FORCE, MOTION and ENERGY (EARLY MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE)

The spherical Earth

During ancient times, Earth was perceived to be flat. Early Babylonian, Chinese, Egyptian, and

Hebrew civilizations believed that Earth had comers.

It was then believed that if you were to set sail in a straight path in the ocean, you would get to the

edge of Earth and fail However, many philosophers theonzed that Earth was round and not flat.
Navigators such as Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) and Juan Sebastian Elcano (1476-1526) given credit
for circumnavigating the world and proving that Earth is not flat But how did the idea of the spherical
Earth evolve? Greek philosophers also investigated on the shape of Earth Philosophers like Plato (428
sce-348 BCE) and Aristotle (384 B 350 BCE) described Earth and the

as spherical, in fact, Eudoxus of Cridus (400 BCE 350 BCE) constructed a planetary model based on

this Then atound 6 BCE, these Greek philosophers speculated Earth was actually spherical. The timeline
that

follows shows the ideas of some Groek philosophers, including Pythagoras (570 BCE-490 BCE) and

(276 BCEs-194 BCE), about the sphericity of Earth. Plato

Pythagoras
Started the idea of the spherical Earth

educated his students on the sphencity of Earth

Aristotle

but made no justifications

noted that there were stars in Egypt that could not be seen on the other parts of Earth. This
phenomenon was

only possible if Earth had a curved surface Eratosthenes

estimated the circumference of Earth

Different Models of the Universe

Here are some astronomers who constructed their models of the universe.

4 Eudoxus of Cnidus Eudoxus of Cnidus (400 BCE -355 BCE) was considered the first astronomer to
explain the retrograde motion of the planets in the sky. He found out the differences in the motion of
each planet that should be considered to give an accurate description of the universe

According to Eudoxus's model, the universe was composed of Earth, five other planets (that are visible

the unaided eye, namely Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn), sun, moon, and motionless
stars which were enclosed in spheres. Earth was motionless at the center of the universe, Each of the

five other planets was enclosed in four concentric circles. The sun and the moon were each enclosed in

three concentric Lastly, the group of motionless stars lay in the outermost sphere

Using this model. Eudoxus was able to explain the annual and daily movements of the celestial bodies

relative to each other. According to him, retrograde motions of planets were produced by the perfect
circular motion of the third and fourth concentric spheres Aristotle

Aristotle somehow patterned his model from Eudoxus's model. Aristotle's model showed that the was
spherical and finite.

just like Eudoxus, he perceived that Earth was at the center of the universe and it was stationary. He
believed so because Earth is too big to move; thus, it could not rotate. Other celestial bodies were built
up symmetrically in concentric spherical rings around Earth. Aristotle believed that Earth was composed
of four elements-earth, water, air, and fire. Beyond

Earth are the planets and the moon which revolved in spherical rings.

Take note that both models of Eudoxus and Aristotle were considered geocentric. This means that both
astronomers believed that Earth was at the center of the universe Aristarchus (310 BCE-230 BCE) was a
Greek astronomer who made the first attempt to create a heliocentric model, which places the sun at
the center of the universe. He proposed that the sun and the fixed stars were at rest, while Earth

revolved around the sun along a circular path.

Aristarchus' only extant work is entitled On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and the Moon. In this
book, Aristarchus calculated the sizes of the sun and the moon and their distances from Earth by
estimating the relative angles with respect to the planet.

⚫ He had three assumptions: (a) Earth was (b) it is far from the sun, and (c) moon passes through Earth's
shadow when they align. First, the relative size of the moon was obtained by comparing the recorded
time elapsed when the moon has passed through Earth's shadow and the time required for the moon to
travel a distance equal to its diameter. From this calculation and the angular diameter of the moon in
the sky, you can determine the distance of the moon from Earth. During the first quarter or third quarter
lunar phase, the moon is aligned with Earth at a 90° angle. On the other hand, he estimated that the sun
was oriented about 87" from Earth. Then, he calculated the distance of the sun from Earth.

Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy)

Figure 11.5 is called the Ptolemaic universe. In this model, it is assumed that Earth was at the center of
the universe, while the other celestial bodies revolved around Earth in pedect circles with constant
velocity Ptolemy's model was considered more refined than the previous geocentric models because his
model could explain the motion of the celestial bodies accurately

Ptolemy (100 AD-178 ap) assumed that the planets revolved on epicycles (small spheres) which moved

around the deferent (larger sphere). He added that the stars belonged to the celestial sphere which was
located beyond the planetary spheres. The center of the deferent is called the eccentric What Ptolemy
did next was to move Earth from its orginal position to a position below the center of the system that is
still inside the deferent Nicolaus Copernicus

a Polish astronomer, revived the heliocentric model of Aristarchus However, the heliocentric model

was published in 1543 nght after his death since he himself believed that it is not yet ready to be

published.
Copernicus strongly believed in the heliocentric model because there were loopholes in the Ptolemaic

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model in terms of predicting the positions of the planets. In Copernicus's model of the universe shown in
figure 11.8, it can be concluded that

a. heavenly bodies exhibited constant circular and perpetual motion along their epicycles; b. the sun was
at the center of the universe; and c. the order of the planets from the sun is Mercury, Venus, Earth (and
moon), Mars Jupiter, Saturn, and

beyond the planets were the fixed stars, Tycho Brahe he (1548-1601)
was a Danish astronomer who also made planetary observations. Unlike Copernicus, Brahe believed in a
geocentric universe, but his idea of the geocentric universe is slightly different from Ptolemy's In Brahe's
model of the universe called the Tychonic system, Earth was at the center and the sun and the moon
revolved around it, and all the other planets orbited. Such a model was a type of geoheliocentric system.

ANATOMY BEFORE THE INVENTION OF THE TELESCOPE

Even before the telescope was invented, many astronomical phenomena were already observed and

recorded. Here are some of them

1) Pleiades star cluster- The Pleiades is a star cluster that is visible to the unaided eye, The appearance
of this star cluster in the sky marks the beginning of the Incas New Year 2) Constellations Across
cultures, ancient civilizations saw different patterns and shapes in the

constellations Ancient Egyptians associated the constellations to their gods, one of which is Orion with

Osiris, the god of death, rebirth, and afterlife. Ancient people have also used the constellations to
determine when to plant and harvest crops Constellations also helped in navigation. 3) First sight of
Venus- This planet is the second brightest object in the night sky after the moon. In the Mayan culture,
the position of Venus was used as a basis in deciding whether to start a battle against

another tribe. Mayens had a platform where observations of the platform of Venus the planet wwere
done

SAVING THE APPEARANCES

Before Copemicus, the Greek believers of the geocentric models observe a paradigm of Saving the
appearances which meant that their primary concern was the soundness of mathematical model, and
not its applicability to reality Thus, for as long as theory was backed up with good mathematical model
regardless of physical explanations for the astronomical phenomena, it would still be acceptable. This
was one of the reasons why Ptolemaic model of the universe prevailed for a long period even when the
heliocentric model started gain acceptance in the astronomical community.

THE UNIVERSE IN GALILEO'S EYES

Galileo Galilel's use of a telescope for astronomical purposes caused paradigms in astronom to shift His
telescope allowed him to discover many significant astronomical phenomena that were later studied
from different parts of the world.

Here are some of Galileo's discoveries with the aid of the telescope: 1) Lunar craters-Using his telescope
(8x magnification). Galileo confirmed that there were mountains on

the moon. Toward the end of November 1609, he constructed a 20x magnification telescope which
helped him gather better lunar observations. He was also able to observe the craters on the moon. 2)
Moons of Jupiter-In 1610, Galileo saw Jupiter accompanied by four seemingly fixed "stars" These fixed
stars were later on identified as the planet's moons.

3) Phases of Venus - These phases refer to the variations of illumination observed on the planet Venus
These differences in Venus's illumination were observed by Galileo during his stay in Pisa, Italy in the
latter part of 1610 Through a telescope, he observed that a portion of Venus seemed missing and

them was a variation in its images just like the different phases of the moon. This event cannot be
explained by either of Ptolemy's or Aristotle's models Variation in lighting seen in a celestial body, like in
Venus (which has an apparent magnitude of -4.4 when viewed from Earth), means that a change in its
location as it revolves around the center of the planetary system results in a change in the angle of
illumination from the light source which can only happen if the sun is at the center of the planetary
system This discovery confirmed that Copernicus's heliocentric model is more accurate than the
Ptolemaic geocentric model
4) Sunspots-These are dark spots on the sun which are relatively colder than the other areas in the sun.
Galileo was one of the first astronomers to observe this phenomenon. Other astronomers thought the
sunspots are not on the surface of the sun. It was Galileo who proved mathematically that these spots
are indeed on the sun's surface.

CHEMISTRY AT HOME

+Cleaning Agents

are substance that are used to remove dirt and foul odor on surfaces

Different Types of cleaning Agents and their Functions

Function

Cleaning Agents

Acidic

Contains acids that can unclog inorganic deposits

Alkaline

Contains strong bases that can dissolve grease, oils, fats, and protein- based deposits

Neutral
Neutral materials that can typically disperse different kinds of dirt

Degreaser

Made from removal of grease. Contains surfactant as the active ingredient. It may contain alkaline
washing agents to promote further removal of grease.

Example of Cleaning Agents

1. Laundry detergent

2. Dishwashing detergent/soap 3. All-purpose cleaner

4. Surface/floor disinfectants or cleaner

5. Toilet cleaner

6. Drain cleaner

7. Window/glass cleaner

Common Compounds in Cleaning Agents

Compounds
Cleaning Agents

Ammonia

Sodium hypochlorite

Window cleaner

Household ammonia Bleach

All purpose cleaners

Surface disinfectants

Liquid sosa (drain declogger)

Lye

Oven cleaner

Sodium hydroxide

Potassium hydroxide

Hydrochloric acid
Toilet cleaner

Muriatic acid

Baking soda

Sodium bicarbonate

Sodium tetraborate

Household borax

Sodium bisulfate

Toilet cleaner

Cosmetic Products

-are found in different personal care products. This are used to enhance the aesthetic

appearance of the human body.

Compounds or Mixtures in Cosmetics Products

Product

Main Ingredients

Soap

Fatty acids (different kind of oil)

Shampoo

Lotion

Cocamidopropyl betaine Sodium lauryl sulfate

Water Emulsifier

Glycerin

Oil

Deodorant

Shaving cream

Water
Aluminum chloride

Aluminum Chlorohydrate

Glycerin

Lanolin

Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate Stearic acid

Thriethanolamine Water

Perfume

Colorants

Essential oils Ethyl Alcohol

Water

↓ Precautionary Measures in Handling Chemicals at Home

The following are some of the reminders that will help in using cleaning products and cosmetics:

fewer toxic alternatives or non-toxic substitute should be used whatever possible. For Example: sink can
be unclogged by means of a plunger, baking soda or vinegar instead of using liquid soda.
Low phosphate or phosphate free laundry detergents and automatic dishwasher detergents should be
used in order to reduced contamination of the aquatic environment by high levels of dissolved plant
nutrients, such as phosphate ions, which leads to high algal growth.

Water-based products should be used whenever possible.

Chemical products should be stored away from heat or possible sources of sparks

Read and follow the information about using the product carefully

Product should be used in well ventilated areas to avoid inhaling fumes.

⚫ Personal protective equipment (PPE) should be used.

Different products should not be mixed with each other unless the label direct users to do so.

Special care should be taken when using caustic soda (sodium hydroxide).

Concentrate that contain bleach (sodium hypochlorite solution) should never be mixed with any other
chemicals.

• Pregnant women should avoid toxic chemical exposure as much as possible.

Carefully seal and label the container with the name and active ingredients of the product when taking
chemical to a civic amenity site for disposal.