exceed customer
expectations. This can be achieved by integrating the quality functions and key
processes throughout the company.

One core component of TQM is the principle of continuous improvement. There are
a number of tools available to ensure that continuous improvement is successful,
which include:

 Process mapping
 Root cause analysis
 The plan to check act (PDCA) cycle

Process Mapping

Any continuous improvement effort has to begin with an accurate understanding of

the process that has been identified for improvement. The process can be in any part
of a company’s business but must be able to be mapped to identify the flows that
make up the process.

For example, in the supply chain, a business process could be the manufacturer of
finished goods, the purchase of goods from a vendor, or the service of an item sold
to customers. The mapping of any of these processes involves identifying and
documenting the physical flow as well as the information flow.

The process mapping will show graphically the flows in the process from start to
finish, which will include activities, personnel, and the outcomes.

The benefit that the process map gives to providing continuous improvement is that it
defines the scope of the process, the interface with other processes, and a starting
point from which improvement can be measured against.
Root Cause Analysis

Root cause analysis is the manner in which a business will determine the root cause
of a problem, incident, or quality concern. This is achieved by these three steps,
which drive toward the identification of the root cause:

 Analysis
 Data gathering
 Validation

There are three phases that make up a root cause analysis process.

1. Open Phase

This initial phase allows participants to brainstorm the issue to identify as many
possible root causes. In this phase, the team can create a cause and effect diagram
which can be useful during brainstorming sessions.

As part of this process, the team can identify their possible causes with one of five
areas listed on the cause and effect diagram. Those cause categories are
manpower, methods, materials, machines, and measurements. The team can then
organize their ideas for the root cause around those categories.

2. Narrow Phase

In this phase, the team reduces the number of possible root causes to a number that
can be focused on. Each of the possible root causes identified in the open phase is
discussed by the team in more depth to determine if they should be kept.

3. Closed Phase

In this final stage, the team must come to a consensus on a root cause. This will
involve validating the root cause based on evidence, whether that is using
measurable data or subjective evidence from interviews with staff, customers or
vendors.
The analysis of measurable data can be performed using a number of statistical
methods such as a scatter plot diagram, check sheets to identify the frequency of an
event, or using a Pareto chart.

Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle

The PDCA cycle was developed by W. Edwards Demming, the architect of TQM. He
created a simple approach for carrying out change. The PDCA cycle consists of four
phases; plan, do, check, and act.

Plan – The planning stage usually begins after a company has been through a root
cause analysis and identified an issue or problem that needs to be addressed. The
business will then plan how the improvements need to be achieved.

Do – Following the planning stage, the business will then proceed with the changes
that have been planned in order to address the issue identified in the root cause
analysis. This may be as simple as purchasing a new piece of equipment for a
production line, or complex such as changing the way in which vendors are
evaluated.

Check – After the business has followed the plan and made changes to address the
issue or problem, the check phase should be used to validate that the changes made
have had the required results. If the check phase does not validate that the issue has
been resolved, then the business will need to start the PDCA cycle again at the
planning stage and develop a new plan to achieve the necessary results.

Act – The final phase of the PDCA cycle requires that once the issue has been
resolved, the business should incorporate the changes into their standard operating
procedures and if necessary, roll out the changes to other parts of the business.