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Reviewer For Engm

The document discusses various verb forms and tenses including simple, perfect, and progressive tenses. It also covers subject-verb agreement rules and different sentence structures and functions. Key concepts in semantics and pragmatics are defined such as semantic roles, lexical relations, deixis, implicature, speech act theory, and more.

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18 views5 pages

Reviewer For Engm

The document discusses various verb forms and tenses including simple, perfect, and progressive tenses. It also covers subject-verb agreement rules and different sentence structures and functions. Key concepts in semantics and pragmatics are defined such as semantic roles, lexical relations, deixis, implicature, speech act theory, and more.

Uploaded by

mikasyxz
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Simplified Reviewer:

Verb Forms and Tenses

Simple tenses:
Present - subject + present tense verb
Past - subject + past tense verb
Future - subject + will +present tense verb

Perfect Tenses:
Present - has/have + past participle verb
Past - had + past participle verb
Future - will have + past participle verb

Progressive tenses:
Present - am/is/are + ing verb
Past - was/were + ing verb
Future - will be + ing verb

Perfect Progressive Tenses:


Present - has/have been + ing verb
Past - had been + ing verb
Future - will have been + ing verb

Subject Verb Agreement Rules

Attached is the link to the exact lecture of Sir Arman that I came across on the internet
(https://www.gangainstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Subject-Verb-Agreement.pdf)

Sentence structures

1. Simple sentence - single subject and single verb


2. Compound sentence - 2 subjects and 2 verbs, combined by coordinating conjunctions
(FANBOYS)
3. Complex - 1 independent clause and 1 dependent clause, joined by subordinating
conjunctions (until, whereas, although)
4. Compound-complex - 1 independent clause and 2 dependent clauses joined by
coordinating and or subordinating conjunctions

Sentence functions

1. Declarative - ends with a period


2. Imperative - tell someone to do something, call action
3. Interrogative - asks something
4. Exclamatory - strong feelings

Keywords in the Readings:

Language meaning - semantics and pragmatics

Semantics - conceptual meaning


Pragmatics - contextual meaning

Different categories or dimensions of looking at the meanings of words and sentences:

References and sense


Reference: the relationship between the word and the object or idea
Sense: additional element of meaning

*not all words have referents but all of them have sense

Conceptual / Denotative meaning: refers to the literal meaning of the word

Associative / Connotative meaning: associative meaning of the word, relative or subjective,


and open-ended

Social or stylistic meaning: the meaning conveyed by a word is dependent on various social
factors or context.

Affective or emotive meaning: personal feelings and emotions of the speaker, attitude of the
listener towards the speaker, or vice-versa

Reflected meaning: a word or phrase is associated with more than one conceptual meaning

Collocative meaning: Collocations - words that always go together or co-occur frequently

Thematic meaning: refers to what is communicated by the way a writer or speaker organizes
the message, the way we order our message also conveys what is more important and what is
not
Meaning extension: many words have figurative or metaphorical meanings

Semantic features

Feature analysis: identity the basic meaning of a word and predict whether or not it is
semantically compatible with other words in specific sentences
Semantic Roles: thematic relations; ‘roles’ words-nouns and pronouns

Agent, patient, instrument: agent - performs action, patient - entity that is being affected by
the action of the agent, instrument - if the agent uses another entity in doing the action

Theme, experiencer: Theme - entity that is also involved in the action of the verb, experiencer -
entity that has the state feeling or perception which receives sensory or emotional inputs

Location, source, goal: location - setting, source/origin - where an entity moves from,
goal/direction - where it moves to

Recipient, time, purpose, manner: recipient - demonstrating a change in possession or


ownership, time - when the action or event occurred, purpose - reason why an action is done,
manner - how the action was performed

Lexical relations

Synonymy: Synonyms - related meanings

Antonymy: Antonyms - opposite meanings

Hyponymy: the hierarchical relationship between words

Prototypes: best represent the meaning or description of a word or a category

Homonymy: Homonyms ( Homophones, homographs)

Polysemy: words that have related meanings and have the same spelling and pronunciation

Capitonyms: same spelling but have different meanings when capitalized

Metonymy: uses a term to stand for a word, idea, or concept

Idioms: types of collocations; made up of words in a fixed order and their meaning cannot be
taken from the sum of the individual; words
Semantic ambiguity: an anomaly in the sentences

Pragmatics

Speaker meaning vs. Sentence meaning

Sentence meaning - literal meaning


Speaker meaning - meaning that a speaker intends
Context
Linguistic context / co-text - meaning is by recognizing the words surrounding them
Physical context - connections we attach to the world as products of our experiences in the
physical world

Deixis: meaning depends on their context of use


Person deixis - point to people ( her, them, those, etc), things (it, this, these, etc)
Spatial deixis - point to a place or location (there, here, etc)
Temporal deixis - point to a certain time ( last week, yesterday, now, etc)

Presuppositions: we assume that our listeners (or readers) already know their referents or
understand what we meant by the expression

Implicatures: something that is suggested or implied

The Cooperative Principle: we try our best to understand and to be understood (Paul Grice)

Four Maxims: set of norms that we have to follow to be cooperative

1. The Maxim of Quantity - be informative but just enough


2. The Maxim of Quality - be truthful
3. The Maxim of quality - be relevant, not include irrelevant information
4. The Maxim of Manner - provide information in a concise manner and orderly fashion

Speech Act Theory


Speech act: ‘force’ in words that force us to do or act

Locutionary act: basic meaningful utterances humans make to communicate their needs and
wants

Illocutionary act: true speech act


Types of Illocutionary Act by J.R. Searle

1. Assertives - statements that can be verified as either true or false


2. Directives - requests and commands
3. Commissives - promises and oaths
4. Expressives - express the speaker’s attitudes and emotions: excuses and thanks
5. Declarations - baptisms, pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husband
and wife

Perlocutionary act: effects on the listener

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