Nuclei

1 Write a short note on the discovery of neutron. What are the properties of a neutron

Answer

1. Neutron was discovered by Chadwick, Bothe and Becker while conducting the experiment of bombarding
Beryllium with 𝜶- particles.

2. It emits a high energy penetrating radiation known as 𝜸- rays.

𝟗 𝟒 𝟏𝟑
𝑩𝒆 + 𝑯𝒆 → 𝑪 + 𝜸
𝟒 𝟐 𝟔

3. The energy measurement indicated that the energy radiations are about 𝟕 𝑴𝒆𝑽. However the radiation did
not exactly match with 𝜸 −rays.

4. Later Curie and Joliot repeated the experiment and allowed the radiations to pass through hydrogenous
material like paraffin, wax. They observed high energetic protons are emitted from paraffin with energy
𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽.
 Nuclei
1 Write a short note on the discovery of neutron. What are the properties of a neutron

Answer

5. Calculations have shown that the ejection of 𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽 requires 𝜸 −rays of energy of about 𝟓𝟎 𝑴𝒆𝑽. These
discrepancies in the energy of the radiation revealed that the assumption of 𝜸 −rays was wrong.

6. In 1932, Chadwick concluded that a group of neutral particles are emitted instead of 𝜸 −rays. These are
called neutrons. The reaction is represented as
𝟗 𝟒 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟐 𝟏
𝑩𝒆 + 𝑯𝒆 → 𝑪 → 𝑪+ 𝒏+𝑸
𝟒 𝟐 𝟔 𝟔 𝟎
 Nuclei
1 Write a short note on the discovery of neutron. What are the properties of a neutron

Answer

7. 𝜶 −particles are emitted from polonium source S were allowed to bombard the beryllium.

8. The neutrons coming out from beryllium were allowed to pass through paraffin.

9. It emits high energy protons which were then allowed to pass through ionization Chamber 𝑰 . The
ionization current due to protons was amplified and measured with the help of an electrometer.

Properties:
1. Neutron is an neutral particle. It is not deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
2. It has high penetrating power and low ionizing power.
 Nuclei
1 Write a short note on the discovery of neutron. What are the properties of a neutron

Answer

Properties:
3. Neutrons are diffracted by crystals.

4. Neutrons are more stable inside the nucleus and unstable outside the nucleus.

5. If fast neutrons pass through substances like heavy water, paraffin wax, graphite etc. they are slowed down.
 Nuclei
2 Define mass defect and binding energy. How does binding energy per nucleon vary with mass
number? What is its significance?
Answer
Mass defect 𝚫𝐦 : The difference between mass of nucleons and mass of nucleus is called mass defect.
Mass defect 𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦𝐩 + 𝐀 − 𝐙 ]𝐦𝐧 − 𝐌
𝒎𝒑 = mass of proton, 𝑨 = mass number
𝒎𝒏 = mass of neutron, 𝒁 = atomic number
𝑴 = mass of nucleus

Binding energy:
It is defined as the energy required to split the nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons.
𝑩𝑬 = 𝚫𝐦 × 𝒄𝟐 or 𝑩𝑬 = 𝚫𝐦 × 𝟗𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽
 Nuclei
2 Define mass defect and binding energy. How does binding energy per nucleon vary with mass
number? What is its significance?
Answer
B𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐨𝐧:
It is defined as the ratio of binding energy to the mass number (𝑨)
𝑩𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑩𝑬
Binding energy per nucleon = =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑨

1. The binding energy per nuclear is highest in the range 𝟐𝟖 < 𝑨 < 𝟏𝟑𝟖
The binding energy of these nuclei is very close to 8.7 MeV

2. With further increase in the mass number, the binding energy per nucleon decreases.

3. In the region of smaller mass number the binding energy per nucleon curve shows the characteristic
minima and maxima.
 Nuclei
2 Define mass defect and binding energy. How does binding energy per nucleon vary with mass
number? What is its significance?
Answer
4. Minima are associated with nuclei containing an odd number of
𝟔 𝟏𝟎
proton and neutrons such as 𝑳𝒊, 𝑩
𝟑 𝟓

5. The maxima are associated with nuclei containing an even

𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟔
number of protons and neutrons such as 𝑯𝒆, 𝑪, 𝑶
𝟐 𝟔 𝟖

6. The fusion of two lighter nuclei results a stable nucleus with higher binding energy per nucleon.
7. The fission of heavy nuclei results to form a two stable nuclei.
 Nuclei
3 a) What is radioactivity? State the law of radioactive decay show that radioactive decay is
exponential in nature.

Answer

Radioactivity: The nuclei of certain elements disintegrate spontaneously by emitting 𝜶, 𝜷 and 𝜸 −rays.
The phenomenon is called natural radioactivity.

Radioactive decay law:

𝒅𝑵
The rate of radioactive decay that is the number of nuclei decaying per unit time at any instant is
𝒅𝒕
directly proportional to the number of nuclei (𝑵) present at that instant.
𝒅𝑵 𝒅𝑵
∝𝑵⇒ = −𝝀𝑵
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Where 𝝀 is decay (or) disintegration constant the negative sign indicated the decrease in the number of
nuclei as the time passes.
 Nuclei
3 a) What is radioactivity? State the law of radioactive decay show that radioactive decay is
exponential in nature.

Answer

𝒅𝑵 = 𝝀𝑵 𝒅𝒕 → (𝟏)
𝒅𝑵
= 𝝀𝒅𝒕 → (𝟐)
𝑵
Integrating on both sides,
𝒅𝑵
න = − න 𝝀𝒅𝒕 ⇒ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝑵 = 𝝀𝒕 + 𝑪
𝑵
Where C is integration constant.
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝑵 = −𝝀𝒕 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒐 ⇒ 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝑵 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒐 = −𝝀𝒕
𝑵 𝐍
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 = 𝝀𝒕 ⇒ = 𝐞−𝝀𝒕 ⇒ 𝐍 = 𝐍𝐨 𝐞−𝝀𝒕
𝑵𝒐 𝐍𝐨
This equation represents radioactive decay law. The activity of a radioactive element does not depend on
external physical conditions.
 Nuclei
4 Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labelled diagram.

Answer
Nuclear reactor: The device in which controlled chain reaction takes
place, releasing large amount of heat is called a nuclear reactor.

Principle: The chain reaction is made possible by slowing down the

fission neutrons using moderator. The thermal neutrons produce
𝟐𝟑𝟓
further fission of 𝑼. By inserting the control rods neutrons are
absorbed. The chain reaction can be started, controlled and even
halted. The essential parts of nuclear reactor are
1)Fuel 2) Moderator 3) Control rods 4) Radiation shielding 5) Coolant
 Nuclei
4 Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labelled diagram.

Answer
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝟐𝟑𝟒
Fuel: Uranium containing isotopes of 𝑼 and 𝑼 (or) 𝒑𝒖 (or) 𝑻𝒉 are used as fuel. These fuel rods
are tightly sealed in aluminium cylinders.

Moderator: Moderators are used to slow down the fast moving neutrons, those participate in fission process.
Heavy water, graphite are used as moderators.

Control rods: Control rods absorb the neutrons control the chain reaction. Cadmium and boran are used as
control rods.

Coolant: The heat generated in fuel elements is removed by using a suitable coolant to flow around them. The
coolants used are water, molten sodium, etc.
 Nuclei
4 Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labelled diagram.

Answer
Working: Uranium fuel rods are placed in the aluminium cylinders which are separated by some distance. The
𝟐𝟑𝟓
graphite moderator is placed in between the fuel cylinders. When a few 𝑼 nuclei undergo fission, fast
neutrons are liberated. These neutrons passes through graphite moderator, it slows down the fast moving
𝟐𝟑𝟓
neutrons. These are captured by 𝑼 to carry out the chain reaction. Using control rods, the fission events
are controlled. The heat generated is used for reaction. Using conterol rods, the fission events are controlled.
The heat generated is used for heating water and produce steam. This steam is made to rotate turbines and
generate electricity.
 Nuclei
4 Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labelled diagram.

Answer
Uses of nuclear reactor:
1. To generate electric power
2. To produce nuclear fuel plutonium 239 and other radioactive materials which have a wide variety of
applications in the fields of medicine, industry and research.
 Nuclei
5 Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

Answer

Fission Fusion

1) A heavy nucleus is split up into two nuclei 1) Two lighter nuclei are fused together
235 1 141 92 1 2 2 4
2) Eg: 𝑈 + 𝑛 → 𝐵𝑎 + 𝐾𝑟 + 3𝑛 2) Eg.: 𝐻 + 𝐻 → 𝐻𝑒
92 0 56 36 0 1 1 2
3) 0.85 MeV energy is liberated per nucleon 3) 6.75 MeV energy is liberated per nucleon
4) Energy liberated per gram is less 4) Energy liberated per gram is more
5) This process is possible even at room temperature 5) This process is only possible at very high
6) The links of this process are neutrons temperature
7) Availability of materials for this process are limited 6) The links of this process are protons
and expensive 7) Availability of materials for this process are
8) Many isotopes from in this process. unlimited and cheap
8) Almost no isotope form in this process.
 Nuclei
6 Explain the source of stellar energy. Explain the carbon-nitrogen cycle, proton-proton cycle occurring
in stars.
Answer
The energy of the sun and the brightest stars is produced by nuclear fusion is called stellar energy. Sun and stars have been radiating
huge amount of energy by nuclear fusion reactions taking place in core, where the temperature is of the order of 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑲.

Carbon-Nitrogen Cycle: According to bothe, Carbon-Nitrogen cycle consists of a chain of nuclear reaction in which protons combine
to form Helium, with the help of carbon and nitrogen as catalyst. The reaction are given below.
𝟏 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑
𝑯 + 𝑪 → 𝑵 + 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚
𝟏 𝟔 𝟕
𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑 𝟎
𝑵 → 𝑪 + 𝒆 + 𝝂 (𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒐)
𝟕 𝟔 +𝟏
𝟏 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟒
𝑯 + 𝑯 → 𝑯 + 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚
𝟏 𝟔 𝟕
 Nuclei
6 Explain the source of stellar energy. Explain the carbon-nitrogen cycle, proton-proton cycle occurring
in stars.
Answer
𝟏 𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟓
𝑯 + 𝑵 → 𝑶 + 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚
𝟏 𝟕 𝟖
𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓 𝟎
𝑶 → 𝑵 + 𝒆 + 𝝂 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒐
𝟖 𝟕 +𝟏
𝟏 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟐 𝟒
𝑯 + 𝑵 → 𝑪 + 𝑯𝒆
𝟏 𝟕 𝟔 𝟐
The net reaction is

𝟏 𝟒 𝟎
𝟒 𝑯 → 𝑯𝒆 + 𝟑𝜸 + 𝟐 𝒆 + 𝟐𝝂
𝟏 𝟐 +𝟏
The energy released during this process is 26.72 MeV. This cycle begins in stars at temperature of about 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑲.
 Nuclei
6 Explain the source of stellar energy. Explain the carbon-nitrogen cycle, proton-proton cycle occurring
in stars.
Answer

Proton-Proton cycle: The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process in which the hydrogen is burned into
helium.
Thus, the fuel in the sun is the hydrogen in its core.
The proton-proton (p,p) cycle by which fusion occurs is represented by the following sets of reactions.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟎
𝑯 + 𝑯 → 𝑯 + 𝒆 +𝝂
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 +𝟏
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝑯 + 𝑯 → 𝑯𝒆 +𝜸
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
 Nuclei
6 Explain the source of stellar energy. Explain the carbon-nitrogen cycle, proton-proton cycle occurring
in stars.
Answer

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟎
𝑯 + 𝑯 → 𝑯 + 𝒆 +𝝂
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 +𝟏
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝑯 + 𝑯 → 𝑯𝒆 +𝜸
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟏
𝑯𝒆 + 𝑯𝒆 → 𝑯𝒆 + 𝑯 + 𝑯 +𝑸
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
The net reaction is

𝟏 𝟒 𝟎
𝟒 𝑯 → 𝑯𝒆 +𝟐 𝒆 + 𝟐𝝂 + 𝟐𝜸
𝟏 𝟐 +𝟏
The energy released during this process is 26.7 MeV. This is the source of energy release in stars.