Atomic Structure

 Atoms are the components that make up all elements.

 Atoms are made up of three types of sub-atomic particles – protons, neutrons, and electrons
 Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus, where most of the mass is concentrated. Electrons
orbit the nucleus in shells

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/1840 -1
The Evolution of Atomic Structure Over Time

 The model of the atom has changed over time as new evidence has become available.

Dalton proposed that all atoms of one element are the same and are different from the atoms of
another element. Atoms in his model were tiny and indivisible.

Thomson discovered the electron. He proposed the plum pudding model where negatively
charged electrons move in a ‘sea’ of charge in a positively charged atom.
Rutherford found that most of the mass is concentrated in the positive nucleus, with negative
electrons orbiting it. The positive and negative charges balance to make the atom neutral.

Bohr suggested that electrons orbit the nucleus on paths. Bohr’s planetary model provided an
explanation for the difference in energy of electrons at different distances from the nucleus.

The current model is composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are
found in the nucleus and are made up of smaller quarks, whereas electrons surround the central
nucleus.

Mass Number & Isotopes

  Element, X
 Mass number, A, is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
 Atomic number, Z, is the number of protons. The number of positively charged protons is
equal to the number of negatively charged electrons in an atom, making the atom neutrally
charged
 Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
 Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
 Ions are formed by atoms losing or gaining electrons.
o A charge of x- means that the number of electrons in the ion is the atomic number + x
o A charge of x+ means that the number of electrons in the ion is the atomic number - x
 Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons.
Therefore, they have different mass numbers but the same atomic number.
 Isotopes of the same element have the same electronic configuration so react in the same way
in chemical reactions but have slightly different physical properties.

Mass Spectrometry

 Mass spectrometry is a form of molecular chemical analysis that allows the masses of
individual molecules or isotopes to be determined.
 Mass spectrometry can be used to provide structural information, identify an unknown
compound, or determine the relative abundance of each isotope of an element.
 In time of flight mass spectrometry, the steps include:
o Ionisation- the sample is dissolved in a volatile solvent and ejected through a hollow
needle. The needle is connected to a positive terminal of a high voltage supply. This
produces tiny positively charged droplets.
o Acceleration- ions are accelerated towards a negatively charged plate to give all ions
constant kinetic energy. So, the velocity of each ion will depend on its mass
o Ion drift- ions pass through a hole in the negative plate, forming a beam
o Detection- the positive ion picks up an electron which causes a current to flow. Flight
times are recorded
o Data analysis - the signal from the detector passes to a computer which generates a
mass spectrum
  The mass spectrum gives information about the relative abundance of isotopes on the y axis
and about the relative isotopic mass on the x axis.

 The mass spectrum can be used to determine the relative atomic mass (Ar)

 A mass spectrum for a molecular sample shows the relative molecular mass on the x axis.

Electronic Configuration

 Electrons orbit the central nucleus in shells. Each shell can hold 2n^2 electrons, where n is
the principal quantum number.
 Electron shells are made up of atomic orbitals, which are regions in space where electrons
may be found.
 Each shell is composed of one or more orbitals and each orbital can hold one pair of
electrons.
 There are four main types of orbitals: s-, p-, d-, and f-
  Electrons have an intrinsic property (spin). For two electrons in the same orbital, the spin
must be opposite to minimise the repulsion.

 Within each shell, orbitals that are of the same energy level are grouped together in sub-
shells.
 There are 1 s-orbital, 3 p-orbitals, 5 d-orbitals and 7-p orbitals possible in each subshell.
 Sub-shells have different energy levels. Note that 4s is lower in energy than 3d, so 4s will fill
first.

 Shells and sub-shells are filled with electrons according to a set of rules:
o Atomic orbitals with the same energy fill individually first before pairing
o Aufbau principle – the lowest available energy level is filled first
o No more than two electrons can fill an atomic orbital

 Electron configuration is written with n representing principal quantum number. X is the type
of orbital and y is the number of electrons in the orbitals of the subshell e.g. potassium has 19
electrons and its electron configuration is written as 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^1

Ionisation Energy

 Ionisation energy is a measure of the energy required to completely remove an electron from
an atom of an element to form an ion.
 First ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one electron from each atom in one
mole of the gaseous element to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions. X (g)→ X+(g)
+ e-
 Successive ionisation energies apply to the removal of electrons after the first ionisation
energy. The nth ionisation energy is:

X(n-1) + (g)→ Xn+(g) + e-

 Successive ionisation energies provide evidence for the shell structure of atoms.
o Within each shell successive ionisation energies increase, as there is less electron
repulsion
o Between shells, there are big jumps in ionisation energies, as the electric is removed
from a shell closer to the nucleus
 Factors affecting ionisation energies:
o Atomic radii- The larger the atomic radius, the further away the outer electrons are
held from the nucleus, and the smaller the nuclear attraction.
o Nuclear charge- The greater the nuclear charge, the greater the attractive force on the
outer electrons.
o Shielding- electrons repel each other due to their negative charge. The greater the
number of inner shells of electrons, the greater the repulsion of the outer shell of
electrons.
 The greater the attraction, the harder it is to remove an electron. Therefore, the ionisation
energy will be larger.
 Atomic radii show periodicity. Across a period, the radius decreases while down a group, the
radius increases.
 Ionisation energy increases across a period, electrons are all added to the same shell resulting
in greater attraction.

 Ionisation energy decreases across a group, as the number of shells increases, so does the
atomic radius and shielding, reducing attraction.
Relative Masses

 Relative isotopic mass is the mass of an atom of an isotope compared with 1/12th of the mass
of an atom of carbon-12. For an isotope, the relative isotopic mass = its mass number.
 Relative atomic mass is the ratio of the average mass of an atom of an element to 1/12th of
the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
 Relative molecular mass is the ratio of the average mass of a molecule of an element or
compound to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
 Relative formula mass is similar to relative molecular mass but applies to ionic compounds.

The Mole & Concentration

 The mole is the unit used to quantify the amount of a substance. It can be applied to any
amount of chemical species, including atoms, electrons, molecules and ions
 A mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of atoms or particles as 12
g of carbon-12.
 The number of particles in 12g of ^12C is the Avogadro constant of 6.022 x 10^23 mol-^1.

 n is the number of moles (mol)

m is the mass (g)
M is the molar mass (g mol-^1)
 The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a known volume of
solution.

 c is the concentration (mol dm-^3)

n is the number of moles in solution (mol)
V is the volume (dm^3)
 Remember:
o 1 dm^3 = 1000 cm^3
o 1 m^3 = 1000dm^3

Gas Equations

 One mole of any gas under standard conditions will occupy the same volume.
 The molar gas volume is 24 dm^-3 mol^-1 under standard conditions of 298 K and 100 kPa
 The number of moles of gas can be calculated using the equation:
 n is the number of moles of gas (mol)
V is volume (dm^-3)

 In an ideal gas the assumptions are made that:

o Intermolecular forces between the gas particles are negligible
o The volume of the particles themselves, relative to the volume of their container, is
negligible
 The ideal gas equation is:

p is pressure (Pa)
V is volume (m^3)
n is the number of moles (mol)
R is the gas constant (8.314 JK^-1)
T is temperature (K)

Empirical & Molecular Formula

 The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element present
in a compound.
 The empirical formula can be calculated from the composition by mass or percentage by
mass. e.g 6.2 g of P is combined with O2 to form 14.2 g of phosphorous oxide. Calculate the
empirical formula of the compound.

mass of O2: 14.2 g - 6.2 g = 8 g

number of moles of each element:

Divide through by the smallest number of moles to get the whole number ratio:

Empirical formula: P2O5

  The molecular formula gives the number and type of atoms of each element in a molecule. It
is made up of a whole number of empirical units.
 The molecular formula can be determined using the empirical formula and relative molecular
mass of the molecule. e.g. Determine the molecular formula of a compound with empirical
formula CH2 and a relative molecular mass of 224.

Relative molecular mass of the empirical formula:

C H2
12 + (1 × 2) = 14

Divide the relative molecular mass by that of the empirical formula:

224/14=16

Molecular formula:
C16H32

Balanced Equations

 When a chemical reaction occurs, no atoms are created or destroyed. The atoms in the
reactants rearrange to form the products.
 In a balanced equation, there is the same number of atoms of each element in both the
reactants and products.
 State symbols are written after every species to indicate the physical state
o Solid (s)
o Liquid (l)
o Gaseous (g)
o Aqueous (aq) - dissolved in water

 Ionic equations can be written for any reaction involving ions in solution, where only the
reacting ions and the products they form are included.
 Spectator ions are ions that do not take part in the overall reaction and are found in both the
reactants and products
 The net ionic equation shows only the ions directly involved in the reaction (removing
spectator ions).

e.g.
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)→ AgCl (s) + Na+ (aq) + No3- (aq)
Net ionic equation: Cl- (aq) + Ag+ (aq)→ AgCl (s)

 Stoichiometry expresses the molar ratios between reactants and products in a reaction. It is
used to determine the quantity of products or reactants required or produced by a known
reaction.
 Atom Economy & Percentage Yield

 Atom economy is a theoretical measure of the proportion of atoms from the reactants that
form the desired product. In order to calculate it a balanced chemical equation is required.

 Maximising atom economy has important economic, ethical and environmental advantages:
o More sustainable (uses fewer raw materials)
o Minimises chemical waste
o Maximises efficiency
o Less money is spent on separation processes

 The limiting reagent is the reagent not in excess. It dictates the theoretical yield and the
amount of product actually formed.
 Percentage yield is a measure of the percentage of reactants that have been converted into the
desired product. It gives a measure of the efficiency of a reaction route.
 The percentage yield is reduced by the formation of unwanted by-products, any reactant that
remains unreacted, or product that cannot be extracted from the reaction vessel.

Ions
  An ion is an atom or molecule with a net charge formed through the gain or loss of electrons
 A cation is formed from the loss of electrons
 An anion is formed from the gain of electrons
 The noble gases do not form ions, as they already have a stable full outer shell of electrons, making them unreactive.
 Molecular ions are formed when groups of two or more atoms that are covalently bonded gain or lose electrons

Charge Molecular ion

+1 Ammonium: NH4+
Hydroxide: OH^-
-1 Nitrate: NO3-
Hydrogencarbonate: HCO3-
Carbonate: CO3^2-
-2 Sulphate: SO4^2-
Sulphite: SO3^2-
 Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely charged ions. The overall charge is zero as the ionic charges balance.
 e.g. write the formula of sodium carbonate

We need 2 x Na+ to balance the -2 charge of CO3^2-

The formula is Na2CO3

Covalent Bonds

 Covalent bonding usually occurs between two atoms of non-metals, so that the atoms each gain a stable full outer shell
 A covalent bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of outer electrons and the nuclei of the bonded a
 A single covalent bond involves one shared pair of outer electrons, while a multiple covalent bond involves more than on
shared pair of outer electrons
 A co-ordinate (dative covalent) bond involves one atom donating both electrons in a covalent bond.
 A dative covalent bond is represented by an arrow from the atom that is donating both electrons to the atom that is accept
both electrons
Ionic Bonding

 An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions, resulting in a lattice
 A lattice is a giant three-dimensional structure, where each ion is surrounded by oppositely charged ions
 They are often formed between ions of metals and non-metals, where each atom aims to gain a stable full outer shell.
 Electrons are represented by dots and crosses, which helps visualise the origin of the electrons clearly

 The strength of an ionic bond depends on

o The charge on the ions- Ions with higher charges will have a greater electrostatic attraction between them
o The distance between the ions- Smaller ions have a smaller internuclear distance so the electrostatic forces of attra
will be greater, and they can pack more closely

 Properties of ionic structures

o High melting and boiling points
o Soluble in polar solvents
o Electrical conductivity when molten or dissolved in water

Metallic Bonding

 Metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and negative delocalised electrons in a m
lattice
 Metals have a fixed lattice structure of positive ions. The outer shell of electrons is delocalised, which can carry current.
 Metals have high melting and boiling points due to the large amounts of energy needed to overcome the metallic bonds.
 The greater the charge of a metal ion, the more electrons are delocalised. The smaller the size of the metal ions, the closer
 are to the delocalised electrons. This results in stronger bonds and a higher melting point
 Metals are malleable and ductile. The ions can slide and move past each other as there are no bonds holding specific ions
together

Crystalline Structure
Simple Molecules

 Bonding pairs and lone pairs of electrons are charge clouds that repel each other
 Electron pairs in the outer shell arrange themselves as far apart as possible to minimise repulsion
  Bonding pairs repel each other equally. While lone pairs repel other pairs more because they are more electron dense.
 Each lone pair reduces the bond angle by about 2.5 degrees.
 A normal line represents the bond is in plane of the paper. A dotted wedge is a bond going into the paper and a bold wedg
bond coming out of the paper.

Electron Pairs Bonding Pairs Lone Pairs Bond Angles Example

Linear 2 2 180⁰ CO2
Trigonal Planar 3 3 120⁰ BF3
Bent 3 2 1 <120⁰ SO2
Tetrahedral 4 4 109.5⁰ CH4
Trigonal Pyramidal 4 3 1 107⁰ NH3
V-Shaped 4 2 2 104.5⁰ H2O
Trigonal
5 5 90⁰, 120⁰ PCl5
Bipyramidal
Seesaw 5 4 1 87⁰, 102⁰ SF4
T-Shaped 5 3 2 88⁰ ClF3
Linear 5 2 3 180⁰ XeF2
Octahedral 6 6 90⁰ SF6
Square Pyramidal 6 5 1 <90⁰ BrF5
Square Planar 6 4 2 90⁰ XeF4

Bond Polarity

 Electronegativity is the power of an atom to attract the pair of electrons in a covalent bond. It is affected by:
o Nuclear charge
o Atomic radius
o Shielding by electrons in inner shells
 A polar bond will form between two atoms with different electronegativity values where the electrons in the bond are not
equally. This causes a permanent dipole.
 Partial negative charges (δ-), and partial positive charges (δ+) are used to show that a bond is polar.
 Molecules containing polar bonds are not always polar. The symmetry of polar bonds can cancel the effect of any perman
 dipole.

Intermolecular Forces

 Intermolecular interactions are the forces of attraction between molecules that do not involve the transfer of electrons. Th
the result of the constant and random movements of electrons within electron shells
 The greater the strength of the bonds, the higher the melting and boiling points. E.g., down a group boiling point increase
to greater induced dipole=dipole forces, as electron number increases

 Induced dipole-dipole forces are caused by the temporary unequal distribution of charge due to the constantly moving ele
The temporary dipole can induce a temporary dipole in a neighbouring atom and the two dipoles will be attracted to each
This can occur between almost all molecules.
 Permanent dipole-dipole forces are caused by molecules with a permanent dipole being attracted to the opposite charge in
permanent dipoles, if correctly aligned.
 Hydrogen bonding requires:
o An electron-deficient hydrogen atom and a more electronegative atom. These atoms are oxygen, fluorine and nitro
o A lone pair of electrons on a highly electronegative atom on another molecule
 Hydrogen bonding in water allows ice to be less dense than water as hydrogen bonds hold the water molecules apart at a f
position, forming an open lattice

 Water has high melting and boiling points than expected due to hydrogen bonds being the strongest intermolecular forces