What Is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for
transmitting and sharing information. Computing devices include everything from a mobile
phone to a server. These devices are connected using physical wires such as fiber optics, but
they can also be wireless.

An example of a computer network at large is the traffic monitoring systems in urban cities.
These systems alert officials and emergency responders with information about traffic flow and
incidents. A simpler example is using collaboration software such as Google Drive to share
documents with colleagues who work remotely. Every time we connect via a video call, stream
movies, share files, chat with instant messages, or just access something on the internet, a
computer network is at work.

features and functions of computer network

models

Client server network

The client-server model, or client-server

architecture, is a distributed application
framework dividing tasks between servers
and clients, which either reside in the same
system or communicate through a computer
network or the Internet. The client relies on
sending a request to another program in order to access a service made available by a server.
The server runs one or more programs that share resources with and distribute work among
clients.

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peer-to-peer network

A P2P network is different from a client-server network traditionally used in networking. A

client-server network is a connection between a client computer and a server computer to
provide the client with the server’s resources.

In the P2P network, each device is considered a peer—thus “peer-to-peer”—with functions that
contribute to the network. Each computer is both a client and a server and they share resources
with other networked computers.

Key advantages of using a P2P network

Due to its architecture, a P2P network can offer many advantages to its users, including:
● Easy file sharing: An advanced P2P network can share files quickly over large distances.
Files can be accessed anytime.
● Reduced costs: There is no need to invest in a separate computer for a server when
setting up a P2P network. It doesn’t require a network operating system or a full-time
system administrator.
● Adaptability: P2P network extends to include new clients easily. This benefit makes
these networks more flexible than client-server networks. Its scalability

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Ad Hoc Network

An ad hoc network is a type of wireless local area network (WLAN) that enables devices to
connect with others without the need for access points (APs), such as built-in or external
routers. Through such a network, computers can talk to each other and exchange files. One
device can also share its Internet connection with other devices. Because of this feature, ad hoc
networks are also called “peer-to-peer (P2P) networks.

Tethering

Tethering is the practice of sharing the internet connectivity of one device, typically a
smartphone or tablet, with another device, such as a laptop or another smartphone.

Tethering allows the device with internet access to act as a modem or router to provide
internet access through various connection methods like USB, USB-C, Wi-Fi, or Bluetooth.

By tethering devices, users can utilize their mobile data plan or existing internet connection on
one device to establish an internet connection on another device. This expands access to the
internet in situations where traditional internet connectivity is unavailable or unreliable.

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features, functions, and use of network standards and protocols:

TCP / IP
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?

TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In
simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the
mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with another
computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP
Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be
recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the
accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data
first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way
at the receiver’s end.

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Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP)

Voice-over-Internet protocol (VoIP) is communications technology that allows

users to interact by audio through an Internet connection, rather than through
an analog connection. Voice-over-Internet Protocol converts the voice signal
used in traditional phone technology into a digital signal that travels through
the Internet instead of through analog telephone lines.

● Voice-over-Internet protocol (VoIP) is a technology that lets users make

calls using a broadband Internet connection instead of a standard
phone line.
● VoIP technology converts the voice signal used in traditional phone calls
into a digital signal that travels via the Internet rather than analog phone
lines.
● Because calls are being made over the Internet, they are essentially
free when made wherever the Internet is available.
● The traditional telephone industry was hit hard by the VoIP boom, with
many users abandoning it as some of its services have become nearly
obsolete.
● During the COVID-19 pandemic, VoIP became essential to modern
workplaces as telecommuting replaced the office.

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Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is used to signal and control interactive communication
sessions. The uses for such sessions include voice, video, chat and instant messaging,
as well as interactive games and virtual reality. The SIP protocol is increasingly being
used to provide Voice over IP, Presence and Instant Messaging in Next Generation
Networks, and being mandated for many new applications, including 3G telephony.

● SIP enables user mobility through a mechanism that allows requests to be

proxied or redirected to the user's current location. Users can register their
current location with their home server.
● SIP supports end-to-end and hop-by-hop authentication, as well as end-to-end
encryption using S/MIME.
● Members in a SIP session can communicate using multicast or unicast relations,
or a combination of these. In addition, SIP is independent of the lower-layer
transport protocol, which allows it to take advantage of new transport protocols.

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7-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model.

○ OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes
how information from a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another computer.

○ OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.

○ OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.

○ Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be

performed independently.

○ The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues,
and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to
the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the
software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.

○ The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data
link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The
physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on
the physical medium.

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characteristics of different network transmission media

Microwave

Microwave is a line-of-sight wireless communication technology that uses high

frequency beams of radio waves to provide high speed wireless connections that can
send and receive voice, video, and data information.

Radio

Even things like radar and microwave ovens depend on radio waves. Communication
and navigation satellites would be impossible without radio waves, as would modern
aviation — an airplane depends on a dozen different radio systems. The WiFi networks
that we depend on at work, home and school also rely completely on radio waves for
data transmission.

Light
LIFI is transmission of data using visible light so it is the fastest possible system. Radio is
also electromagnetic radiation which makes it just as fast through air. The difference is the
use of optical fibers for LIFI are far faster than electrical signals travelling through wires.

The only downside is that light does not pass through objects or walls in the way radio
waves do. This makes it undesirable as a broadcast medium.

This can be a positive, though, because individual communications can be more private and
secure from outsiders.

Satellite

Satellite internet is the ability to transmit and receive data from a relatively small satellite
dish on Earth and communicate with satellite Data communication via satellite is not much
different than someone using a land-based data provider, at least from the standpoint of the
internet user. The key to remember is that once the satellite system is configured by the
installer, satellite service acts nearly identically as any other ISP and may be configured as
such

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Wired
copper – twisted pair and cable

Fibre

Fiber optics, also spelled fibre optics, is the science of transmitting data, voice, and images
by the passage of light through thin, transparent fibers.

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variety of network metrics:

a. Speed:
- Definition: The speed of a network refers to how fast data can be transmitted from one
point to another. It is often measured in bits per second (bps) or a multiple thereof (kbps,
Mbps, Gbps).

b. Bandwidth:
- Definition: Bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transfer across a network. It
represents the capacity of the network and is often expressed in bits per second (bps) or a
higher unit like kilobits per second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per
second (Gbps).

c. Throughput:
- Definition: Throughput is the actual amount of data that successfully travels through a
network from source to destination in a given period. It is a measure of the real
performance achieved, often expressed in the same units as bandwidth.

d. Scalability:
- Definition: Scalability is the ability of a network to handle an increasing amount of load or
traffic. A scalable network can accommodate growth and increased demands without
significant degradation in performance.

e. Latency:
- Definition: Latency is the time delay between the initiation of a data transfer and the
actual transfer of the data. It is often measured in milliseconds (ms) and includes factors
like transmission delay, propagation delay, and processing delay.

f. Error Rate:
- Definition: Error rate is the proportion of bits or packets that are incorrectly transmitted or
received over a network. A lower error rate is desirable for reliable data transfer.

g. Packet Loss:
- Definition: Packet loss occurs when data packets transmitted across a network do not
reach their destination. It is usually expressed as a percentage and can be a result of
network congestion, errors, or other issues.

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h. Availability:
- Definition: Availability is the proportion of time that a network is operational and
accessible. It is often expressed as a percentage and is a measure of reliability.

i. Jitter:
- Definition: Jitter is the variation in the delay of received packets. In other words, it is the
irregularity in the timing of packet arrival. Jitter can impact the quality of real-time
applications like voice and video streaming.

Understand the role of components in networks:

a. Switch:
- Role: A switch operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. It connects
multiple devices within a local area network (LAN) and uses MAC addresses to forward
data only to the device for which the data is intended, reducing network congestion.

b. Bridge:
- Role: Similar to a switch, a bridge operates at the data link layer. It connects two or more
network segments and makes forwarding decisions based on MAC addresses, thereby
dividing a larger network into smaller collision domains.

c. Gateway:
- Role: A gateway is a device that connects different networks using different protocols. It
acts as a translator, facilitating communication between networks with different
architectures, protocols, or communication formats.

d. Router:
- Role: Routers operate at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. They connect
multiple networks and make decisions about the most efficient paths for data to travel
between them. Routers use IP addresses to forward data between networks.

e. Multi-function Device (Combined Router/Switch):

- Role: This is a device that combines the functions of a router and a switch. It can
connect multiple networks, determine optimal paths for data, and also provide local network
switching capabilities.

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f. Modem:
- Role: Short for modulator-demodulator, a modem converts digital data from a computer
into analog signals for transmission over analog communication lines (like phone lines) and
vice versa. It is commonly used for broadband internet connections.

g. Repeater:
- Role: A repeater is used to extend the reach of a network by regenerating and
retransmitting signals. It operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) and helps overcome signal
degradation over long distances.

h. Server:
- Role: A server is a computer or system that provides services or resources to other
computers, known as clients, in a network. Examples include file servers, web servers, and
email servers.

i. Network Interface Card (NIC):

- Role: A NIC is a hardware component that allows a computer to connect to a network. It
provides the necessary interface between the computer and the network medium (e.g.,
Ethernet cable) and typically has a unique MAC address.

j. Wireless Access Point:

- Role: A wireless access point (WAP) allows wireless devices to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi. It bridges the gap between wired and wireless networks, providing a
point of access for wireless devices.

k. Hub:
- Role: Hubs operate at the physical layer and are basic networking devices that connect
multiple devices in a LAN. Unlike switches, hubs broadcast data to all devices in the
network, leading to more collisions and less efficient data transmission.

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(i) Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4):
- Definition: IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol and is the most widely used
version. It uses 32-bit addresses, typically represented as four sets of decimal numbers
separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.0.1). However, due to the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses,
there has been a gradual transition to IPv6.

(ii) Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6):

- Definition: IPv6 is the latest version of the Internet Protocol, designed to replace IPv4. It
uses 128-bit addresses, allowing for a vastly larger number of unique addresses compared
to IPv4. IPv6 adoption is increasing to accommodate the growing number of devices
connected to the internet.

(iii) Static IP Addressing:

- Definition: In a static IP addressing scheme, a device is manually assigned a fixed,
unchanging IP address. This address remains constant each time the device connects to
the network. Static addressing is often used for servers, network equipment, or devices that
need a consistent, predictable address.

(iv) Dynamic IP Addressing:

- Definition: In dynamic IP addressing, devices on a network are assigned IP addresses
dynamically by a DHCP server when they join the network. Dynamic addressing is useful for
efficiently managing and allocating IP addresses in large networks. It allows devices to
obtain an IP address automatically without manual configuration.

(v) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):

- Definition: DHCP is a network protocol that automates the process of assigning IP
addresses and other configuration parameters to devices on a network. A DHCP server
dynamically assigns IP addresses to devices when they connect to the network, simplifying
the network administration process.

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Media Access Control (MAC) addressing.

Media Access Control (MAC) addressing is a fundamental aspect of network

communication, particularly at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. MAC
addresses are hardware addresses that uniquely identify devices on a network. Here are key
points about MAC addressing:

1. Definition: A MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to the network interface

controller (NIC) of a device for communication on a network. It is also known as a hardware
address, physical address, or Ethernet address.

2. Format: MAC addresses are typically expressed as a series of six pairs of hexadecimal
digits (0-9 and A-F), separated by colons or hyphens. For example, a MAC address might
look like this: `00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E`.

3. Uniqueness: MAC addresses are intended to be globally unique. Manufacturers are

assigned specific ranges of MAC addresses, and they are responsible for ensuring that each
NIC they produce has a unique address.

4. Role in Networking: MAC addresses play a crucial role in the data link layer, helping
devices on a local network communicate with each other. Switches and bridges use MAC
addresses to make forwarding decisions, ensuring that data is delivered to the correct
destination within the same network segment.

5. Usage in Protocols: MAC addresses are particularly relevant in Ethernet networks, where
devices communicate through Ethernet frames. The source and destination MAC addresses
in these frames are used to direct data to the appropriate devices.

Network security

Network Security is vital in protecting client data and information, keeping shared data
secure and ensuring reliable access and network performance as well as protection from
cyber threats.

A well designed network security solution reduces overhead expenses and safeguards
organizations from costly losses that occur from a data breach or other security incident.

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a. Firewall:
- Definition: A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. It acts as a
barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks, allowing or
blocking data packets based on defined security policies.

b. Security Settings:
- Definition: Security settings refer to configurations and options that control the security
posture of various devices, applications, or systems. This includes settings related to user
access, encryption, password policies, and other security-related parameters.

c. Anti-malware:
- Definition: Anti-malware, or antivirus software, is designed to detect, prevent, and remove
malicious software (malware) such as viruses, worms, and trojan horses. It helps protect
systems from unauthorized access and data breaches.

d. User Controls/Access/Rights/Profile:
- Definition: User controls involve managing user access, rights, and profiles within a
network or system. This includes defining user permissions, roles, and restrictions to ensure
that users have appropriate access levels based on their responsibilities.

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e. Authentication Types:

- Definition: Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user, device, or

system. Different authentication types include:
- Passwords: Traditional alphanumeric codes known only to the user.
- Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): Requires two different forms of authentication, such
as a password and a temporary code sent to a mobile device.
- Biometrics: Uses unique biological characteristics like fingerprints, retinal scans, or
facial recognition for identity verification.

f. Encryption Techniques:
- Definition: Encryption is the process of converting data into a secure format to prevent
unauthorized access. Common encryption techniques include:
- Symmetric Encryption: Uses a single key for both encryption and decryption.
- Asymmetric Encryption: Involves a pair of public and private keys for encryption and
decryption, respectively.
- Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Secure Sockets Layer (SSL): Protocols that provide
secure communication over a computer network.

g. Physical Controls:
- Definition: Physical controls involve measures to protect physical access to computing
resources and data. Examples include:
- Access Control Systems: Limiting physical access to data centers or server rooms.
- Surveillance Systems: Monitoring and recording activities in sensitive areas.
- Biometric Access Systems: Using fingerprint or retina scans for physical access.

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