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EE 224 / EE 314 – Electrical Circuits 1 (DC Circuits)

I – Electrical Quantities, Units and Basic Electrical Ideas

Matter – anything that occupies space and has weight

Element – a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical action

Atom – the smallest part that an element can be reduced to and still keeping the chemical properties of the
element. It is the smallest building block of matter

Compound – a combination of two or more elements

Molecule – it is the smallest particle that a compound can be reduced to before it breaks down into its
elements

Structure of an Atom (Bohr Atomic Model)

Figure (1.):

Electrons – are negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus of an atom and it is one of
the lightest particles with a known mass (the mass of one electron is about 9 .11 x 10 – 31 kg.

N = 2 n2 , where: N = total number of electrons in a given shell

n = nth shell of an atom

Example: Determine the maximum number of electrons that can exist in the third shell of an atom

Solution: N = 2 n 2 = 2 ( 3 ) 2 = 18 electrons

Protons – are positively charged particles that stay in the nucleus of an atom and it is very small but it is
fairly massive compared to the other particles that make up matter (the mass of one proton is about 1.673

x 10 – 27 kg.)

Neutrons – are particles having no charge, they are about the same size as protons but their mass is
slightly greater, about 1.675 x 10 – 27 kg.

Nucleus – the central part of an atom where the protons and neutrons are located

Atomic Number – it represents the number of electrons or protons of an atom

Atomic Mass – it represents the sum of protons and neutrons of an atom

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Valence Electrons – are electrons found in the outermost shell or orbit of an atom

Classification of Materials According to the Number of Valence Electrons:

1. Conductors – are materials having less than four (4) valence electrons

2. Semiconductors – are materials having four (4) valence electrons

3. Insulators – are materials having more than four (4) valence electrons

Number of Number of Number of Valence

Name of Element
Electrons Protons Neutrons Electrons
Copper 29 29 34 1
Aluminum 13 13 14 3
Germanium 32 32 41 4
Phosphorus 15 15 16 5

Electric Charge

A body is said to be charged if it has either an excess or deficit of electrons from its normal values
due to sharing.

Coulomb (C) – unit of electric charge, which is equivalent to 6 .25 x 1018 electrons or protons

1 electron or proton has a charge of 1.6 x 10 – 19 coulombs

Electric Current

When a potential difference between two charges forces a third charge to move, the charge in motion is
called an electric current.

Figure (2.):

Ampere (A) – the unit of charge flow which is equal to one coulomb of charge past a given point in one
second

Q
I = t
, where: I = current (amperes)

Q = charge (coulomb)
t = time (second)
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Example: A car battery supplies a current of 50 A to the starter motor. How much charge passes through
1
the starter in minute?
2

Q 60 seconds
Solution: I = , Q = I t = 50 ( 0.5 x ) = 1500 C
t 1 minute

Types of Current

There are two general types of electric current, distinguished from each other by the manner in
which they vary in magnitude and direction; these are classified as (1.) direct current (DC) and (2.)
alternating current (AC)

A direct current (DC), sometimes called a continuous current, is one in which a unidirectional
transfer of energy takes place, with changes in value from instant to instant that are either zero or so small
that they may be neglected. When the current does vary somewhat in magnitude but does not reverse in
direction, it is referred to as a unidirectional direct current. Still another form of direct current is one in
which the magnitude varies considerably and pulsates regularly, there being no reversal in direction; it is
called a pulsating direct current. As indicated, all three (3) forms of direct current, i.e., continuous,
unidirectional and pulsating, involve a motion of electrons in one direction only; they are illustrated
graphically in figure (3.). Since the current in most D.C. systems is continuous, i.e., unvarying, it is this
particular form that is usually implied, unless otherwise specified, when mention is made of direct current.

Figure (3.): Graphs illustrating forms of direct current

An alternating current (AC) is one in which the direction alternates regularly and, unless otherwise
definitely stated, changes periodically in magnitude as well as direction. The fact that it is a periodic current
means, of course, that the average lateral motion of electrons in a conductor is zero; the electrons merely
oscillate back and forth past a fixed point. In most of our electrical systems, the current reversals take place
at the rate of 120 per second so that each cycle of two reversals is repeated 60 times a second; such an
alternating current is said to have a frequency of 60 cycles. Other frequencies are 50 cycles (in countries
abroad) and 25 cycles (in some countries).

An oscillating current although alternating in nature, increases and decreases in magnitude and
changes in direction periodically with respect to time according to some definite law; in general, successive
waves of current do not have the same magnitude. An example of this type of current is the current in the
antenna of a radio transmitter. Figure (4.) illustrates graphically the two common forms of alternating current
defined.
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Figure (4.): Graphs illustrating forms of alternating current

Potential Difference

Potential – the capability of doing work

Any charge has the capability of doing work of moving another charge either by attraction or repulsion.

Example: Assume 1 C of charge can move 3 electrons

Three (3) electrons will be attracted by the +1C plate and 3 electrons will be repelled by the –1C
plate, making a resultant motion of 6 electrons going towards the +1C plate.

The net number of electrons moved in the direction of the positive charge plate depends upon the
potential difference between the two charges.

Volt (V) – is the unit of potential difference, which is equal to one joule of work done per one coulomb
of charge.

W
E = , where: E = potential difference or voltage (volt)
Q

W = work done (joule)

Q = charge (coulomb)
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Example: Determine the magnitude of the voltage required to accelerate an electron to a kinetic energy of
8 x 10 – 15 joules

W 8 x 10−15
Solution: E = = = 50,000 volts
Q 1.6 x 10−19

Note: One electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10 – 19 coulombs

Electromotive Force (EMF)

Mention was made several times of the term electric pressure; this is more accurately called
Electromotive Force (EMF), and is the characteristic of a device or machine that tends to create electron
flow. When an EMF is applied to the ends of a conductor, it is proper to refer to the existence of a potential
difference between such ends; also, since increments of EMF are required for successive increments of
conductor, it is customary to regard to a potential difference as a drop in potential along the length of the
conductor. Still another term, more commonly used than those already given, is voltage; it too suggests
the existence of force that tends to create a current.

Several methods are employed to develop an EMF. One scheme is to combine certain kinds of
metals and chemicals into a device called a battery; these are constructed in a number of ways and, in
some types, may be used over and over again by a process of chemical rejuvenation called charging. A
more common and powerful method is to build a machine, called a generator, which functions to generate
voltages when conductors are rotated near magnets.

Types of Voltage

EMFs, i.e., voltages, are, for the most part, quite similar to currents with regard to changes in
magnitude and direction. These are therefore referred to by such terms as D.C. or A.C. voltage or oscillating
EMF.

Electron Velocity in Conductors

Although all the free electrons in a conductor begin moving almost instantaneously upon the
application of an electric pressure, their actual velocity, or drift, is exceedingly slow; this, as will presently
be shown, depends only upon the current density in the given conductor, i.e., the number of amperes per
unit of cross-sectional area.

Consider a copper conductor having a cross-sectional area of A (sq. in.) and carrying a constant
current of I (amperes). Since there are 6.28 x 1018 electrons per coulomb, and 1 ampere of current involves

a motion of 1 coulomb per second, it follows that 6 .28 x 1018 x I electrons are moved per second.
Furthermore, 1 inch of conductor length contains A (cu. in.), and each cubic inch of copper has 1.64 x 1024

free electrons; this means, therefore, that there are 1 .64 x 1024 x A electrons in each inch of conductor
length. Therefore, it should be clear that the velocity of electrons in inches per second is equal to the ratio
of electrons per second to electrons per inch:

electrons per second

V = = in. per sec. .......................eq. (1.)
electrons per inch
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Using the foregoing values in the given general expression,

6.28 X 1018 X I I
V = = 3.83 X 10−6 [ A ] ...................eq. (2.)
1.64 X 1024 X A

I
The quantity in the bracket is the current density in the conductor, and this is conveniently
A
replaced by Δ , which is specified in amperes per square inch of cross-sectional area; therefore, the
equation for electron velocity becomes:

V = 3.83 X 10−6 Δ ..........................................eq. (3.)

Equation (3.) cannot be applied to conductor materials other than copper, since a copper wire was
assumed in its derivation.

Resistance

The fact that a wire carrying a current can become hot, it is evident that the work done by the
applied force in producing the current must be accomplished against some opposition or resistance.

The practical unit of resistance is the Ohm (Ω)

ρL ρV ρ L2
Resistance of the conductor: R = = = , where: R = resistance (Ω)
A A2 V
(For constant temperature) A = cross-sectional area
ρ = resistivity or specific resistance
L = length
V = volume

Specific resistance or resistivity – the amount of change of resistance in a material per unit change in
temperature

Circular Mil (CM) – the area of a circle having a diameter of one mil or the square of the diameter in mil

A = d2 , where: A = area in circular mil (CM)

d = diameter in mil
Note: 1 inch = 1000 mils
1 MCM = 1000 CM

Resistance Resistivity Length Area Volume

Ohm Ohm-m M Sq.m. Cu. m.
Ohm O hm-cm Cm Sq. cm. Cu.cm.
Ohm Ohm-CM/ft Ft CM –
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Examples:

1. How many CM does a round copper rod of 0 .25 inch diameter has?
1000 mils
Solution: d = 0.25 in. x = 250 mils
1 in.

A = d2 = (250)2 = 62,500 CM

2. What is the size in square millimeter (mm2) of the cable of 250 MCM size?
Solution: 250 MCM = 250,000 CM
A = d2
d = √A = √250,000 = 500 mils
1 inch 25.4 mm
d = 500 mils x 1000 mils
x 1 inch
= 12.7 mm
therefore, the area in square millimeters is:
π d2 π (12.7)2
A = = = 126.67 mm2
4 4

3. A copper rod of 10 m long has a diameter with one inch. If the resistivity of copper is 10.371 ohms
circular-mil per foot, what is the resistance?
3.281 ft.
Solution: L = 10 m x = 32.81 ft.
1m

d = 1 inch = 1000 mils

A = d2 = (1000)2 = 1,000,000 CM
ρL (10.371)(32.81)
R = = = 3.4 X 10−4 Ω
A 1,000,000

Conductors Undergoing a Drawing Process

In the process, the waste of the material is assumed negligible (efficiency is 100%), thus keeping
the volume to be constant all throughout the process.

➢ With the volume of the material constant, resistance varies directly as the square of the length.
R2 L
= ( 2 )2
R1 L1
➢ With the volume of the material constant, resistance varies inversely as to the fourth power of the
diameter.
R2 d
= (d1 )4
R1 2

where:
Subscript “1” = conditions before the drawing process
Subscript “2” = conditions after the drawing process
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Example: A kilometer of wire having a diameter of 11.7 mm and a resistance of 0.031 ohm is drawn down
so that its diameter is 5.0 mm. What does its resistance become?

R 4
Solution: R2 = (dd1)
1 2
d 11.7 4
R 2 = R1 (d1 )4 = 0.031 ( ) = 0.93 Ω
2 5

Effect of Temperature in Resistance

Experiments have shown that the resistance of all wires generally used in practice in electrical
systems, increases as the temperature increases.

R2 T + t2 R2
= , = 1 + αt1 (t 2 − t1 )
R1 T + t1 R1

1 1
and αt 1 = , αt 0 = |T|
T + t1

where:
R1 = initial resistance (ohm)
R2 = final resistance (ohm)
T = inferred absolute temperature (temperature when resistance of a given material is zero)
t1 = initial temperature
t2 = final temperature
α= temperature coefficient of resistance

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance(α) – the ohmic change per degree at some specified temperature

Resistivity, Temperature Coefficient of Resistance @ 20 oC, and Inferred Absolute Temperature

Material ρ (Ω-CM / ft.) T (oC) 𝛂 at 20 oC

Silver 9.9 – 243 0.0038
Copper 10.37 – 234.5 0.00393
Aluminum 17 – 236 0.0039
Tungsten 33 – 202 0.0045
Zinc 36 – 250 0.0037

Example: The resistance of the tertiary winding of a power transformer is 0.125 ohm at 25 oC and the

temperature coefficient of resistance at 25 oC is 0.00393. What is the resistance at 65 oC?

R2
Solution: = 1 + α t 1 (t 2 − t 1 )
R1

R2 = R1 [ 1 + α Δt ] = 0.125 [ 1 + 0.00393 (65 − 25) ] = 0.14465 Ω

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Common Types of Resistors

1. Wire wound resistor – a special type of wire called resistance wire (tungsten or manganin) is wrapped
around an insulating core (porcelain, cement or pressed paper). These resistors are commonly used for
high current applications where accurate resistance values are necessary. Its wattage ratings are available
from 5 watts or more.

2. Carbon composition resistor – this resistor is made from finely divided carbon or graphite mixed with
a powdered insulating material as a binder and joined to the two ends are two metal caps with tinned lead
for soldering to connections to the circuit. Its wattage ratings are available from 1/10 to 2 watts.

Carbon composition resistor color coding

Figure (5.):

Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 ± 5%
Silver 10-2 ± 10%
No Color ± 20%

Tolerance – is the amount (in percent) by which the actual ohmic resistance can be different from the color-
coded value.
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Example: What is the ohmic resistance of a resistor with the following color bands: brown, black, orange
and gold?
Solution: First digit = 1 (brown); Second digit = 0 (black); Multiplier = 10 3 (orange);
Tolerance = ± 5% (gold)
Therefore, its ohmic value is 10 x 103 = 10,000 ohms ± 5%

The power rating of a resistor is a property that depends on the physical construction of the said resistor.
Thus, the bigger the size, the higher is the power rating.

Example: Which resistor is physically larger in size?

A. 100 ohms, 10W C. 1 KΩ, 1W
B. 10 ohms, 50W D. 1 MΩ, ½W Answer: B (10 ohms, 50W)

Conductance

Conductance – is the measure of the material’s ability to conduct electric current. It is equal to the
reciprocal of resistance.
The unit of conductance is Siemens or mho (Ω-1)

1 δL 1
G = = and δ =
R A ρ
where: δ = conductivity (Siemens per meter) ρ = specific resistance or resistivity (ohm-meter)
L = length (meter) G = conductance (Siemens or mho)
A = cross-sectional area (square meter) R = resistance (Ohm)

V V
From: I= then: I= = V G = V1 G1 = V2 G2 = V3 G3
R R

V1 G2 V2 G3 V1 G3
so that: = also = and =
V2 G1 V3 G2 V3 G1

1 1 1 1
For series resistances: = + +.........+
GT G1 G2 Gn

For parallel resistances: GT = G1 + G2 +.............+ Gn

Examples: 1. The resistance of 120 meters of wire is 12 ohms. What is its conductance?
1 1
Solution: G = R
= 12
= 0.0833 mho
2. Three resistors of 10, 15 and 20 ohms each are connected in parallel. What is the total
conductance?
1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution: GT = + + = + + = 0.2167 mho
R1 R2 R3 10 15 20
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II – DC Electric Circuits

Ohm’s Law

This law states that at constant temperature, the current flowing in an electric circuit is directly
proportional to the impressed emf applied to the circuit and inversely proportional to the equivalent
resistance of the said circuit.

Figure (6.):

E
I = , where: E = impressed voltage (volt)
R
I = current drawn (ampere)

R = resistance (ohm)

Series Connected Resistors

Series Circuit – the resistors are connected end to end

Figure (7.): Resistors in Series

➢ The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances

R T = R1 + R 2 + .......... + R n

➢ The total voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage drops across each resistance

ET = E1 + E2 + ..........+ En

➢ The current flowing in each resistance is the same

IT = I1 = I2 ............= In
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Parallel Connected Resistors

Parallel Circuit – the resistors are connected across each other

Figure (8.): Resistors in Parallel

➢ The total resistance is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.
1
RT = 1 1 1
+ +⋯+
R1 R2 Rn

➢ The voltage drop across each resistor is equal to the total voltage.

ET = E1 = E2 = ............= En

➢ The total current is equal to the sum of the currents flowing in each resistance.

IT = I1 + I2 + ..........+ In

ET ET ET
IT = + + ...............+
R1 R2 Rn

➢ The total conductance is equal to the sum of the individual conductance

1 1 1 1
GT = = + + ............+
RT R1 R2 Rn
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Series-Parallel Connected Resistors

Series-Parallel Circuit – a combinational circuit which when simplified will result into a series circuit.

Figure (9.): Resistors in Series-Parallel

1
R T = R1 + 1 1
+
R2 R3

Parallel-Series Connected Resistors

Parallel-Series Circuit – a combinational circuit which when simplified will result into a parallel circuit.

Figure (10.): Resistors in Parallel-Series

1
RT =
1 1
+
R1 R2 + R3

Note: Independent of the circuit connection (series, parallel or combination of both), the total power drawn
by the circuit is equivalent to the sum of the powers drawn by each resistance in the circuit.

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 +..........+ Pn = IT 2 R T
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Electrical Power

Power is the rate of energy transfer.

Electrical power – the rate of using or consuming the electrical energy

Watt – the unit of electrical energy equal to one joule of energy consumed in one second

E2
P = E I = I2 R = , where: P = electrical power (watt) I = current (ampere)
R

E = voltage (volt) R = resistance (ohm)

Electrical Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work 1 calorie = 4.186 joules

W = Pt = EIt 1 BTU = 252 calories

where: W = electrical energy (joule) 1 KWh = 3600 KJ = 3413 BTU = 860 Kcal

P = electrical power (watt) 1 joule = 1 x 107 ergs

t = time (second) 1 lb. = 453.6 gm

1 day = 24 hours & 1 month = 30 days

1 year = 365 days = 8760 hours

Electrical and Heat Energy Equivalents

Energy – the capacity to do work

W=Pt Q = 0.24 P t Q = m c ∆T ∆T = t 2 − t1
since 1 watt-second
of electric energy,
i.e., 1 joule = 0.24 gm-cal.

where: W = electrical energy (joule) c = specific heat of the material (calorie per gram-oC)
Q = heat energy required (calorie) ∆T = change in temperature of the material (oC)
P = electrical power (watt) t1 = initial temperature of the material

t = time (second) t2 = final temperature of the material

m = mass of the material (gram)

Gram-calorie or simply Calorie – the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1
degree Celsius

British Thermal Unit (BTU) – the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1
degree Fahrenheit
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Joule – the SI unit of energy and work; One joule is the work done by a force of One Newton acting through
a distance of One Meter

Specific heat (𝐜) of water =1 calorie / gram-oC = 1 Kcal. / Kg.-oC = 4186 joules / Kg.-oC = 1 BTU / lb.-oF

Kilowatt-hour (KW-hr) – unit in which electrical energy is sold to a customer

KW − hr = Kilowatts x hours

Examples:

1. A circuit has a resistance of 8 ohms. If a voltmeter connected across its terminals reads 10V, how much
current is flowing through the circuit?

Solution: Using Ohm’s Law

E 10
I = = = 1.25 A
R 8

2. A 30-ohm resistance is connected in series with a resistance R whose ohmic value is unknown. If the
current is 2 amperes when the circuit emf is 115 volts, calculate the resistance of the unknown.

115V
Solution: RT = = 57.5 Ω
2A

R = 57.5 − 30 = 27.5 Ω
3. A 30-ohm resistance is connected in parallel with a resistor R whose ohmic value is unknown. If the total
current (taken by both resistors) is 5.7 amperes when the circuit emf is 114 volts, calculate the resistance
of the unknown.

114 V
Solution: I30 = = 3.8 A
30 Ω

IR = 5.7 − 3.8 = 1.9 A

114 V
R = 1.9 A
= 60 Ω

4. A 3-ohm resistor and a 6-ohm resistor are connected in series across a DC supply. If the voltage drop
across the 3-ohm resistor is 4V, what is the voltage of the supply?

Figure:
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E1 4
Solution: I1 = = = 1.33 A
R1 3

E2 = I2 R 2 , but I2 = I1

E2 = (1.33)(6) = 7.98 ≈ 8 V

ET = E1 + E2 = 4 + 8 = 12 V

5. A load of 10 ohms was connected to a 12-volt battery. The current drawn was 1.18 amperes. What is
the internal resistance of the battery?

Figure:

ET 12 V
Solution: RT = = = 10.17 Ω
IT 1.18 A

RT = R + r

r = R T − R = 10.17 − 10 = 0.17 Ω

6. Three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel and take a total current of 7.9 A from a D.C.

source. The current through R1 is half of that through R2. If R3 is 36 ohms and takes 2.5 A , determine the

values of R1 and R2.

Figure:
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Solution: IT = I1 + I2 + I3
7.9 = 0.5 I2 + I2 + 2.5
I2 = 3.6 A

I1 = 0.5 I2 = 0.5 (3.6) = 1.8 A

ET = E1 = E2 = E3

E3 = I3 R3 = 2.5 (36) = 90 V

E1 90 V
R1 = = = 50 Ω
I1 1.8 A

E2 90 V
R2 = = = 25 Ω
I2 3.6 A

E2 90 V
R2 = I2
= 3.6 A
= 25 Ω

7. What is the resistance of a load that takes 2500 watts from a 115-volt source?
E2 (115)2
Solution: R= = = 5.29 Ω
P 2500

8. Two resistances of 10 and 15 ohms each respectively are connected in parallel. The two are then
connected in series with a 5-ohm resistance. What is the equivalent resistance?

Figure:

1
Solution: RT = 5 + 1 1 = 11 Ω
+
10 15
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9. A 5-ohm resistance is connected in parallel with a 10-ohm resistance. Another set, a 6-ohm and an 8-
ohm resistance are also connected in parallel. The two sets are connected in series. What is the equivalent
resistance?

Figure:

1 1
Solution: RT = 1 1 + 1 1 = 6.76 Ω
+
5 10
+
6 8

10. Two resistors of 5- and 10-ohms resistances are connected in parallel across a 12 V battery with a 0.2-
ohm internal resistance. What power is drawn by the two resistors?

Figure:

Solution:

Let: RP = equivalent resistance of the parallel

resistors
1
RP = = 3.33 Ω
1 1
+
5 10

RT = 3.33 + 0.2 = 3.53 Ω

ET 12 V
IT = = = 3.4 A
RT 3.53 Ω

PP = IT 2 R P = (3.4)2 (3.33) = 38.5 Watts

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11. A building load consists of thirty 100-watt, fifty 75-watt, and forty 60-watt incandescent lamps, all
connected in parallel to a 116-volt source. Calculate: (a.) the total power, (b.) the total current, and (c.) the
current through each size of lamp.
Solution:
(a.) P100 = 30 x 100 = 3,000 watts
P75 = 50 x 75 = 3,750 watts
P60 = 40 x 60 = 2,400 watts
PT = 3,000 + 3,750 + 2,400 = 9,150 watts

9,150 watts
(b.) IT = = 78.9 A
116 V

3,000 watts
(c.) I100 = = 0.862 A
(30)(116 V)

3,750 watts
I75 = (50)(116 V)
= 0.646 A

2,400 watts
I60 = (40)(116V)
= 0.517 A

12. A residential house has a lighting load of 1000 watts and a small appliance load of 2000 watts. If they
are used at the same time, what will be the monthly bill at an energy cost of P0.40 per kilowatt-hour?

Solution: W = P t = (1 KW + 2 KW) (720 hrs) = 2160 KWh

P 0.40
Total Cost = 2160 KWh x = P 864.00
KWh

13. A certain generator has an output power of 10 12 ergs per second. What is the output in KW?

ergs⁄ 1 joule joules ⁄

Solution: P = 1 X 1012 sec. x 1 x 107 ergs
= 100,000 sec. or watts
1 KW
P = 100,000 watts x = 100 KW
1000 watts

14. 100 liters of water is heated from 20oC to 40oC. How many KWhr of electricity is needed assuming no
losses?
Solution: m = density x volume

1000 kg 1 m3
m= x 100 L x = 100 Kg.
1 m3 1000 L

1 Kcal.
Q = m c ∆T = (100 Kg. ) (Kg− oC) (40 − 20) oC = 2000 Kcal.

1 KWh
Q = 2000 Kcal. x = 2.32 KWh
860 Kcal.
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Voltage Division Theorem (VDT) or Voltage Divider Principle (VDP)

In a series circuit, the ratio between any two voltage drops is the same as the ratio of the two
resistances across which these voltage drops occur.

Figure (11.):

E E1 E2 Ex
In a series circuit: IT = I1 = I2 = Ix then: = = =
RT R1 R2 Rx

E1 R E1 R
so that: = R1 and = R1
E2 2 Ex x

Ex R RX
therefore, for any given resistor in a voltage divider: = Rx then: EX = (E)
E T RT

E R1 E R2
so that: E1 = and E2 =
R1 + R2 +⋯+ Rn R1 + R2 +⋯+ Rn

Current Division Theorem (CDT) or Current Divider Principle (CDP)

In a parallel circuit, the ratio between any two branch currents is the same as the ratio of the two
conductances (the inverse of resistance) through which these currents flow.

Figure (12.):
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In a parallel circuit: E = E1 = E2 = Ex then: IT R T = I1 R1 = I2 R 2 = Ix R x

1
also: G= R

IT I1 I2 Ix I1 G I1 G I2 G IT GT
so that: = = = then: = G1 , = G1 , = G2 and =
GT G1 G2 Gx I2 2 Ix x Ix x Ix Gx

IT R2 IT R1
therefore, for any given resistor in a current divider: I1 = and I2 =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

Note: If there are more than two resistors in parallel, reduce first the circuit into two resistors in parallel
before applying the CDT or CDP.

Examples:

1. A 10,15 and 20 ohms resistors are connected in series across a 48-volt source. What is the voltage
across the 15-ohm resistor?

Figure:

Solution: By VDT or VDP:

E (15) 48 (15)
E15 Ω = = = 16 volts
10 + 15 + 20 45

2. A 10-ohm and 20-ohm resistances are connected in parallel. Another resistance of 5-ohm is connected
in series with the two. If the supply voltage is 48 volts, what is the current through the 10-ohm resistance?

Figure
 Page 22 of 78

Solution:

1
RT = 5 + = 11.67 Ω
1 1
+
10 20

E 48 V
IT = = = 4.11 A
RT 11.67 Ω

By CDT or CDP:

IT (20) 4.11 (20)

I10 Ω = = = 2.74 A
10 + 20 30

3. A simple voltage divider is shown below with the following information: E = 240 V, IB = 5 mA (current

through the bleeder resistor), IL = 10 mA (load current) and VL = 110 V. Calculate: (a.) ID, (b.) VD, (c.) RB,

(d.) RD and (e.) PD and PB

Figure: A Simple Voltage Divider

Solution: (a.) By KCL: ID = IB + IL = 5 + 10 = 15 mA

(b.) By KVL: E = VD + VL

VD = E − VL = 240 − 110 = 130 V

(c.) with VL = VB = 110 V

VB 110 V
RB = = = 22 KΩ
IB 5 mA

VD 130 V
(d.) R D = = = 8.67 KΩ
ID 15 mA

(e.) PD = ID VD = (15 mA)(130 V) = 1.95 W ≈ 2 W

PB = IB VB = (5 mA)(110 V) = 0.55 W ≈ 1 W
 Page 23 of 78

Delta to Wye and Wye to Delta Transformations

Resistors are sometimes interconnected to form rather complex networks; they may, in fact, be
complex that the common rules applicable to simple series and parallel circuits cannot be used for the
calculation of equivalent resistances, branch currents, and voltage drops. Under such conditions, it is
generally necessary to transform all or parts of the complex circuits into electrically equivalent circuits that
lend themselves to simple and straightforward solutions. Two elemental arrangements of resistors, within
and parts of larger networks, that are frequently responsible for the difficulties indicated are delta-connected
resistors and wye-connected resistors; they are shown in figure (13.).

Delta and Wye Connected Resistors

Figure (13.):

➢ Wye to Delta Transformation

X Y + Y Z + ZX X Y + Y Z + ZX X Y + Y Z + ZX
A= , B= and C=
Z X Y

➢ Delta to Wye Transformation

AC AB BC
X= , Y= and Z=
A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C

where: X , Y , Z are the wye-connected resistors

A , B , C are the delta-connected resistors

R∆
For identical resistors: RY = and R∆ = 3 RY
3
 Page 24 of 78

Examples:

1. A circuit containing three resistors rated 10, 15 and 20 ohms are connected in delta. What would be the
resistances of the equivalent wye-connected load?

Figure:

10 (20)
Solution: X= 10 + 15 + 20
= 4.44 Ω

10 (15)
Y= = 3.33 Ω and
10 + 15 + 20

15 (20)
Z= = 6.66 Ω
10 + 15 + 20

2. The wiring diagram shown in the figure below is known as a Wheatstone-bridge circuit; when the
potential difference between points a and b is zero the bridge is said to be balanced. For the resistance
values given the bridge is unbalanced, and it is desired to find (a.) the equivalent resistance of the circuit,
(b.) the total current IT, (c.) the current in the 110-ohm resistor between points a and b.
 Page 25 of 78

Solution:

(a.) To determine the equivalent resistance, first transform the delta-connected resistances A, B and C as
shown in figure (a.) above into an equivalent wye or star; the individual values of resistance may be readily
computed using the three equations for delta to wye transformation:

(60)(80) (60)(80)
X= = = 19.2 Ω
60 + 80 + 110 250

(60)(110)
Y= = 26.4 Ω
250

(80)(110)
Z= = 35.2 Ω
250

Joining the equivalent wye or star to the remaining two arms M and N, the simplified circuit appears as
shown in figure (b.) above, and the equivalent resistance can be determined as follows:

(35.2 + 84.8) (26.4 + 33.6)

RT = 19.2 + = 59.2 𝛺
(120 + 60)

(b.) The total current is:

177.6 V
IT = = 3A
59.2 Ω

(c.) To determine the current through the 110-ohm resistor, first find the potential difference between points
a and b. To do this, the currents through the two branches of the parallel circuit of figure (b.) must be found,
then:

By CDT or CDP:
3 (60)
For the left branch: I120 = =1A
120 + 60
3 (120)
For the right branch: I60 = = 2A
120 + 60

The voltage drop across M is (84.8 Ω) (1 A) = 84 .8 V, and the voltage drop across N is (33.6 Ω) (2 A) =

67.2 V. Therefore, the potential difference between a and b is 84 .8 – 67.2 = 17.6 V. So, the current through
17.6 V
the 110-ohm resistor is: I110 Ω = = 0.16 A
110 Ω
 Page 26 of 78

III – Network Laws and Theorem

A. Kirchhoff’s Law

➢ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) – the algebraic sum of the currents at any junction or node of an
electric circuit is zero. The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the same node.

Figure (14.):

I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

➢ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) – the algebraic sum of the emf’s and the resistance voltage drops
in any closed loop of an electric circuit is zero.

Standard Sign Conventions:

1. If loop enters on minus sign and goes out on plus sign, the battery emf is positive (+ E)
2. If loop enters on plus sign and goes out on minus sign, the battery emf is negative (– E)
3. If loop direction is the same as the current direction, the resistance voltage drop is
negative (– IR)
4. If loop direction is opposite to the direction of current, the resistance voltage drop is
positive (+ IR)

Examples:

1. Consider the circuit as shown below

 Page 27 of 78

By KCL:
At junction “b”: I1 + I2 = I3

By KVL:
For loop “fabef”: E1 − I1 R1 − I3 R 3 = 0
For loop “dcbed”: E2 − I2 R2 − I3 R 3 = 0
For loop “fabcdef”: E1 − I1 R1 + I2 R 2 − E2 = 0

Note: Currents I1 , I2 and I3 are evaluated by simultaneous substitutions of the equations formulated
using KCL and KVL.

2. Two batteries with 0.1-ohm and 0.2-ohm internal resistances supply power to a 10-ohm load at 11.8
volts. What is the current of each battery?

Figure:

Solution:
Applying KVL at loop “fabcdef”: E − 0.1 I1 + 0.2 I2 − E = 0

Therefore: I2 = 0.5 I1 ...........eq. (1.)

11.8
Applying KCL at node b: I1 + I2 = 10

Therefore: I1 + I2 = 1.18 ................eq. (2.)

Substitute eq. (1.) in eq. (2.), then: I1 + 0.5 I1 = 1.18

Therefore: I1 = 0.787 A

and I2 = 0.5 (0.787 A) = 0.394 A

 Page 28 of 78

B. Maxwell’s Mesh (Loop) Method

This method involves a set of independent loop currents assigned to as many meshes as it exist in the
circuit and these currents are employed in connection with appropriate resistances when the KVL equations
are written.

Example: A 12-volt battery of 0.05-ohm resistance and another battery of 12-volt and 0.075-ohm
resistance supply power to a 2-ohm resistor. What is the current through the load?

Figure:

Solution:

Step 1: Assign mesh current directions (redraw the original circuit showing independent loop
currents)

Step 2: Formulate equations needed using KVL

Using loop “fabef”: E1 − IA (r1 + RL ) − IB RL = 0

12 – 2.05 IA – 2 IB = 0
therefore: IA = 5.85 − 0.975 IB ..................eq. (1.)

Using loop “dcbed”: E2 − IB (r2 + R L ) − IA RL = 0

therefore: 12 – 2.075 IB – 2 IA = 0 ...........eq.(2.)
 Page 29 of 78

Substitute eq. (1.) in eq. (2.), then:

12 – 2.075 IB – 2 (5.85 − 0.975 IB ) = 0
therefore: IB = 2.4 A
and IA = 5.85 − 0.975 (2.4) = 3.51 A

By inspection: (Refer to the current directions of the given circuit and compare it to the directions
of the loop currents assigned to each mesh)
I1 = |IA | , I2 = |IB | and IL = |IA + IB |

Solving for IL : IL = 2.4 + 3.51 = 5.91 A

C. Superposition Theorem

In a network of resistors, the current in any resistor is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents delivered
by each independent sources assuming that each source is acting alone or independently with respect to
the others.

Note: If a source is operating alone, the other current sources are open-circuited while the other voltage
sources are short-circuited.

Example: Two 24 V batteries supply power to a 20-ohm load. One battery has 0.2-ohm internal resistance
while the other has 0.4-ohm. What current does the load draws?
 Page 30 of 78

Solution:

Step 1: Assume source voltage E1 to supply the given circuit alone with E2 short-circuited

1
R T = 0.2 + 1 1 = 0.592 Ω
+
20 0.4

E1 24
I1′ = = = 40.54 A
RT 0.592

I′1 (0.4) 40.54 (0.4)

By CDT or CDP: IL′ = = = 0.795 A ≈ 0.80 A
20 + 0.4 20.4

Step 2: Assume source voltage E2 to supply the given circuit alone with E1 short-circuited

1
R T = 0.4 + 1 1 = 0.598 Ω
+
20 0.2

E2 24
I2″ = = = 40.13 A
RT 0.598

I″
2 (0.2) 40.13 (0.2)
By CDT or CDP: IL″ = 20 + 0.2
= 20.2
= 0.397 A ≈ 0.40 A

By inspection: (Refer to the current directions of the given circuit and compare it to the directions
of the currents when each source operates alone)

I1 = I1′ − I1″ , I2 = I2″ − I2′ and IL = IL′ + IL″

Solving for IL : 𝐈𝐋 = 0.795 + 0.397 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗 𝐀 or 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎 𝐀

 Page 31 of 78

D. Nodal Node Method

Using this method, a circuit with “n” nodes has a solution with only “n – 1” number of equations
needed.

Figure (15.):

where: “A” and “B” are the principal nodes and “C” is the reference or zero-potential point

Note: Since there are three (3) nodes (nodes A, B and C) in this circuit, therefore only two (2) equations
are needed to solve this problem.

By KCL at node A: I1 = I2 + I3

E1 − VA VA VA − VB
= + .....................eq.(1.)
R1 R2 R3

By KCL at node B: I4 = I 3 + I5

VB VA − VB E2 − VB
= + ...................eq.(2.)
R4 R3 R5

Note: Node voltages VA and VB are evaluated by simultaneous substitutions of the equations formulated

using KCL and correspondingly, currents flowing through each resistance can be solved.

Example: A 12-volt battery of 0.1-ohm internal resistance and another of 0.15-ohm internal resistance are
connected in parallel to supply power to a 10-ohm resistance. What is the power drawn by the load
resistance?

Figure:
 Page 32 of 78

Apply KCL at junction A: I1 + I2 = IL

E1 − VA E2 − VA VA
+ =
r1 r2 RL

12 − VA 12 − VA VA
+ =
0.1 0.15 10

VA = 11.93 V

(VA )2 (11.93)2
Therefore: PL = RL
= 10
= 14.23 W

E. Thevenin’s Theorem

If a given resistor be connected between any two terminals of a linear network, the resulting steady-

state current through the resistor is the ratio of the potential difference E𝐨 (between the two points prior

to the connection) and the sum of the values of the resistance R 𝐨 (resistance looking back into the network

measured in the two points prior to the connection) and the connected resistanceR 𝐋 .

This theorem states that any two-terminal network of fixed resistances and voltage sources can be
replaced by a single voltage source having an equivalent voltage equal to the open circuit voltage at the
terminals of the original network and having an internal resistance equal to the resistance looking back into
the network from the two terminals with all the voltage sources replaced by their internal resistances.

Figure (16.): Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (consists of an internal resistance R𝐨 in series with the
constant-voltage source E𝐨 = VT ).
 Page 33 of 78

Eo
IL = Ro + RL

where: E𝐨 = E𝐓𝐇 = a constant-voltage source

VT = the open circuit voltage measured across terminals A and B , E𝐨 = VT

R𝐨 = R 𝐓𝐇 = resistance measured at terminals A and B prior to the connection of R 𝐋 with all

voltage sources shorted and all current sources opened, or the looking back
resistance in series with the constant-voltage source in the Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit

R 𝐋 = load resistance connected to terminals A and B

IL = current drawn by the load resistance

A Linear circuit or network is one whose parameters are constant i.e., do not change with voltage and
current

Example: 1. The lead storage batteries A and B are connected in parallel. Battery A has an open circuit
voltage of 12.6 V and an internal resistance of 0.2-ohm. Battery B has an open circuit voltage of 12.2 V and
an internal resistance of 0.3-ohm. If the two batteries together deliver power to a 0.5-ohm power resistor,
neglecting effects of temperature, how much current is contributed by battery A?

Figure:

Solution:

Step 1: Open circuit r𝐀 and solve for the voltage across the open circuited terminals
 Page 34 of 78

EB 12.2
I= = = 15.25 A
rB + RL 0.3 +0.5

Apply KVL at loop “dabcd”: EA − Eo − I R L = 0

12.6 − Eo − (15.25)(0.5) = 0
Eo = ETH = 4.975 V

Step 2: Open circuit r𝐀 and short circuit all independent voltage sources and solve for the

equivalent resistance (R 𝐨 ) across terminals A and B

1
Ro = RTH = = 0.1875 Ω
1 1
+
0.3 0.5

Step 3: Construct the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and solve for the resulting current

Eo 4.975
𝐈𝐀 = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟒 𝐀
R o + rA 0.1875 + 0.2
 Page 35 of 78

F. Norton’s Theorem

This theorem is analogous to Thevenin’s theorem except that instead of the open circuit test, this
theorem uses the short circuit test and the equivalent circuit is a parallel circuit.

This theorem states that any two-terminal network of fixed resistances and voltage sources may
be replaced by a single constant-current source whose current is equal to the current drawn by a short
circuit across the terminals of the original network and having in parallel with the constant-current source a
resistance equal to the resistance looking back into the network from the two terminals.

Figure (17.): Norton’s Equivalent Circuit (consists of an internal resistance R 𝐨 in parallel with the constant-
current source I𝐨 )

Isc Ro Eo
IL = =
Ro + RL Ro + RL

where: Io = a constant-current source

I𝐬𝐜 = short circuit current flowing across terminals A and B with R L disconnected , Io = Isc
Ro = resistance measured at terminals A and B prior to the connection of RL with all voltage

sources shorted and all current sources opened, or the looking back resistance in parallel
with the constant-current source in the Norton’s equivalent circuit

RL = load resistance connected to terminals A and B

IL = current drawn by the load resistance

Note: Internal resistance or looking back resistance R𝐨 is the same for both constant-voltage and

constant-current equivalent sources and can be determined in both cases by the equation :

open circuit terminal voltage VT Eo

Ro = = =
short circuit terminal current Isc Io
 Page 36 of 78

Example: (Same example as in Thevenin’s Theorem)

The lead storage batteries A and B are connected in parallel. Battery A has an open circuit voltage of 12.6
V and an internal resistance of 0.2-ohm. Battery B has an open circuit voltage of 12.2 V and an internal
resistance of 0.3-ohm. If the two batteries together deliver power to a 0.5-ohm power resistor, neglecting
effects of temperature, how much current is contributed by battery A?

Figure:

Solution:

Step 1: Short circuit r𝐀 and solve the short circuit current that flows towards the short-circuited

branch

Apply KVL at loop “fabcdef”: EA − IB rB − EB = 0

12.6 − 0.3 IB − 12.2 = 0
IB = 1.33 A

Apply KVL at loop “dcbed”: EB + IB rB − IL RL = 0

12.2 + 0.3 (1.33) − 0.5 IL = 0
IL = 25.198 A

Apply KCL at node b: Isc = IB + IL = 1.33 + 25.198 = 26.528 A

 Page 37 of 78

Step 2: Open circuit r𝐀 , short circuit all independent voltage sources and solve the

equivalent resistance R o across terminals A and B

1
Ro = = 0.1875 Ω
1 1
0.3 + 0.5

Step 3: Construct the Norton’s equivalent circuit and solve for the resulting current

Isc Ro 26.528 (0.1875)

𝐈𝐀 = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟒 𝐀
R o + rA 0.1875 + 0.2
(same answer)
 Page 38 of 78

G. Millman’s Theorem

When any number of voltage sources of arbitrary generated voltage and finite internal resistance
different from zero are connected in parallel, the resulting voltage across the parallel combination is the
ratio of the algebraic sum of the currents that each source individually delivers when short circuited to the
algebraic sum of the internal conductance.

Figure (18.): Millman’s Equivalent Circuit

E1 E En
+ 2 + ……..+
r1 r2 Rn
VAB =
1 1 1
+ + ………+
r1 r2 rn

where: E1 , E2 ,.............., En = emf of each voltage source connected in parallel

r1 , r2 ,..............., rn = internal resistance of each voltage source

VAB = voltage across the parallel combination

Consider the circuit as shown below

 Page 39 of 78

Step 1: Draw the Millman’s equivalent circuit and solve for VAB

Step 2: Refer to the original circuit and solve for I1 , I2 and I3

E1 − VAB E2 − VAB VAB

I1 = , I2 = and I3 =
R1 R2 R3

Example: Two 24-volt batteries supply power to a 20-ohm load. The internal resistance of one is
0.2-ohm while the other is 0.4-ohm. What is the voltage across the load?

E1 E2 24 24
+ +
r1 r2 0.2 0.4
Solution: 𝐕𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 1 1 1 = 1 1 1 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟖 𝐕
+ + + + 20
r1 r2 RL 0.2 0.4

H. Source Transformation Method

This method simplifies the number of meshes in the network and thus simplifies the number of
equations needed.

➢ From Voltage source to Current source

 Page 40 of 78

➢ From Current source to Voltage source

Example: 1. From the given network as shown below, solve for the current I3 using the source

transformation method

Figure:

Solution:

Step 1: Transform the voltage and current sources to their equivalents, the original circuit then
becomes:
 Page 41 of 78

From voltage source to current source , From current source to voltage source

E 24
= =8A I R 4 = 2 (2) = 4 V
R1 3

1 1
RA = 1 1 = 1 1 = 1.714 Ω
+ +
R1 R2 3 4

the resulting circuit now becomes:

Step 2: From the circuit as shown above, transform the current source to its equivalent voltage
source, the circuit then becomes:

From current source to voltage source

E = 8 (1.714) = 13.712 V

Step 3. Apply KVL using the given loop direction as shown above

13.712 − I3 (1.714 + 1 + 2) − 4 = 0
𝐈𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟔 𝐀
 Page 42 of 78

I. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power transferred to a load resistor occurs only when the said resistor has a value equal

to the resistance Ro of the network looking back from the load terminals with all the voltage sources

replaced by their internal resistances. In other words, maximum power transfer occurs only when

RL = Ro.

The efficiency at maximum load power is 50%

Eo 2
Under maximum power transfer condition: RL = Ro and Pmax = 4 RL

Derivation:

EO
From: I= ..............eq.(1.) and PL = I 2 R L ..............eq.(2.)
RL + Ro

Eo
Substitute eq.(1.) in eq.(2.), then: PL = ( )2 R L , but: RL = Ro
RL + Ro

Eo 2 Eo 2
then: PL = Pmax = ( ) RL =
2 RL 4 RL

Examples:

1. A lead storage battery is rated at 12 volts. If the internal resistance is 0.01-ohm, what is the
maximum power that can be delivered to the load?

Figures:

Solution: R L = R o = 0.01 Ω

Eo 2 (12)2
𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 4 RL
= 4 (0.01)
= 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝐖
 Page 43 of 78

2. From the given network as shown below, determine the value of RL that will absorb maximum

power.

Figure:

Solution: Open circuit resistor R L and solve the value of R o across the open circuit terminals.

The voltage source is shorted while the current source is opened, the original circuit
then becomes:

1
Ro = = 2Ω
1 1
4 + (2 + 2)

therefore, for maximum power transfer: 𝐑𝐋 = 𝐑𝐨 = 𝟐 𝛀

Note: If the corresponding current or power drawn by resistor R is to be determined, use

Thevenin’s theorem to solve the problem.

Figure: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Eo 2
Pmax =
4 RL
 Page 44 of 78

IV – Electrostatics

Coulomb’s Law

➢ First Law of Electrostatics – like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other

➢ Second Law of Electrostatics – the force of attraction or repulsion between charges is directly
proportional to the product of two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them

Figure (19.): Force between two charges

Q1 Q 2 K Q1 Q 2
F= 2
=
4 π Σo Σr d d2

where: F = force (Newton)

Q1 , Q 2 = charge in each body (Coulomb)

Σo = absolute permittivity = 8.854 x 10 –12 farad per meter

Σr = relative permittivity of the dielectric = 1 (for free space / no unit)

d = distance or separation between two charges (meter)

K = Coulomb’s law constant or free space constant in S.I. unit equal to 9 x 109 N m2 / C2

In CGS units: F in dyne, Q in statcoulomb, d in centimeter, g = 981 cm / s2 and K = 1 (no unit)

1 coulomb = 3 x109 stat coulomb

Examples:

–15
1. Two electrons in a vacuum experience a force of 2 x 10 N. How far apart are the electrons?

Solution: 1 electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10 –19 coulomb

K Q1 Q2 K Q1 Q2 (9 x 109 )(1.609 x 10−19 )2

F= then: 𝐝= √ = √ = 𝟑. 𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦
d2 F 2 x 10−15
 Page 45 of 78

–3
2. Two point charges 10 cm apart exert a force of 1 x 10 gram on each other. If the charges are of the
same value, what is the value of each charge in stat coulomb?

K Q1 Q2
Solution: F= , Q1 = Q 2 = Q then:
d2

F d2 m g d2 (1 x 10−3 ) (981)(10)2
𝐐= √ =√ =√ = 𝟗. 𝟗 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛
K K 1

Electrostatic Potential

Electrostatic potential is the electric potential resulting from the location of charged bodies in the vicinity

Q KQ
V= = , where: V = electrostatic potential (volt) at a distance of d (meter)
4 π Σ o Σr d d

from a charged body of charge Q (coulomb)

K = Coulomb’s law constant or free space constant in S.I. units

equal to 9 x 109 N m2 / C2

–8
Example: An isolated positive point charge of 2 x 10 coulombs is in free space. How far away must
the charge be in order to produce an electric potential of 120 volts?

KQ KQ (9 x 109 )(2 x 10−8 )

Solution: V= , then: 𝐝= = = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐦
d V 120

Electric Field Intensity

Electric field intensity is the force per unit positive charge that will act at a point in the field on a very small
test charge placed at that location.

Electric field intensity near an isolated point charge

Figure (20.):

Q KQ
E= =
4 π Σo Σr d2 d2
 Page 46 of 78

where: E = electric field intensity (Newton per coulomb)

d = distance in meters of the test charge (+ 1C) to the charge (+ Q) body
Σr = 1 (for free space / no unit)

K = Coulomb’s law constant or free space constant in S.I. units equal to 9 x 109 N m2 / C2

Electric field intensity outside an isolated sphere in free space

Q KQ
E= 2
= 2
4 π Σo Σr r r

where: E = electric field intensity (volt per meter) at a distance r (meter) from the center of an isolated
charged sphere located in free space

Q = total charge (coulomb) which is distributed uniformly on the sphere

Σr = 1 (for free space / no unit)

K = Coulomb’s law constant or free space constant in S.I. units equal to 9 x 109 N m2 / C2

Electric field intensity created by an isolated, charged long cylindrical wire in free space

∆
E= , where: E = electric field (volt per meter)
2 π Σo Σr r

∆ = charge per unit of length (coulomb per meter) distributed

uniformly over the surface of the isolated cylinder

r = distance (meters) from the center of the cylinder to the point

at which the electric field intensity is evaluated

Σr = 1 (for free space / no unit)

Examples:

1. Two spheres separated from each other by 10 m have charges of 0 .001-Coulomb and 0.003-Coulomb,
respectively. In between the two spheres is a point of zero electric field. What is the distance from the
0.001-Coulomb sphere?

Figure:
 Page 47 of 78

Solution: E1 = E2

K Q1 K Q2
=
d2 (10 − d)2

0.001 0.003
=
d2 (10 − d)2

d
(10 − d)2 = 0.333

𝐝 = 0.577 (10 − d) = 5.77 − 0.577 d = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟔 𝐦

2. Two point charges are 100 cm apart in air. One charge is + 250 stat C while the other is –180 stat C.
Determine the electric field intensity midway between the charges.

Figure:

K Q1 (1) (250)
Solution: E1 = 2 = = 0.1 dyne / stat C
d1 (50)2

K Q2 (1) (200)
E2 = 2 = = 0.08 dyne / stat C
d2 (50)2

𝐄𝐓 = E1 + E2 = 0.1 + 0.08 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 dyne / stat C

Note: The resultant force per unit charge is the vector sum of the component fields E1 and E2 . Both fields

are in the same direction.

 Page 48 of 78

Electric Flux Density

Electric flux density is the number of lines of force per unit area crossing the surface at right angles to the
direction of the field.

ψ
D = Σo Σ r E = , where: D = electric flux density (electric lines per square meter)
A

ψ = electric flux crossing the area (electric lines)

A = area perpendicular to electric flux (square meter)

Total flux (electric lines) crossing the surface of a sphere from a point charge Q located at the

center of the sphere

ψ = 4πQ

Example: If the charge of an isolated charged sphere is positive 2 x 10 –9 C, determine the flux density at
a distance of 0.2 m from the center of the sphere.

ψ 4πQ 2 x 10−9
Solution: 𝐃 = = = = 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 electric lines per sq. m.
A 4 π r2 (0.2)2

Capacitance

Capacitance – is a measure of how well a capacitor can store electrical charges.

– the amount of charge a particular capacitor will store per volt of potential difference across
its plates

Capacitor (or condenser) – any device on which electric charges can be stored so as to posses
electrical potential

– it consists of two conducting plates separated by a layer of an insulating

medium called dielectric

Farad – the unit of capacitance when one coulomb of charge given to its plates raises its potential
difference by one volt (1 Farad = 1 Coulomb / volt)

Several factors affecting capacitance:

(a.) Area – capacitance is directly proportional to the area (C ∝ A)

1
(b.) Separation of plates (C ∝ d)

(c.) Type of material separating the plates

 Page 49 of 78

Equation for Capacitance:

𝐾A
C= , where: 𝐾 = dielectric constant , d = distance or separation between the plates
4πKd

A = area of the plate , K = Coulomb’s law constant = 9 x 109 N m2 / C2

Q Q
C= = , where: C = capacitance of a charged capacitor (Farad)
V E

Q = charge stored (Coulomb)

V = voltage across the capacitor (volt)

In an electric circuit, a symbol for a capacitor is:

Examples:

1. A 50-microfarad capacitor is connected across a 220V supply. If a current of 20 mA is maintained during

the charging period, how long will it take to fully charge the capacitor?

Solution: Q = C V = (50 x 10−6 )(220) = 0.011 Coulomb

Q 0.011
but: Q=It , 𝐭= = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 sec.
I 20 x 10−3

2. A 5-microfarad capacitor with air initially separating the plates, have been charged by a 100-volt power
supply. The capacitor is disconnected from the supply, and a sheet of flexi glass with dielectric constant
3.40 is placed between the plates so that it fills the space. Calculate the voltage across the plates.

Solution: C = Co = 5 μF Find: V if 𝑘 = 3.40

Vo = 100 V
𝐾o = 1 (Dielectric constant when in air as the dielectric medium)

then , from: Q = CV

so that: Qo = Q

Co Vo = C V

𝐾o Vo A 𝐾 V A
=
4πKd 4πKd

therefore: 𝐾𝑜 Vo = 𝐾 V

𝐾𝑜 Vo (1)(100 V)
so: 𝐕= 𝐾
= 3.40
= 𝟐𝟗 𝐕
 Page 50 of 78

Capacitance of a two parallel-plate capacitor with a uniform dielectric medium

Figure (21.):

Σo Σr A K A
C= =
d d

where: C = capacitance (Farad) , 𝑘 = Σo Σr = Dielectric constant

A = area of each plate (sq. m.) , Σo = absolute permittivity

d = thickness of the dielectric material (meter) , Σr = relative permittivity of the dielectric

Dielectric Constant Dielectric Constant

Substance Substance
(𝑘) (𝑘)
Air 1 Marble 9 – 12
Glass 4 – 10 Shellac 3 – 3.7
Mica 4–8 Silk 4. 6
Hard rubber 2–4 Celluloid 7 – 10
Paraffin 2–3 Wood , Oak 3–6
Paper 1. 5 – 3 Castor Oil 4. 7
Porcelain 5–7 Transformer Oil 2. 5
Sulfur 3 – 4. 2 Distilled Water 81

Capacitance of an n-parallel plate capacitor having the same type of dielectric material and
thickness of dielectric

Figure (22.):
 Page 51 of 78

Σo Σr A
C=( ) (n − 1)
d

where: n = number of plates

Capacitance of an n-parallel plate capacitor with different material and thickness of insulation

Figure (23.):

Σo A
C=
d1 d d
+ 2 + 3
Σr1 Σr2 Σr3

Capacitance of a two-parallel plate capacitor with a medium partly air

Figure (24.):

Σo A
C= t
d − (t − )
Σr
 Page 52 of 78

Capacitance of an isolated sphere

Figure (25.):

C = 4 π Σo Σr r

Capacitance of a concentric spherical capacitor

Figure (26.):

r r
(a.) C = 4 π Σo Σr (r 1− r2 )
2 1

r2 2
(b.) C = 4 π Σo Σr (r )
2 − r1
 Page 53 of 78

Capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor of length L (meters)

Figure (27.):

2 π Σo Σr L
C= r
ln ( 2 )
r1

Capacitance of a two-wire line (parallel cylinder capacitor) with opposite charges (Farad per
meter)

Figure (28.):

π Σo Σr
C=
D D
ln ( + √( )2 − 1 )
2r 2r

Examples:

1. Calculate the capacitance between two parallel plates each of which is 100 sq. cm. and 2 mm apart in
air.

1m
Solution: A = 100 cm2 x ( )2 = 0.01 m2
100 cm

d = 2 mm = 0.002 m

Σo Σr A (8.854 x 10−12 ) (1)(0.01)

𝐂= = = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟐𝟕 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐅
d 0.002
 Page 54 of 78

2. A parallel plate capacitor is made of 350 plates, separated by paraffin paper 0.0010 cm thick (k = 2.5)
. The effective size of the plate is 15 cm x 30 cm. What is the capacitance of this capacitor?

1m
Solution: A = 15 (30) = 450 cm2 x ( )2 = 0.045 m2
100 cm

d = 0.001 cm = 0.00001 m
Σo Σr A (8.854 x 10−12 ) (2.5) (0.045)
𝐂=( ) (n − 1 ) = (350 − 1) = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐅
d 0.00001

3. A capacitor consists of two metal plates each 5cm x 5cm, spaced 6 mm apart. The space between the
metal plates is filled with a glass plate 4 mm thick and a layer of paper 2 mm thick. The relative permittivities
of glass and paper are 8 and 2 respectively. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.

Σo A (8.854 x 10−12 ) (0.05 x 0.05)

Solution: 𝐂= d1 d = 0.004 0.002 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐅
Σr1
+ Σ2 8
+ 2
r2

4. A capacitor is formed using two concentric copper cylinders 100 cm long and separated by a material
with a dielectric constant of 3. The inner and outer cylinders have radii of 2 cm and 4 cm respectively.
Determine the resulting capacitance.

Solution: L = 100 cm = 1 m

2 π Σo Σr L 2 π (8.854 x 10−12 )(3)(1)

𝐂= r = 4 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐅
ln (r2 ) ln (2)
1

5. A parallel plate capacitor consists of two square metal plates 20 cm each side and separated by 1 cm.
A slab or a certain dielectric(𝑘 = 6) 6 mm thick is placed on the lower plate leaving an air gap 4 mm
between the dielectric and the upper plate. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.

Σo A (8.854 x 10−12 ) (0.2 x 0.2)

Solution: 𝐂= t = 0.006 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐅
d − (t − ) 0.01 − (0.006 − 6
)
Σr
 Page 55 of 78

Elastance

1
Elastance is the reciprocal of capacitance s= , where: s = elastance (daraf)
C

C = capacitance of the capacitor (farad)

Series Connected Capacitors

Figure (29.):

➢ The total capacitance is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitance of each capacitor.

1
CT =
1 1 1
+ +⋯+
C1 C2 Cn

➢ The charges on each capacitor are equal.

Q1 = Q 2 = Q 3 = ⋯ = Q n

➢ The total voltage is equal to the sum of the voltages across each capacitor.

ET = E1 + E2 + ⋯ + En
 Page 56 of 78

Parallel Connected Capacitors

Figure (30.):

➢ The total capacitance is equal to the sum of the individual capacitance of each capacitor.

CT = C1 + C2 + ⋯ + Cn

➢ The total charge accumulated is equal to the sum of the charges accumulated in each capacitor.

Q T = Q1 + Q 2 + ⋯ + Q n

➢ The total voltage is equal to the voltage across each capacitor.

ET = E1 = E2 = ⋯ = En

where: QT = total charge accumulated (Coulomb)

CT = total capacitance (farad)

ET = supply voltage (volt)

Series-Parallel Connected Capacitors

Series-Parallel Circuit – a combinational circuit which when simplified will result into a series circuit.

Figure (31.):

1
CT = 1 1
+
C1 C2 + C3
 Page 57 of 78

Parallel-Series Connected Capacitors

Parallel-Series Circuit – a combinational circuit which when simplified will result into a parallel circuit

Figure (32.):

1
CT = C1 +
1 1
+
C2 C3

Voltage Division Theorem (VDT) in Series Connected Capacitors

Figure (33.):

ET C2 ET C1
E1 = and E2 =
C1 + C2 C1 + C2

where: ET = supply voltage / total voltage

E1 = voltage across capacitor 1

E2 = voltage across capacitor 2

 Page 58 of 78

Charge Division Theorem (CDT) in Parallel Connected Capacitors

Figure (34.):

QT C1 QT C2
Q1 = and Q2 =
C1 + C2 C1 + C2

where: QT = total charges accumulated

Q1 = charge accumulated in capacitor 1

Q2 = charge accumulated in capacitor 2

Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor

1 1 1 1 Q2
W= C E2 = C Em 2 = QE = ( )
2 4 2 2 C

where: W = energy stored (Joule)

C = capacitance (Farad)
E = voltage across (Volt) , Em = maximum voltage

Q = charge accumulated (Coulomb)

Examples:

1. Three capacitors are connected in series across a 100 V source. If the voltages across each are 25, 30
and 45 V respectively, while the total charge taken by the series combination is 3000 micro-coulomb,
determine the value of each capacitance.

Solution:

Q T = Q1 = Q 2 = Q 3
Q
C=
V
Q1 3000
𝐂𝟏 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 micro-farad
V1 25
 Page 59 of 78

Q2 3000
𝐂𝟐 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 micro-farad
V2 30

Q3 3000
𝐂𝟑 = = = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 micro-farad
V3 45

2. Three capacitors A, B and C are charged as follows: A = 10 micro-farad, 100 V; B = 15 micro-farad, 150
V; and C = 25 micro-farad, 200 V. They are connected in parallel with terminals of like polarity together.
What is the voltage across the combination?

Solution:

Q T = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3

QT = C1 E1 + C2 E2 + C3 E3

QT = 10 (100) + 15(150) + 25(200) = 8250 micro-farad

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 = 10 + 15 + 25 = 50 micro-farad

QT 8250
𝐄𝐓 = = = 𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝐕
CT 50

3. Two capacitors of 12 and 8 micro-farads respectively are connected in series across an unknown voltage
source. If the voltage across the 12 micro-farad capacitor is observed to be 200 volts, determine the
magnitude of the unknown supply voltage.

Solution:
ET C2
Using VDT: E1 =
C1 + C2
E1 (C1 + C2 ) 200 (12 + 8)
𝐄𝐓 = = = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐕
C2 8

4. Two capacitors of 2 and 3 micro-farads are connected in parallel. A third capacitor of 6 micro-farad is
connected in series with the combination and the whole circuit is connected across a 500 V supply.
Determine the charge accumulated in the 2 micro-farad capacitor.

Figure:
 Page 60 of 78

Solution:
1
CT = 1 1 = 2.73 micro-farad
6
+ 2+3

QT = CT ET = (2.73)(500) = 1365 micro-coulomb

QT C2 1365 (2)
Using CDT: 𝐐𝟐 = = = 𝟓𝟒𝟔 micro-coulomb
C2 + C3 2+3

5. A 50 micro-farad capacitor is charged at 48 V. What is the amount of energy stored?

1 1
Solution: 𝐖= C E2 = (50 x 10−6 )(48)2 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 J
2 2

V – Magnetic Circuits

Magneto-Motive Force or MMF

Magneto-motive force is a force that sets up or tends to set up magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit by
passing an electric current through a number of turns of a wire.

In S.I. unit: ℑ=NI , where: ℑ = MMF (Ampere-turn)

N = number of turns
I = current carried (Ampere)
The S.I. unit of magnetomotive force is Ampere-turn

In C.G.S. unit: ℑ = 0.4 π N I , where: ℑ = MMF (Gilberts)

N = number of turns
I = current carried (Ampere)
The C.G.S. unit of magnetomotive force is Gilberts or Gb
Example: A solenoid has 250 turns. What is the magneto-motive force when the current is 0.12 A?

Solution: ℑ = 0.4 π N I = 0.4 π (250)(0.12) = 37.7 gilberts or 37.7 Gb

Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic lines of forces in a magnetic field.

Figure (35.):
 Page 61 of 78

The C.G.S. unit of magnetic flux is Maxwell which is equal to 1 line of force

The S.I. unit of magnetic flux is Weber which is equal to 108 Lines or Maxwells

Note: 1 Ampere-turn = 1.256 Gilberts

1 Weber = 1 x 108 Lines = 1 x 108 Maxwells

Leakage Flux – the flux that does not follow the intended path in a magnetic circuit

Figure (36.):

Magnetic Flux Density

Magnetic Flux Density is the number of lines of flux per unit area through any substance in a plane at right
angles to the lines of flux.

Figure (37.):

ϕ Flux passing
β= = , where: β = magnetic flux density (Tesla)
A Area

ϕ = magnetic flux (Weber)

A = surface area perpendicular to the field (sq. m.)

The S.I. unit of magnetic flux density is Tesla which is equal to Weber per square meter

The C.G.S. unit of magnetic flux density is Gauss which is equal to Maxwell per square centimeter

Note: 1 Tesla = 1 Weber per sq. m.

1 Gauss = 1 Maxwell per sq. cm.
 Page 62 of 78

Example: How many magnetic lines of force will pass a 5 sq. cm. perpendicular area on a magnetic field
having a flux density of 2000 gauss?

Solution: ϕ = β A = (2000)(5) = 10,000 maxwells

Magnetic Field Intensity or Strength

Magnetic Field Intensity is equal to the magneto-motive force (MMF) per unit length of path of the
magnetic flux. It is called as the magnetizing force or the magnetic potential gradient.

NI
In S.I. unit: H= , where: H = magnetic field intensity (ampere-turn per meter)
ℓ
ℓ = mean length of path of the magnetic flux (meter)
ℑ = magneto-motive force (ampere-turn)

The S.I. unit of magnetic field strength is the Ampere-turn per meter

0.4 π N I
In C.G.S. unit: H= , where: H = magnetic field intensity (Oersted)
ℓ
ℓ = mean length of path of the magnetic flux (centimeter)
ℑ = magneto-motive force (Gilberts)

The C.G.S. unit of magnetic field strength is the Oersted which is equal to Gilbert per centimeter

1 Oersted = 1 Gilbert per centimeter

Magnetic Field Intensity of an Infinitely Long Straight Wire

μo μr I I β
β= and H= , so: H=
2πr 2πr μo μr

where: I = current carried by the wire (ampere)

r = perpendicular distance from the point considered to the surface of the wire (meter)
H = magnetic field intensity or field strength (ampere-turn per meter)

β = magnetic flux density (Tesla)

μo = free space permeability

= 4 π x 10–7 Henry per meter (SI units)

= 1 (CGS unit)

μr = relative permeability of the core

 Page 63 of 78

Example: If a current of 5 A flows through a long wire of radius 0.004 meter, what is the magnetic field
intensity produced 0.02 meter away from the surface of the wire.

I 5
Solution: from: 𝐇 = 2πr = 2 π (0.02)
= 𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟖 ampere-turns per meter

Permeability

Permeability is the ability of a material to conduct magnetic flux through it.

β
μ= , where: β = flux density (Tesla)
H

μ = permeability of the material (Henry per meter)

H = magnetic field intensity (Ampere-turn per meter)

Reluctivity or Retentivity is the reciprocal of permeability

Relative Permeability

Relative permeability is the ratio of the permeability of a given material to the permeability of air or vacuum.

μ
μr = , where: μ = permeability of the material
μo

μr = relative permeability of the core

μo = free space permeability = 4 π x 10–7 Henry per meter (SI units)

= 1 (CGS unit)

Magnetic Reluctance or Reluctance

Reluctance is the property of a material that opposes flux flow. It is equal to the ratio of the magneto-motive
force in a magnetic circuit to the magnetic flux through any cross-section of the magnetic circuit.

ℓ ℓ
ℜ=μ and ℜ = v (A)
o μr A

where: ℜ = reluctance (reciprocal henry)

ℓ = mean length of path of the magnetic path (meter)
μo = free space permeability = 4 π x 10–7 Henry per meter (SI units)

= 1 (CGS unit)

μr = relative permeability of the core

A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic path (sq. m.)

V = reluctivity or retentivity
 Page 64 of 78

Example: A certain laminated steel core has a permeability of 3000. The length is 5 cm and the cross-
section is 2 sq. cm. What is the reluctance?

ℓcore 5
Solution: 𝕽=μ = (1)(3000)(2)
= 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 (CGS unit)
o μr Acore

Ohm’s Law for Magnetic Circuit

Magnetic circuit is a closed path in which magnetic induction or flux flows.

Figure (38.):

In S.I. units:

Φ = magnetic flux (Weber)

ℑ NI
N = number of turns ϕ= =
ℜ ℜ

I = current flowing (Ampere)

ℜ = reluctance (reciprocal henry) and ℑ = Magnetomotive force (Ampere-turn)

In C.G.S. units:

Φ = magnetic flux (Maxwell)

0.4 π N I
N = number of turns ϕ= ℜ

I = current flowing (Ampere)

ℜ = reluctance (unit unnamed) and ℑ = Magnetomotive force (Gilberts)

Permeance

Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance

1
P= , where: P = permeance
ℜ

ℜ = reluctance
 Page 65 of 78

Comparison between Electric and Magnetic Circuits

EMF MMF
Electric Circuits ( Current = ) Magnetic Circuits ( Flux = )
Resistance Reluctance

Current Flux
Voltage (Electromotive force or EMF) Magneto-motive force or MMF
Resistance Reluctance
Conductance Permeance
Conductivity Permeability
Resistivity or Specific resistance Reluctivity or Retentivity

Examples:

1. A magnetic coil is made up of 500 turns wound around a magnetic circuit of 1.5 x 10–2 reluctance.
A current of 0.25 ampere flows through the coil. What is the flux through the magnetic circuit?

Solution:

0.4 π N I 0.4 π (500)(0.25)

From: 𝛟= = = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟒𝟕𝟏. 𝟗𝟖 Maxwells
ℜ 1.5 x 10−2

2. A solenoid has a magnetic reluctance of 2.2 x 10–3. It has 300 turns and a core area of 5 sq. cm. What
is the flux density when the current flowing is 1 ampere?

Solution:

0.4 π N I 0.4 π (300)(1)

From: ϕ= = = 171, 359.60 Maxwells
ℜ 2.2 x 10−3

ϕ Flux passing 171,359.60 Maxwells

𝛃= = = = 𝟑𝟒, 𝟐𝟕𝟏. 𝟗𝟐 Gauss
A Area 5 sq.cm.

Series Magnetic Circuit

Figure (39.):

➢ The total reluctance is equal to the sum of the individual reluctance in the magnetic circuit.

ℜT = ℜ1 + ℜ2 +.....+ ℜn

➢ The total flux traveling in the magnetic path is constant or the same.

ϕT = ϕ1 = ϕ2 =...........= ϕn
 Page 66 of 78

Parallel Magnetic Circuit

Figure (40.):

➢ The total reluctance is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the reluctances of
each branch of the magnetic circuit.

1 1
=
ℜT 1 1 1
+ + ⋯+
ℜ1 ℜ2 ℜn

➢ The total flux traveling is equal to the sum of the fluxes traveling in each branch of the magnetic
circuit.

ϕT = ϕ1 + ϕ2 +.............+ ϕn

where: ΦT = magnetic flux (Weber)

ℜT = total reluctance

ℜ1 , ℜ2 , ℜn = reluctance in each magnetic path

ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕn = flux passing in each magnetic path

 Page 67 of 78

Examples:

1. The relative permeability of silicon steel is 4500. A certain magnetic loop consists of a silicon steel of 10
1
cm square, 20 cm long and an air gap of the same cross-section and of length cm. What is the reluctance
4
of the magnetic circuit?

Solution: A = 10 x 10 = 100 cm2

ℓcore ℓair
ℜ = ℜcore + ℜair = +
μo μr Acore μo Aair

20 0.25
𝕽 = 1 (4500)(100) + 1 (100)
= 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 (C.G.S. unit) or 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 reluctance

2. A magnetic circuit consists of silicon steel of 3000 permeability, of 10 cm length, a cross-section of 1.5
1
sq. cm. and an air gap of the same cross-section and of length 2 cm. A ampere current flows through the
2
5000-turn coil. What is the field intensity at the air gap?

ℓcore ℓair
Solution: ℜ = ℜcore + ℜair = +
μo μr Acore μo Aair

10 2
ℜ = 1 (3000)(1.5) + = 1.34 (C.G.S. unit) or 1.34 reluctance
1 (1.5)

0.4 π N I 0.4 π (5000) (0.5)

ϕ= = = 2344.47 Maxwells
ℜ 1.34

ϕ 2344.47
β=A= 1.5
= 1562.98 Gauss

β 1562.98
so: 𝐇= = = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟐. 𝟗𝟖 Oersted
μo μr 1 (1)

Energy Stored in a Magnetic Circuit

1
W= ℜ ϕ2 ...................................................................... eq. (1.)
2

ℓ
but: ℜ=μ , ϕ= βA and μ = μo μ r
o μr A

1 β2
then: W= (ℓ A) ( ) ..................................................... eq. (2.)
2 μ

where: W = energy stored (Joule)

ℜ = reluctance (S.I. unit)
Φ = magnetic flux (Weber)
 Page 68 of 78

Tractive or Lifting Force of a Magnet

A β2
F=
2 μo

where: F = force (Newton)

β = flux density in the air gap (Tesla)
A = total area of the contact between the armature and the core (sq. m.)
μo = free space permeability

Examples:

1. The pole face of a magnet in a telephone receiver has dimensions of 12 mm x 2 mm. If the flux between
each pole and the diaphragm is 4 μWb, with what force is the diaphragm attracted to the poles?

Solution: A = 0.012 m x 0.002 m = 24 x 10−6 m2

ϕ 4 x 10−6 Wb
β= = = 0.167 Tesla
A 24 x 10−6 m2

A β2 (24 x 10−6 ) (0.167)2

𝐅 = 2μ = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟔 𝐍
o 2 (4 π x 10−7 )

Force Exerted by a Conductor Carrying a Current in a Magnetic Field

F= βIL

where: F = force (Newton)

β = flux density (Tesla)
I = current (Ampere)
L = length of the conductor (meter)

Note: This formula presupposes that the direction of the axis of the conductor is at right angles to the

direction of the field. If the directions of "I" and "β" form an angle of "θ", the above expression must be

multiplied by "sin θ" , then: F = β I L sin θ

Example: A conductor 0.5 m in length and carrying a current of 10 A is placed in a magnetic field whose
flux density is 200 Wb / m2. If the plane of the conductor is inclined at an angle of 30 degrees from the
plane of the magnetic field, what is the force exerted on the conductor?

Solution:

From: 𝐅 = β I L sin θ = (200)(10)(0.5)(sin 30o ) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐍

 Page 69 of 78

Force Between Two Straight Conductors or Wires Carrying a Current

I I2 L
F = (2 x 10−7 ) ( 1 )
d

where: F = force exerted by the wires (Newton) d = distance between the two wires (meter)
I1 , I2 = currents in the two wires (Ampere) L = length of the wires (meter)

Example: A pair of straight parallel bus bars of circular cross-section is spaced 20 cm. apart. If each bar
carries a current of 50,000 A , determine the force (in Newton per meter) which the conductors have to
withstand.

Solution:
I I (50,000)2
From: 𝐅 = (2 x 10−7 ) ( 1 2 ) = (2 x 10−7 ) [ ] = 𝟐, 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐍/𝐦
d 0.2

VI – Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is a magnetic phenomenon which refers to the generation of voltage across
the ends of a loop of wire due to variation of the magnetic field passing through the loop.

Magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic material is acted upon by a magnetic force and its magnitude
is given in a unit called the Tesla, and can also be expressed in terms of Weber per sq. m. and Gauss.

The three units are related as follows: 1 Tesla = 1 Weber per sq. m. = 1 x 10 4 Gauss

1 Gauss = 1 x 10 – 4 Tesla = 1 x 10 – 4 Weber per sq. m.

Magnetic field is being made up of magnetic lines of force

Figure (41.):

Faraday’s Law on Electromagnetic Induction

➢ First law: Whenever the flux linking a coil or current changes, an EMF is induced in it.

➢ Second law: The magnitude of the induced EMF is proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkages.
 Page 70 of 78

Flux linkages = (flux) (number of turns)

dϕ
So that: e=N dt

where: e = induced EMF (volt)

N = number of turns

dϕ
= rate of change of flux (Weber per sec.)
dt

Example: A coil of 500 turns is linked with a flux of 80,000 Maxwells. If the flux is reduced to zero in 0.01
second, what is the average voltage induced?

Solution:
dϕ |ϕ2 − ϕ1|
From: e=N =N , but: 1 Weber = 1 x 108 Maxwells = 1 x 108 Lines
dt dt

|0 − 80,000|
𝐞 = 500 ( 0.01
) x 10−8 = 𝟒𝟎 𝐕

Induced EMF in a Short Length of Wire

A voltage can be developed in a wire by moving the wire across a magnetic field so that flux cutting results
(Faraday’s principle).

ϕ
In S.I. unit: e= βLV=
t

where: e = induced EMF (volt)

ϕ = flux cut by the conductor (Weber)
t = time of flux cutting (second)
β = flux density at the location of the conductor (Tesla)
L = length of the conductor (meter)
V = relative velocity (meter / sec.)

In C.G.S. unit: e = β L V x 10−8

where: e = induced EMF (volt)

β = flux density at the location of the conductor (Gauss)
L = length of the conductor (cm.)
V = relative velocity (cm. / sec.)
 Page 71 of 78

Note: This formula presupposes that the direction of the axis of the conductor is at right angles to the
direction of the field. If the direction of the conductor forms an angle of "θ" with respect to the field, the
above expression must be multiplied by sin θ.

e = β L V sin θ = β L V sin θ x 10−8

Examples:

1. The flux density emanating from a pole of a generator is 20,000 Gauss. A conductor one meter long cuts
the flux perpendicularly at a speed of 40 m / sec. What voltage is developed?

Solution: L = 1 m = 100 cm
V = 40 m⁄sec. = 4000 cm⁄sec.
𝐄 = β L V x 10−8 = (20,000)(100)(4000) x 10−8 = 𝟖𝟎 𝐕

2. A straight copper conductor 20 cm long moves across a magnetic field of 10,000 Gauss at an angle of
60 degrees and at a velocity of 120 cm / sec. What is the generated voltage?

Solution: 𝐞 = β L V sin θ x 10−8 = (10,000)(20)(120)(sin 60o ) x 10−8 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝐕

3. A magnetic coil produces 100,000 Maxwells with 2000 turns and with a current of 2 A. The current is
cut-off and the flux collapses in 0.01 second. What is the average voltage that will appear across the coil?

ϕ 100,000
Solution: 𝐞 = N ( ) x 10−8 = 2000 ( ) x 10−8 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐕
t 0.01

Self Inductance or Coefficient of Self Induction

It is a measure of how much counter EMF is generated in a circuit or component for a change in current
through that circuit or component.

➢ Inductor or choke coil is a two-terminal device that consists of a coiled wire wound in common
core or in free air
➢ Henry (H) is the unit of inductance

Inductance is a circuit parameter which opposes any change in the amount of current

di
e=L
dt
where: e = self induced voltage (Volt)
L = self inductance (Henry)
di
= rate of change of current (Ampere per sec.)
dt
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Expressions of Self Inductance

Figure (42.):

Nϕ μr μo A N2 N2
L = = =
I ℓ ℜ

where: L = inductance (Henry)

μo = permeability of free space = 4 π x 10–7 Henry per meter (SI units)

= 1 (CGS unit)

μr = relative permeability of the core used

A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic path (sq. m.)

N = number of turns
Φ = magnetic flux (Weber)
I = current (Amperes)
ℓ = mean length of the magnetic path (meter)
ℜ = reluctance of the magnetic path (S.I unit)
N ϕ = flux linkage (Weber)

Examples:

1. How much is the inductance of a coil that induces 300 V when the current changes at the rate of
10 milliamperes in 1 microsecond?

di
Solution: e=L dt
dt 300 (1 x 10−6)
𝐋=e = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 𝐇
di 10 x 10−3

2. A solenoid has 900 turns. A current of 5 A in the winding produce a flux of 2,000,000 Maxwells. Determine
the inductance of the solenoid.

Nϕ (900)(2 x 106 )
Solution: 𝐋 = = x 10−8 = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝐇
I 5
 Page 73 of 78

3. An air core solenoid has a length of 25 cm and a cross-sectional area of 5 sq. cm. If it is wound with
3000 turns of wire, determine the self inductance of the solenoid.

1m
Solution: A = 5 cm2 x (100 cm)2 = 0.0005 m2

ℓ = 0.25 m
μr μo A N2 (1) (4 π x 10−7 ) (0.0005) (3000)2
𝐋 = ℓ
= 0.25
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐇

Series-Connected Inductors

Figure (43.):

LT = L1 + L2 + .......... + Ln

Parallel-Connected Inductors

Figure (44.):

1
LT = 1 1 1
+ +⋯+
L1 L2 Ln
 Page 74 of 78

Series-Parallel Connected Inductors

Figure (45.):

1
LT = L1 + 1 1
+
L2 L3

Parallel-Series Connected Inductors

Figure (46.):

1
LT = 1 1
+
L1 L2 + L3
 Page 75 of 78

Mutual Induction

It is the condition of inducing an EMF in a coil or conductor by magnetic flux lines generated in another coil
or conductors.

➢ Mutual Inductance – the amount or degree of mutual induction that exists between two coils or
windings.

Figure (47.):

Note: Two coils have a mutual inductance of 1 H when a current change of 1 A / sec. in one coil induces
1 V in the other coil.

Expressions of Mutual Inductance

N1 N2 μO μr A N1 N2
M = K √L1 L2 = =
ℜ ℓ

flux linking L1 and L2 d I1

K= and e2 = M ( )
flux produced by L1 dt

where: M = mutual inductance (Henry)

L1 = self inductance of coil 1 (Henry)

L2 = self inductance of coil 2 (Henry)

K = coefficient of coupling or coupling factor; 0 ≤ K ≤ 1

μO = permeability of free space = 4 π x 10–7 Henry per meter (SI units)

= 1 (CGS unit)

μr = relative permeability of the core used

A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic path (sq. m.)

N1 = number of turns in the primary coil

N2 = number of turns in the secondary coil

 Page 76 of 78

ℓ = mean length of the magnetic path (meter)

ℜ = reluctance of the magnetic path (reciprocal Henry)
e2 = voltage induced at the secondary coil

d I1
= change in current in the primary coil
dt

Examples:

1. What is the coefficient of coupling of two coils whose mutual inductance is 1 H and whose self inductance
are 1.2 and 2 H?

Solution: M = K √L1 L2

M 1
𝐊= = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟓
√L1 L2 √(1.2)(2)

2. A coil of inductance 4 mH, produces 120 μWb of magnetic flux. 90 μWb of these total fluxes are linked
to a second coil of inductance 2 mH. Determine the mutual inductance between the two coils.

flux linking L1 and L2 90

Solution: K= = = 0.75
flux produced by L1 120

𝐌 = K √L1 L2 = 0.75 √(4)(2) = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐 𝐇

Magnetically Coupled Coils Connected in Series (Series Coils with Mutual Inductance)

➢ Series aiding – wherein the common current produces the same direction of magnetic fields (when

M assists L1 and L2 )

Figure (48.):

Lta = L1 + L2 + 2 M ...........eq. (1.)

 Page 77 of 78

➢ Series opposing – wherein the connections result in opposite fields (when M opposes

L1 and L2 )

Figure (49.):

Lto = L1 + L2 − 2 M ...........eq. (2.)

Note: Dot markings indicate the polarity of the coil

Lta − Lto
Subtracting eq. (2.) from eq. (1.), then: M= 4
................eq. (3.)

where: Lta = total inductance, series aiding (Henry)

Lto = total inductance, series opposing (Henry)

M = mutual inductance between the two coils (Henry)

Example: The total inductance of two coils, A and B when connected in series aiding is 0.5 H and 0.2 H
when connected in series opposing. Coil A when isolated from coil B has a self inductance of 0.2 H.
Calculate the self-inductance of coil B.

Lta − Lto 0.5 − 0.2

Solution: M= = = 0.075 H
4 4

Lta = L1 + L2 + 2 M
0.5 = 0.2 + L2 + 2 (0.075)
𝐋𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝐇
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Magnetically Coupled Coils Connected in Parallel (Parallel Coils with Mutual Inductance)

L1 L2 − M2
➢ For parallel aiding connection: Lta = (when M assists L1 and L2 )
L1 + L2 − 2 M

L1 L2 − M2
➢ For parallel opposing connection: Lto = (when M opposes L1 and L2 )
L1 + L2 + 2 M

Example: Two coils of inductances 4 and 6 H are connected in parallel. If their mutual inductance is 3 H,
calculate the equivalent inductance of the combination if mutual inductance assists and if mutual inductance
opposes the self inductance, respectively.

L1 L2 − M2 4 (6) − 32
Solution: 𝐋𝐭𝐚 = = = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓 𝐇
L1 + L2 − 2 M 4 + 6 − 2 (3)

L1 L2 − M2 4 (6) − 32
𝐋𝐭𝐨 = L1 + L2 + 2M
= 4 + 6 + 2 (3)
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟖 𝐇
.

Energy Stored in an Inductor Carrying a Current

1 2 1
W= L I = L Im 2
2 4

where: W = energy stored in an inductor (Joule)

L = inductance of the coil (Henry)
I = current flowing in the coil (Ampere)
Im = maximum current (Ampere)

Example: The inductance of a coil carrying a current of 0.5 A is 2 H. Determine the energy stored in the
coil.

1 1
Solution: 𝐖 = L I2 = (2) (0.5)2 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐉
2 2

Prepared by:

ENGR. MICHAEL JOHN M. VILLAR, Ph.D.

Subject Professor