INTRODUCTION

Data are raw facts. The word raw indicates that the facts have not yet been processed

to reveal their meaning. For example, suppose that you want to know what the users

of a computer lab think of its services. Typically, you would begin by surveying users

to assess the computer lab’s performance. After having the facts in hand, they are not

particularly useful in this format—reading page after page of zeros and ones, yes or

no, is not likely to provide much insight. Therefore, you transform the raw data into

a data summary. Now it’s possible to get quick answers to questions such as “What is

the composition of our lab’s customer base?” In this case, you can quickly determine

that most of your customers are juniors and seniors of certain percentage.

Information is the result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning. Data processing

can be as simple as organizing data to reveal patterns or as complex as making

forecasts or drawing inferences using statistical modelling. To reveal meaning,

information requires context. For example, an average temperature reading of 105

degrees may not mean anything. Information can be used as the foundation for

decision making. In this “information age,” production of accurate, relevant, and

timely information is the key to good decision making. In turn, good decision making

is the key to business survival in a global market. We are now said to be entering the

“knowledge age.” Data are the foundation of information, which is the bedrock of

knowledge—that is, the body of information and facts about a specific subject.

Knowledge implies familiarity, awareness, and understanding of

information as it applies to an environment.

Let’s summarize some key points:

✓ Data constitute the building blocks of information.

✓ Information is produced by processing data.

✓ Information is used to reveal the meaning of data.

making.

✓ Good decision making is the key to organizational survival in a global

environment.

Timely and useful information requires accurate data. Such data must be properly

generated and stored in a format that is easy to access and process. And, like any basic

resource, the data environment must be managed carefully. Data management is a

discipline that focuses on the proper generation, storage, and retrieval of data. Given

the crucial role that data play, it should not surprise you that data management is a

core activity for any business, government agency, service organization, or charity.

File-based System

In earlier days, File-based system was the method used to store data. A file system is

a process that manages how and where data on a storage disk, typically a hard disk

drive (HDD), are stored, accessed and managed. It organizes files for storage,

updating, insertion, deletion, manipulation, and retrieval by using the computer’s

operating system. File-based systems were an early attempt to computerize the

manual filing system. File-based system is a collection of application programs that

perform services for the end-users. Each program defines and manages its data. When

a computer user wants to store data electronically they must do so by placing data in

files. Files are stored in specific locations on the hard disk (directories). The user can

create new files to place data in, delete a file that contains data, rename the file, etc

which is known as file management; a function provided by the Operating System

(OS).

Disadvantages of the file-based approach

• Data redundancy

Data redundancy refers to the practice of keeping the same piece of data in two or

more places within a database or data storage system. This leads to Data
inconsistency, a situation where various copies of the same data are conflicting,

wastes storage space and duplicates effort.

• Security problems

Security can be a problem with a file-based approach because there are constraints

regarding accessing privileges. Also, application requirements are added to the

system in an ad-hoc manner so it is difficult to enforce constraints.

Database Approach

The difficulties that arise from using the file-based system have prompted the

development of a new approach in managing large amounts of organizational

information called the database approach. Databases and database technology play an

important role in most areas where computers are used, including business,

education and medicine.

Efficient data management typically requires the use of a computer database. A

database is a shared, integrated computer structure that stores a collection of:

i. End-user data, that is, raw facts of interest to the end user.

ii. Metadata, or data about data, through which the end-user data are integrated

and managed.

The metadata provide a description of the data characteristics and the set of

relationships that links the data found within the database. For example, the metadata

component stores information such as the name of each data element,

the type of values (numeric, dates, or text) stored on each data element, whether or

not the data element can be left empty, and so on. The metadata provide information

that complements and expands the value and use of the data. In short, metadata

present a more complete picture of the data in the database. Given the characteristics

of metadata, you might hear a database described as a “collection of self-describing

data.”
A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that manages

the database structure and controls access to the data stored in the database. In a

sense, a database resembles a very well-organized electronic filing cabinet in which

powerful software, known as a database management system, helps manage the

cabinet’s contents.