EMPIRE

Michael Hardt & Antonio Negri

Technics and Civilization
Lewis Mumford
The Questions concerning Technology
Martin Heidegger
Over the last few decades, enormous changes have occurred surrounding the
globalization of the economy and world cultures. A new kind of empire has emerged, one with a
new global order and a new set of rules. These changes have led many to argue that economic
relations now function independently from political control. A global sovereignty has emerged,
which the authors call "Empire." As a result, nation-states are losing their ability to regulate
economic and cultural exchanges, leading to the end of imperialism.
Empire is different from imperialism in that it has no "center" within a territory, or fixed
boundaries for that matter1. What's more, the distinctions between categories, such as first,
second, and third world, are becoming blurred. Wealth is created through the overlap of
economics, politics, and cultures investing in one another. Some argue that the "central
authority" is the United States. Yet the authors posit that the United States is not the center of
any power, although it occupies a place of privilege. The authors refer to Empire as a "concept,"
rather than a metaphor. The concept is that Empire has no limits, but it rules over the entirety of
the civilized world. It is not rooted in history but has emerged as an order of things, which
"effectively suspends history and thereby fixes the existing state of affairs for eternity." Empire
also dictates the social order and the world its societies inhabit2.
Part 1: The Political Constitution of the Present.
Chapter 1. Empire has emerged from the idea that there exists a world order. A world
order can be considered a system controlling events in the world, such as a set of arrangements
established internationally for preserving global political stability. Yet a world order is not
derived spontaneously from interaction between global forces, nor is it dictated by a single
power. In a section subtitled "The Constitution of Empire," the authors state that the
globalization of capitalism has created a historic shift in the world market. Some theorists
believe capitalism has always been a part of globalization and therefore is nothing new. Yet the
authors believe a shift has brought together economic and political power to create a capitalist
order3. As a result, multiple imperialist powers have been replaced by "the idea of a single power
that overdetermines them all."

1 Empire manages hybrid identities, flexible hierarchies, and plural exchanges through modulating networks of
commands. In contrast to imperialism, Empire establishes no territorial center of power and does not rely on fixed
boundaries or barriers. It is a decentered and deterritorializing apparatus of rule that progressively incorporates the
entire global realm within its open, expanding frontiers.
2 Hardt & Negri, Empire, Preface, xii - xv
3 Empire, 3-13
 Chapter 2. The modern translation of this in Empire is the power to conduct wars in the
name of justice and peace. It is this combination of ethics and politics that is at the root of
Empire's laws. Empire also operates outside the concept of boundaries and time, so it feels
"permanent, eternal, and necessary." The concept of a just war has gained renewed interest in
modern times, even though it harkens back to ancient imperial orders and biblical tradition. A
just war means that a state should be allowed to make war if its territory or independence is
threatened4. Yet the concept of a just war has evolved with modernization—it is no longer just a
method of defense or resistance. It relies instead on military action to create and maintain order
and peace.
The trend towards universal values under Empire means that supranational law— having
power or influence that transcends national boundaries or governments—now rules over
domestic, or national, law5. A result of this is the development of right of intervention in which
a global, dominant group such as the United Nations is allowed to intervene between other
powers for humanitarian purposes and the sake of peace.
Chapter 3. In a section titled "Biopower in the Society of Control," the authors posit that
society has transformed from a "disciplinary society"—one in which a vast network of prisons,
factories, schools, etc., regulates customs and habits—into a "society of control." The institutions
within a disciplinary society dictated correct and incorrect behaviors. At first, capitalism
functioned as part of a disciplinary society. Yet the society of control sees power exercised
through machines and bodies—computers, communication systems, welfare systems, etc. It
extends beyond the institutions of a disciplinary society and is flexible and constantly
fluctuating6.
The authors point out the role of corporations in the biopolitical world 7. Although
capitalism has always sought globalism, it is only in the second half of the 20th century that
corporations have organized themselves on a more global scale. To corporations, nation-states
seem merely "instruments" through which to record the flow of commodities and money. Money
is what creates value and distribution in the capitalism of Empire, and nothing can escape it. In
this sense, financial power produces needs and social relations. Production is the end goal and
what is produced is made to work in a continuous loop.
The authors explain how Empire's enemies today are considered less a military threat and
more of an ideological threat. Yet intervention is still a tactic being deployed, although it has

4 Empire, 20-36
5 In a section subtitled "Universal Values," the authors bring up the question of who defines justice and peace and
assert that these remain open issues. Empire is changing individuals' moral compasses when confronted with politics
and law. Values are filtered less through local mediation but are becoming more universal.
6 The authors provide a quote by French philosopher Michel Foucault to help define what they mean by the term
"police." In Foucault's terms, police is an administration at the head of the state, one that is deeply involved with the
law, finance, and the military. According to Foucault, the new model of power is also biopolitical, meaning that
technology is increasingly capable of managing and controlling humans in large groups.
7 Biopolitics refers to the mechanism implemented from power to govern the individual lives of human beings. It
does so under the guise of freedom, even while controlling their private lives.
expanded to include moral and legal intervention. The authors argue that Empire's powers of
intervention begin not with lethal weapons but "rather with its moral instruments."
Modern imperialist powers made it their aim to create divisions between groups around
the world in order to spark conflict that might break apart larger, more organized groups that
could wrest power back. Throughout history, some groups revolted against these modern powers,
seeking liberation and expressing a desire for an alternative. In a sense, these actions have paved
the way for the globalization of social connection that moves beyond the boundaries of borders
and rule. Empire thus was constructed as a possible response to the struggle against power and
the desire for liberation.
Even though Empire put an end to colonialism and imperialism, this doesn't mean it
eliminated exploitation. The minority continues to control an enormous amount of wealth while
the majority lives in poverty. The authors assert that despite these issues, the construction of
Empire takes a step forward because it increases the possibility of liberation. However, they
acknowledge that those on the left of the political spectrum prize a more localized position,
believing it promotes diversity.
Part 2: Passages of Sovereignty.
Chapter 1. The emergence of modernity was not without great conflict 8, however. A
counterrevolution also took place in an attempt to establish power, seeking to pit transcendence
against immanence. The result was that the Renaissance ended in war on a religious, social, and
civil scale. It was not possible to return to the way things were, but efforts were made to
reestablish ideas about authority and power by exploiting the fear and uncertainty of the masses.
Chapter 2. In a section subtitled "The Nation's People," the authors explain that the
concept of national sovereignty began to be solidified by the beginning of the 19th century. It
was during this time that the idea of "nation" began to be conflated with the concept of a
democratic community9, which felt like an innovation. Yet the dynamics of power continued
through subjugation and domination. This shift brings up the very definition of a nation as well
as the definition of "a people" and how both definitions are created. A people are different than
"a multitude" in that a people can be defined as having one will, while the multitude represent a
multiplicity. The authors state, "Every nation must make the multitude into a people.
The other side of resisting the power of dominant nations meant that subordinate nations
focused on a kind of internal oppression, repressing differences in order to strengthen a national
identity. The authors note, "Protection and oppression can be hard to tell apart." The
development of a nation also serves to unify diverse groups, despite differences in religion,
ethnicity, culture, and language. In this lens, nation becomes a way to imagine a community into
existence. The authors use the example of Black Nationalism in the United States to demonstrate

8 In a section titled "Modernity as Crisis," the authors explain how modernity was defined by crisis—the collision
between constructing something new and the desire to restore order.
9 A national identity means that people feel legitimized and that they can expect a certain sense of unity, stability,
and potential for economic growth.
how nationalism can define a community without boundaries, and the internal issues that can still
arise.
Chapter 3. In a section subtitled "The Dialectic of Colonialism," the authors point out
that European identity was solidified with the advent of colonialism and the concept of the racial
"Other." It aims to create a definition of a culture yet also serves as a form of exclusion. Non-
European cultures were presented anthropologically as "undeveloped," thereby validating
colonialism as a means to "civilize" other cultures. Establishing a definition of an "Other" also
serves to solidify the identity of those who do not see themselves as an "Other." It creates a
further sense of division and in turn a struggle between the two. Many definitions only function
in relation or contrast to one another. At the same time the colonial world was often more
nuanced in its division, given the status of people of mixed race10.
Chapter 5. The notion of sovereignty as an expansive power made up of networks is part
of the idea of Empire because it creates a universal republic through linked powers and
counterpowers. It rejects imperial expansion that relies on genocide, slavery, and colonization.
Peace is the foundation of developing and expanding Empire.
Chapter 6. The authors posit that in the passage from modern to postmodern and from
imperialism to Empire, the distinction between inside and outside has lessened. Territory is one
example of something that is considered to have an inside and outside given the concept of
boundaries. The authors write, "The process of modernization ... is the internalization of the
outside, that is, the civilization of nature." Boundaries become blurred and cease to exist within
modernization, as imperialism and expansion leave little that can be considered truly wild and
lacking civilization in its wake.
In a section subtitled "The Triple Imperative of Empire," the authors consider the
inclusive nature of Empire—all are welcome within its boundaries, regardless of differences.
Setting aside differences also means doing away with subjectivities. At the same time,
differences are celebrated in Empire and seen as non-conflicting. Differences are also seen as
cultural rather than political, meaning they should, in theory, emphasize peaceful regional
identities rather than lead to conflicts.11 The distinctions that mark the passage from modern to
imperial sovereignty are the distinction between the people and the multitude, from seeing the
"Other" to managing hybrid identities, from territories to the "non-place," and from managing
crisis to embracing corruption.
Part 3: Passages of Production
Chapter 1.The authors believed in an intrinsic relationship between capitalism and
expansion and that this relationship created the political form of imperialism, largely because
capitalism always seeks to cross borders and boundaries in order to grow. Capitalism is the first
economic system that cannot exist on its own—it needs other economic systems to root itself in
or transmit itself through. In order to survive and thrive, it needs to constantly go beyond its
boundaries, to the "outside." The constant need for more capital creates an environment of
10 Empire, 114-137
11 Empire, 198-201
imperialism because it lends itself to theft and exploitation. This means imperialism must
transform non-capitalistic societies into capitalist societies.
Chapter 3. One of the reasons a shift was occurring in the world's economic and political
order was that the world market became increasingly important in the places where imperialism
once ruled. It was able to regulate the circulation of goods globally. However, this shift was
often uneven and occurred at different speeds in different places because it had to account for
diversity. One effect of the unification of the world market was wage emancipation, which
invited a large mass of workers into modern capitalist production, allowing them to escape lives
of servitude under imperialism12. This in turn created new needs and desires in the working class
—particularly the desire for liberation13.
The authors assert that by the late 1960s, the international system of capitalist production
was starting to malfunction. This crisis was caused by conflict with the working class in
"dominant capitalist countries," which Marx defined as "capitalist crisis." Workers rebelled by
refusing to work and by beginning to make demands for guaranteed wages. The authors define
this "virtual unity" of the working class as an "accumulation of struggles" that served to
undermine the strategies of capitalism.
Chapter 4. In a section subtitled "The Sociology of Immaterial Labor," the authors note
that the shift to an informational economy signals a shift in the quality and nature of labor. The
labor of the service economy is immaterial since it produces no concrete goods. Rather, it creates
a cultural product, knowledge, or communication. Whereas once humans learned to think and
act like factory machines, now they increasingly must learn to think like computers. Computers
in turn have become a kind of prosthesis for the human mind and offer an opportunity for
humans to redefine themselves.
Yet a division of labor still occurs within the service economy because the expansion of
knowledge-based jobs suggests a correspondence with lower-value jobs such as data entry. A
consequence of informatization of the economy is the notion of abstract labor in which the
worker is increasingly distanced from the end product of his or her labor. A final kind of
immaterial labor is affective labor, which includes health services and the entertainment
industry that also produce something intangible yet commodifiable, such as care and amusement.
The competition among transnational corporations to create monopolies in a quest to
dominate and control arises as another issue with information infrastructure. Although
communication technologies hold the possibility of democracy, they also hold the possibility of
exclusion. The authors posit that today the world participates in a more radical commonality than
has ever been experienced before thanks to the advent of communication and social network
spaces14.

12 In a section subtitled "Real Subsumption and the World Market," the authors say that the working class has
become a symbol of labor, even though as a class status the industrial working class seems to be disappearing.
13 Empire, 251-254
14 In a section subtitled "Commons," the authors assert that the privatization of public property has been a
continuous quest throughout the modern period.
 Chapter 5. The fact that production has shifted to a network model has allowed
transnational corporations to grow beyond the traditional boundaries of nation-states. This shift
is significant because there has been an enduring power struggle between capitalists and the
state15. Monopolies amongst corporations threatened capitalism because they got rid of
competition among capitalists. Getting rid of competition gave corporations more power to
govern their interests, which led to struggles with the state over taxes, laws, and regulations.
Chapter 6. On the surface, capitalism and sovereignty seem at odds. Sovereignty thrives
on creating and maintaining boundaries and territories. Capitalism thrives instead on networks of
relationships. Capitalism can cross boundaries, and it has no central source of power 16. Civil
society served as a mediator between capitalism and modern sovereignty. It attempted to balance
the self-interest of economic individuals and the unified interest of the state. In contemporary
times, however, civil society no longer serves this role. Its structures are disappearing because of
the changing relationship between capital and labor. Its institutions (schools, families, factories)
have also changed. What has emerged from civil society is the "society of control17."
Part 4: The Decline and fall of Empire
Chapter 1. This chapter finds the authors investigating that which is immeasurable in
Empire. The authors highlight that there is no such thing as subjectivity outside of Empire, as
everything has been subsumed by it. Because of this, an ontological lens 18—through the nature of
being—is required to understand Empire further. They are not created from external logic.
Another reason political theory should be understood through the lens of ontology is because the
ways in which people determine values of power have disappeared, such as hierarchies. Empire
instead orders laws and peace through mobile, fluid, and more localized ways, hybridizing
power.
The actions of Empire have effectiveness only insofar as the reaction of the multitude's
resistance against imperial government drives those actions. Imperial government draws its
power from the multitude's ability to create new energy and value. Yet as a parasite, it depletes
the energy of the "host" multitude, and thereby places its own existence in danger19.

15 In contemporary times, transnational corporations now have more power and authority than nation-states, but the
authors caution that this is not a victory on the part of capitalist corporations. The relationship has just become more
nuanced. Consensus is now determined less by politics and more by economic factors. Although politics has not
disappeared, independent spaces where revolution might emerge have declined.
16 According to Marx, capitalism puts populations in motion, creating a "free proletariat." It seeks to create a
singular cultural and economic system of production, and through this process traditional cultures can be destroyed.
It also reduces status, titles, and privileges to the baseline of monetary value, making what was once qualitative now
quantitative.
17 Foucault's vision of a panopticon provides one example of this. Much like the panopticon, sovereignty's
discipline has become virtual and is exercised in a similar way.
18 In a section subtitled "Outside Measure (The Immeasurable)," the authors say that to deal with political theory
ontologically means acknowledging that the constructs of politics do not originate from "the outside."
19 In a section subtitled "Parasite," the authors reveal that even though the multitude wields enormous power,
Empire still commands it. In relation to the multitude, however, imperial government resembles a parasite.
 Chapter 2. Empire emerges when immaterial labor and communication across networks
become the motor of production. This orchestra of production also erases boundaries, meaning
there is no longer an "outside." While it might be assumed that this erasure of boundaries also
eradicates exploitation, it merely redefines it. As a result, there is still resistance within Empire.
Its decline will come from the inside, since there is no outside. This means its decline is already
built into its very fabric20.

20 In a section subtitled "Generation," the authors believe that one idea that gets in the way of investigating
Empire's future decline is the illusion that the capitalist market will exist forever. Another is the theory that there is
no alternative to Empire except for anarchy. Yet both of these ideas are unable to comprehend the powers of the
multitude and its tendency towards productivity.
Heidegger’s The Question Concerning Technology
Martin Heidegger
Martin Heidegger’s essay “The Question Concerning Technology”explores the relationship
between technology and human existence. The essay argues that modern technology has
fundamentally transformed the way we live and think about ourselves, and that this
transformation has profound implications for the future of humanity.
Heidegger begins by defining technology as a mode of human activity that involves the
transformation of the natural world into a standing-reserve of resources for human use.
According to Heidegger, modern technology sees the world as a collection of resources to be
used for human ends, rather than as a natural environment with its own inherent value and
meaning.
Heidegger argues that this transformation of the natural world into a standing-reserve is the result
of a particular way of thinking about the world as a collection of objects to be analyzed and
manipulated for human purposes21.
According to Heidegger, this mode of thinking is the product of the scientific revolution and the
emergence of modern science as a dominant way of understanding the world. Science, he argues,
sees the world as a collection of objects to be analyzed and understood through empirical
observation and experimentation.
While Heidegger acknowledges the benefits of modern technology, such as increased efficiency
and productivity, he also argues that it has had profound negative consequences for human
existence. He claims that technology has led to the loss of our sense of being-in-the-world, and
has reduced us to mere “standing-reserves' ' ourselves, to be used for the ends of technology.
Moreover, Heidegger argues that modern technology has led to a kind of forgetfulness about the
true nature of human existence. We have become so absorbed in our technological projects and
pursuits that we have lost sight of the fundamental questions of human existence, such as the
meaning of life and the nature of reality.
In order to reclaim our sense of being-in-the-world, Heidegger argues that we must undergo a
kind of “releasement” or “letting-be.” This involves stepping back from our technological
projects and pursuits and reconnecting with the natural world and our inner selves22.
Heidegger concludes his essay by suggesting that the relationship between technology and
human existence is an open question that requires further exploration and reflection. He argues
that we must be willing to confront the fundamental questions of human existence in order to
fully understand the implications of modern technology for our lives and our future as a species.
Overall, Heidegger’s essay “The Question Concerning Technology'' is a thought-provoking
exploration of the relationship between technology and human existence. He argues that modern
technology has transformed the way we think about ourselves and our place in the world, and
that this transformation has profound implications for the future of humanity.
21 Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology. Translated by William Lovitt. (New York & London:
Garland Publishing, Inc, 1977), 3.
22 Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology. 39
While some may criticize Heidegger’s essay as overly abstract and philosophical, there is no
denying the importance and relevance of his ideas for our contemporary world. As we continue
to grapple with the challenges and opportunities of modern technology, Heidegger’s essay
reminds us of the need to remain vigilant and reflective about the impact of our technological
pursuits on human existence and the natural world.
Heidegger’s The Question Concerning Technology: Critique
As we can see, Heidegger’s essay “The Question Concerning Technology” is a complex and
challenging exploration of the relationship between technology and human existence. While it
offers many thought-provoking insights and ideas, there are also some criticisms that can be
leveled as Heidegger’s argument.
One of the main criticisms of heidegger’s essay is that it is overly abstract and philosophical,
making it difficult to apply to real-world problems and issues. Heidegger’s focus on the
ontological nature of technology and the transformation of the natural world into a standing-
reserve can be seen as esoteric and removed from practical concerns.
Another criticism of Heidegger’s essay is that it can be seen as overly pessimistic and
deterministic. Heidegger portrays technology as an inherently negative force that reduces human
existence to a mere standing-reserve, and suggests that our only hope for reclaiming our sense of
being-in-the-world is through a kind of releasement of letting-be. This view can be seen as
overly fatalistic, and may overlook the potential for human agency and creativity in shaping the
impact of technology on our lives.
Additionally, some critics have argued that Heidegger’s essay is too focused on the negative
consequences of technology, and fails to acknowledge the many positive benefits that technology
has brought to human existence. While heidegger acknowledges the increased efficiency and
productivity that technology has enabled, he tends to view these benefits as outweighed by the
negative consequences of technology’s enframing of the world.
Another criticism of Heidegger’s essay is that it overlooks that role that human values and ethics
play in shaping the impact of technology on human existence. While Heidegger acknowledges
the need to confront the fundamental questions of human existence in order to fully understand
the implications of technology, he tends to view these questions in purely ontological and
metaphysical terms. This overlooks the potential for ethical and political engagement in shaping
the development and use of technology.
Finally, some critics have argued that Heidegger’s essay is overly influenced by his own political
and philosophical views, which were controversial and even reprehensible, heidegger was
associated with the Nazi party in Germany, and his philosophical work has been criticized for its
connection to fascist and authoritarian ideas. While it is possible to separate Heideggar’s
philosophical ideas from his political views, some critics argued that the two are too closely
intertwined to ignore.
Overall, while heidegger;s essay “The Question Concerning Technology '' offers many thought-
provoking insights and ideas about the relationship between technology and human existence, it
is not without its criticisms. It's abstract and philosophical nature, its pessimistic and
deterministic view of technology, and its tendency to overlook human values and argument.
Additionally, the controversial nature of Hiedegger’s personal and political views and validity of
his philosophical ideas.
Three Claims of Martin Hiedegger
As we just heard, Heidegger’s analysis of technology in The Question Concerning Technology
consists of three main ‘claims’: (1) technology is “not an instrument”, it is a way of
understanding the world; (2) technology is “not a human activity”, but develops beyond human
control; and (3) technology is “the highest danger 23”, risking us to only see the world through
technological thinking.
Heidegger is a notoriously difficult philosopher to read. We think, however, that it will still be
valuable to present you with a piece of his original writing. The following fragment presents
Heidegger’s analysis of what technology is, and how it is positioned in our world:
“Technology is not equivalent to the essence of technology. When we are seeking the essence of
“tree,” we have to become aware that that which pervades every tree, as tree, is not itself a tree
that can be encountered among all the other trees24.
Likewise, the essence of technology is by no means anything technological. Thus we shall never
experience our relationship to the essence of technology so long as we merely conceive and push
forward the technological, put up with it, or evade it. Everywhere we remain unfree and chained
to technology, whether we passionately affirm or deny it. But we are delivered over to it in the
worst possible way when we regard it as something neutral; for this conception of it, to which
today we particularly like to do homage, makes us utterly blind to the essence of technology.
According to ancient doctrine, the essence of a thing is considered to be what the thing is. We
ask the question concerning technology when we ask what it is. Everyone knows the two
statements that answer our question. One says: Technology is a means to an end. The other says:
Technology is a human activity. The two definitions of technology belong together. For to posit
ends and procure and utilize the means to them is a human activity. The manufacture and
utilization of equipment, tools, and machines, the manufactured and used things themselves, and
the needs and ends that they serve, all belong to what technology is. The whole complex of these
contrivances is technology. Technology itself is a contrivance, or, in Latin, an instrumentum.
The current conception of technology, according to which it is a means and a human activity, can
therefore be called the instrumental and anthropological definition of technology.
Who would ever deny that it is correct? It is in obvious conformity with what we are envisioning
when we talk about technology. The instrumental definition of technology is indeed so uncannily
correct that it even holds for modern technology, of which, in other respects, we maintain with
some justification that it is, in contrast to the older handwork technology, something completely
different and therefore new. Even the power plant with its turbines and generators is a man-made
means to an end established by man. Even the jet aircraft and the high-frequency apparatus are
means to ends. A radar station is of course less simple than a weather vane. To be sure, the
construction of a high-frequency apparatus requires the interlocking of various processes of

23 Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology.

24 Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology. 3.
technical-industrial production. And certainly a sawmill in a secluded valley of the Black Forest
is a primitive means compared with the hydroelectric plant in the Rhine River.
But this much remains correct: modern technology too is a means to an end. That is why the
instrumental conception of technology conditions every attempt to bring man into the right
relation to technology. Everything depends on our manipulating technology in the proper manner
as a means. We will, as we say, “get” technology “spiritually in hand.” We will master it. The
will to mastery becomes all the more urgent the more technology threatens to slip from human
control.
But suppose now that technology were no mere means, how would it stand with the will to
master it? Yet we said, did we not, that the instrumental definition of technology is correct? To
be sure. The correct always fixes upon something pertinent in whatever is under consideration.
However, in order to be correct, this fixing by no means needs to uncover the thing in question in
its essence. Only at the point where such an uncovering happens does the true come to pass. For
that reason the merely correct is not yet the true. Only the true brings us into a free relationship
with that which concerns us from out of its essence. Accordingly, the correct instrumental
definition of technology still does not show us technology’s essence. In order that we may arrive
at this, or at least come close to it, we must seek the true by way of the correct.
Power and Mobility

The statement emphasizes the significance of the improvements in steam and internal
combustion engines, ranking just below the discovery and application of electricity in
importance. It highlights that Dr. Erasmus Darwin's foresight in predicting the usefulness of the
internal combustion engine25 for solving the challenge of flight. The passage also mentions that
the historical development of petroleum, first drilled for in 1859, and its rapid exploitation, with
lighter distillates valued as fuels and heavier oils prized as lubricants. 26

From the 18th century onward, extensive experimentation was conducted on the gas engine, with
various methods, including the use of powdered explosives, explored. The gas engine was
ultimately perfected by Otto in 1876. The improvement of the internal combustion engine
marked a significant new power source, comparable in importance to traditional coal beds, albeit
with a potentially faster rate of consumption. The advent of fuel oil and gasoline, particularly
used in Diesel engines, offered advantages in terms of lightness and transportability. Liquid
fuels, transported through pipe-lines, had the additional benefit of easy storage due to minimal
residue compared to coal. This innovation, along with the introduction of mechanical stokers,
emancipated27 workers, especially stokers in electric power plants and steamships, from
strenuous labor. The efficiency of steam engines also increased with the invention of Parsons'
steam turbine in 1884.28

The steam engine and internal combustion engine progressed in tandem until 1892 when Diesel
invented an improved oil engine, utilizing a more scientific combustion method. The
development of smaller internal combustion engines in the 1880s and 1890s played a crucial role
in perfecting automobiles and airplanes. The advent of neotechnic 29 transportation awaited this
new power, emphasizing the importance of fuel efficiency over carrying water like steam
engines. The social impact of automobiles and airplanes began to manifest around 1910, marked
by Bleriot's flight in 1909 and Henry Ford's mass-produced motor car. However, the integration
of these innovations into existing economic and technical structures led to mistakes, such as

25 Internal-combustion engine, any of a group of devices in which the reactants of combustion (oxidizer and fuel)
and the products of combustion serve as the working fluids of the engine
26 Lewis Mumford page.247
27 Emancipation is being set free from the control of someone or something
28 Mumford.,247
29 Neotechnic is a word that describes the development of new technology.
adapting motor cars to old-fashioned roads. The motor car's potential benefits were not fully
realized, with inadequate planning for pedestrian safety and community building. The rapid
introduction of motor cars, driven by mechanical improvements rather than comprehensive
planning, resulted in significant social and safety issues.30

The Paradox of Communication

The evolution of human communication from immediate physiological expressions to abstract

forms such as hieroglyphics31, writing, and drawing. The invention of the telegraph, telephone,
wireless telegraph, wireless telephone, and television has progressively reduced the time gap in
communication. The advent of instantaneous global communication through technology has the
potential to increase personal contacts but may not necessarily lead to less trivial or parochial
personalities. There is a concern that the efficiency of reflective thought and deliberate action,
facilitated by writing, reading, and drawing, may be weakened. The text emphasizes the dangers
of overusing inventions without considering their actual necessity, comparing it to historical
instances like the introduction of iron sheets for buildings. It warns about the potential negative
impacts of instant communication, such as increased areas of friction, mass reactions, and
dangers of international conflict. Despite the risks, the text acknowledges the significance of
instantaneous personal communication as a key feature of the neotechnic phase, symbolizing
global cooperation. It also notes the political impact, restoring direct contact between leaders and
groups, with both potential benefits and dangers, and emphasizes the importance of refining
personal culture alongside technological development.32

The Planning of Population

The significance of population planning as a crucial neotechnic innovation. It traces the historical
developments of contraception, with its rational practice and improvement in devices emerging
in the 19th century. Contraception's impact on personal life includes separating sexual functions
from parental ones, allowing for prolonged romantic love and sexual courtship. On a broader
social scale, contraception addresses the potential challenges of overpopulation, emphasizing the

30 Lewis Mumford page.,248-249

31 Hieroglyphic symbols may represent the objects that they depict but usually stand for particular sounds or
groups of sounds.
32 Mumford p, 251-253
planet's limits in terms of arable 33 soil and fishable water. The practice of birth control has led to
a vital equilibrium in countries like France, reducing variables in planning and facilitating a more
sustainable relationship between population size and available resources. The text anticipates the
potential for global population redistribution with widespread birth control but acknowledges
that the effects are yet to be fully realized on a global scale. It also highlights the convergence of
personal and social interests in favor of contraception, suggesting that even religious taboos 34
may eventually give way to technological advancements in birth control.35

CHAPTER VI. COMPENSATIONS AND REVERSIONS

Summary of Social Reactions

The impact of machine civilization on society, transforming landscapes, urban layouts, resource
usage, and technological heritage. Present mechanical civilization results from a complex
interplay of these phases, with aspects in decay, neglected, or in early development. Referring to
it as the Power Age or Machine Age 36 oversimplifies its multifaceted nature. Despite positive
transformations, society has reacted against the machine, with inertia and resistance. Catholic
countries and agricultural regions were slower to adopt it. Human reactions and societal
adjustments have deflected and influenced the machine, challenging the idealized images of
Economic Man and the Machine Age. The text emphasizes the discolored reality of free
competition during the paleotechnic period37, with trade agreements and anti-union
collaborations contradicting the ideal. Philosophers, poets, and artists led a retreat from the
machine, challenging the coherence of utilitarianism. The text underscores the need for a
nuanced appreciation of the machine's contribution, considering resistances and compensations
arising from values outside a mechanistic ideology.38

33 Arable refers to land that is suitable for cultivation, specifically for growing crops.
34 A religious taboo is something forbidden by a religion. Many actions and thoughts are banned by sacred
religious texts such as the Torah, Old Testament, and Quran.
35 Lewes Mumford page, 274-277
36 Machine age refers to the period of time from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century
37 Paleotechnic was associated with the new centralized state and its privileged economic clients, and centered on
mining, iron, coal, and steam.
38 Mumford page,281-283
The Mechanical Routine

The first characteristic of modern machine civilization, emphasizing temporal regularity. The
daily rhythm, punctuated by the clock, governs waking, meals, and work schedules. As industrial
organization scales up, the mechanized regime becomes even more regimented. Time-keeping,
akin to money, becomes an independent commodity, shaping various professions and functions.
While regularity aids certain physical functions and vocational concentration, the text questions
its universal application. In matters like play, sexual intercourse, and recreation, pulsating
impulses may suffer under rigid habits fostered by the clock. The text contends that a completely
timed and regulated machine civilization doesn't guarantee maximum efficiency. While
regularity aids coordination and concentration, imposing it arbitrarily on all aspects of human life
risks reducing existence to mere timeserving. It argues for the necessity of embracing the
accidental, unpredictable, and fitful, as activities excluding the operations of chance impulses
forfeit some advantages of regularity.39

Purposeless Materialism: Superfluous Power

The machine's inclination to focus on material goods, leading to a phenomenon termed

"purposeless materialism.40" This manifest as a disproportionate emphasis on physical
possessions, overshadowing non-material interests. The pursuit of material abundance becomes
pervasive across society, symbolizing success and intelligence. The text argues that this
materialism, often purposeless, transforms means into ends, sustaining itself by keeping
machines running through consumption efforts. It also highlights the paradox that power-
machinery's economies are partly offset by an increased need for consumption. The illustration
of a stone moved with varying efficiency on different surfaces illustrates the two approaches to
power application: increased expenditure or economizing. The text warns against the illusion of
efficiency solely based on increased power usage, emphasizing the importance of careful
planning and biological adaptation. It suggests that many mechanical triumphs are temporary
substitutes until society learns to direct social institutions, biological conditions, and personal

39 Lewes Mumford page,283-284

40 Purposeless materialism refers to a societal trend or inclination that places an excessive emphasis on the
accumulation of material possessions without a clear or meaningful purpose
aims more effectively. Finally, the mechanical devices as inherently efficient, comparing them to
crutches that assist in times of injury but are inferior to a normally functioning limb. 41

CHAPTER VII. ASSIMILATION OF THE MACHINE

The Neutrality of Order

Before the infiltration of machines into daily life, the concept of order was closely associated
with the gods and absolute monarchs. The gods and rulers, however, were often inscrutable,
capricious, and cruel, and their order was maintained through complete subservience and slavery.
Brute nature, filled with mythical creatures, contested the reign of the gods. The development of
science and the practical integration of machines transferred the realm of order from absolute
rulers to the impersonal nature and the machine. Science, replacing the royal formula of purpose
with causal explanations, contributed to a more effective conquest of the external environment
and control over humanity.

The sciences, by isolating certain aspects of human personality and focusing on regularities, built
a more public world that sacrificed depth for accessibility. Abstraction and limitation in scientific
analysis created confidence in finding order across diverse experiences. This approach
influenced various fields, including technology, where time, precision, and regularity became
crucial. Growing respect for time-keeping in capitalism was not just a means of coordinating
complex functions but also an independent commodity, akin to money. The regularity imposed
by machines in the temporal regime extended to various aspects of life. While regularity might
be beneficial for certain physical functions, it could lead to dullness and decay in activities
driven by pulsating impulses, like play and recreation. The machine's preoccupation with
quantity production led to an exclusive focus on material goods, sacrificing time and present
enjoyments. This purposeless materialism, emphasizing the accumulation of possessions beyond
essential needs, became widespread across society. The pointing out that material goods,
detached from genuine purpose, may become an end in themselves.

The impact of the machine on modern civilization, highlighting its temporal regularity, effects on
social institutions, and tendencies toward purposeless materialism. It reflects on how the machine

41 Lewes Mumford page,286-289

has reshaped society and explores both the positive transformations and the societal reactions
against it.42

The Simplification of the Environment

The impact of machines on the environment, highlighting the complexity they introduce and the
need for simplification in response. Standardization is seen as a psychological tool, making the
machine-driven world more manageable. Aesthetic appreciation shifts toward subtleties, as
standardization increases. The pursuit of perfection in machine form is contrasted with the
unique qualities of handmade items. Despite challenges, machines are recognized for their
potential to positively influence education and human refinement when used intelligently. 43

CHAPTER VIII. ORIENTATION

Normalize Consumption

The dogma of increasing wants associated with capitalism, highlighting its negative impact on
society. It argues against the aimless expansion of production and the shift from an economy of
need to an economy of acquisition. The concept of increasing wants originated among successful
bankers and merchants and spread through society. The notion that satisfying wants through
machine-made goods universally leads to progress. It emphasizes the historic mistakes embedded
in such doctrines and questions their validity.44

Political Control

The transformation of the worker's status in industry through a three-fold system of control:
internal organization of industry, organization of consumers as self-regulating groups, and the
organization of industries within a cooperative political framework. It criticizes the past roles of
trade unions and capitalists, emphasizing the need for collective responsibility and autonomy for
workers in the management of industry. The text acknowledges the necessity of a struggle, both
internally for knowledge and externally against capitalist guardians, to achieve a socialized and
integrated industrial basis. The ultimate goal is not just victory over the possessing classes but
the establishment of a solidly integrated and socialized foundation for industry. The text critiques

42 Lewes Mumford page 342-349

43 Mumford page, 374-377
44 Lewes page 411-420
Fascism for effacing workers' attempts without a plan for carrying the fight beyond the initial
stages.45

Toward a Dynamic Equilibrium

The 19th-century belief in endless progress is outdated, and the world is moving towards a state
of equilibrium in technology, industry, agriculture, and population. It envisions a balanced
approach, emphasizing conservation, restoration of the environment, and planned development.
The text anticipates a slowing of technological tempo and a shift towards efficiency, human
satisfaction, and cultural achievement. It highlights the need for a deliberate recolonization,
rational resettlement, and the balancing of birth and death rates for global equilibrium. The era is
described as one of rebuilding, focusing on the critical problems of modern civilization,
including tempo, equilibrium, and human satisfaction.46

45 Lewes Mumford page 437-439

46 Lewes Mumford page,449-453