Mi

ning,
Met
all
urgyandPet
rol
eum Depar
tment

Thi
rdYearPet
rol
eum

Cai
ro Facul
tyof
Uni
ver
sit
y Engi
neeri
ng

8/
6/2020

Answer
sofSt
rari
graphyTake-
Home
Exam
Pr
epar
edt
o:

Pr
of.Dr
.Abdel
-Azi
zMohamed

Name:Adel
Imam
BN:10
Q1:
Wri
tebr
ief
lyon
1-Mat er i
al st rat i
gr aphi cuni ts:
Abodyofr ockdi st ingui shedanddef inedbyal otoff eat urest hatshoul ddet ermi nei tst ypesuch
as
Lithost rat i
gr aphi c, Biost ratigr aphi c, Al lost rat i
gr aphi c, Magnet ostratigr aphic, and
Chr onost ratigr aphi cuni t.
2-Ty pesofunconf or mi ty:
a-Angul arunconf or mi t
y :Def or mat ionander osi onpr iort odepost ionofy oungerbeds.
b-Di sconf or mi ty :Br eaki ndepost ionander osi onwi thinast rat igr aphicsuccessi on.
c-Non- conf ormi ty :Er osionanddeposi ononnon- st atifor m bedr ock.
d-Par aconf ormi ty :Er osionanddeposi ononahor izont al bedl ay er .
3-Descr ipt ionoff or mat i
on: Af ormat i
oni sdescr i
bedi nt er msof :
Lithol ogy ,Sedi ment ary st ruct ur es,Pet r
ogr aphy (t he mi ner al ogicalcomposi t
ion and t extur al
char act er istics) ,Def initi
on oft op and base,Thi ckness as measur ed i nt he t ype sect i
on,
Faunal &f ior alcont ent ,Deposi tionalenv ir
onment ,Age, Geogr aphi calext ent ,Ty pesect i
on(nor mal ly
thepl acewher et heuni tisbestexposed) ,For merdef i
ni ti
ons, andt heboundar ieswi thot heruni ts.
4-Gr aphi cal cor r elat ionschemes:
Graphi cal cor rel at i
onmet hodsar eusedt oident ifychangesi nr at esofsedi ment ationorahi atusi n
deposi tion.The t hi ckness ofa bi ost ratigraphi c uni ti s det er mi ned byt he r ate ofsedi ment
accumul at i
on.Asuccessi onwi thacont inuous,st eadysedi ment ati
oni schosenasar eference
sect ionandt hebi ozonemar ker sar enot edoni t.Ot hersuccessi oncont ai ningt hesamebi ozone
can t hen be compar ed wi tht hisr eference sect i
on.Ti epoi nt s ar e est abl i
shed usi ng t he
biost rat i
gr aphi ci nf or mat ionandi nt ermedi atel ev elscanbecor relat edgr aphi cal l
y .
5-Sedi ment ar ybasi nsdi v ergentpl ateboundar yi nl ightofpl at et ect onict heor y :
Hor izont alst r
essesassoci at edwi thpl atemov ement scr eat eext ensi onal ongl i
nesofweaknessi n
thel ithospher e.Thesel inesmayl iewi t
hincont inent alcr ustandmayext endi ntooceani ccr ust
wher et heyar ezonesoff ormat ionofnew cr ustatspr eadi ngcent er s.Theyt er minateatt ri
ple
j
unct ionswher et hr eezonesofext ensi onmeet .Thet riplej unct i
oni snor mal lyassoci atedwi tha
hot -
spot ,anar eaofi ncreasedheatf lowi nt hecr ustgener at edbyt her malpl umesi nt hemant le.
Thi sassoci ationsuggest st hatt her emaybear elat ionshi pbet weent hef ormat i
onofex t
ensi onal
plate boundar ies and t he l ocat ion ofhotmant l
e pl umes.Ri ftbasi ns st artt of orm wi thin
cont inent alcr ustandt heear li
estdeposi tsar et y pical lyt er r
est ri
al .Fol l
owi ngt hei ni t
iati
onofr ifti
ng,
ther ear et wopossi blecour sesf ort hef urtherdev elopmentoft hear ea.
1.Riftingmaycont i
nueandspl itt hecont inent alcr ustcompl et elyt of or m apr oto- oceani ct r
ough.
Fur therext ensi onl eadst ot hef or mat ionofanoceanbasi nf lankedbypassi vemar gins.
2.Alter nat i
v ely,t heext ensi onmayceasef ollowedbysubsi denceov erabr oadar eawi thint he
cratont of or m ani nt racrat oni cbasi n.
6-Sedi ment ar ybasi nsconv er gentpl ateboundar yinl i
ghtofpl at et ect oni ct heor y:
Atconv er gentpl at emar ginst hedowngoi ngoceanpl at edescendsi nt ot hemant lebeneat ht he
over -ridingpl ate.Ast hedowngoi ngpl atebendst oent ert hesubduct ionzoneat roughi scr eat ed
att hecont actbet weent het wopl at es:t hisi st heoceant rench.Thedescendi ngsl abi sheat edand
par ti
al l
ymel tsat90- 150Km dept h.Themagmasgener at edr iset ot hesur f
acet hr ought heov er -
ri
dingpl at et ocr eat eal i
neofv olcanoes, av olcani car c.Thear c-trenchgapdependsont heangl e
ofsubduct ion:st eepangl est hedi stancewi llbeasl l
tt l
eas50Km,andshal low angl ei tmaybe
over200km.
7-Per iodi cityofgeol ogicev ent s:
Forhumanl ife-spanVsgeol ogi calt i
me-scal ehi gh- magni t udephenomenasuchasv eryv iolent
stor ms,hi gh- ener gyear thquakesorl arge v olcani cer upt ionsar e consi der ed t o be r are and
extraor dinar y.I nconsi der ingt hel ikel i
hoodofacer tainev ent ,thehumant ime- framei st ooshor t
forust obegoodj udgesoft hef requencywi thwhi chi tmayoccuronageol ogi caltime- scal e.
Somet imest hesehi gh- magni tudeev ent smayl astonl yav eryshor tper i
odoft i
me.Howev er,shor t-
1
l
i
ved,high-magnit
udeeventsleaveasmuchofamar kinthegeol ogicalrecord.TheTubatuf
fisa
l
ayeroflat
ePleist
ocenevolcani
cashwhi chcanbet racedfr
om i t
sv olcani
cv ei
ninSumatraacross
l
argeareasoftheBayofBengalandI ndia.Theerupti
onwhi chproducedt heTobatuffmayhav e
l
astedonlyafewy ear
s,butit
smar konthest r
ati
graphyisconsiderableoverawi dear
ea.

8-Car bonat edeposi tst hr ought ime:

The mi cr obialmat s ofcy anobact eria wer et he f oodst uf fofcr eat ur es such as mol l
uscs,
arthropodsandot her s,l eadi ngt othei rsuppr essi on.Theev olutionofcompl exor gani smsi nt he
Pal aeozoi cincludedr eef -buildingor gani smswhi chmadei tpossi bleforcar bonat er eefst r
uct ur es
todev elopf orthef irstt ime.Thest r uct ureofr eef soncar bonat eplatfor mshasv ariedt hr ought he
Phaner ozoi caccor dingt ot hedomi nanceofdi fferentr eef -f
ormi ngor gani sms.Thenat ureof
pelagi cdeposi t
si nt heoceanshasal sochangedconsi der abl yasdi fferentpl ankt oni cor gani sms
evol ved.Coccol ithsabov et hecal citecompensat iondept hdi dnotbecomecommonunt ilthe
mi ddleJur assicwhent heseal gaeev olv ed.For ami nifera,t heot hermai ncomponentofmoder n
calcar eousoozes,di dnotdev elopapl ankt oni cl ifestyleunt iltheCr et aceous,al thought heyhad
beeni nexi stenceasbent hicf or msf oral ongt i
me.Mesozoi candPal aeozoi cpel agi cr ocksar e
domi nat edbysi l
iceousr adi olar i
awhi chf or m cher t.
9-Epi sodi cchar act erist icsofsedi ment at ion:
Ther ear ef ewsi tuat i
onswher esedi ment at ioni sacont inuouspr ocess.Pel agicdeposi tioni nt he
deepoceansi sr elativ elyconst antbutt hi ssl ow.Abeddeposi t
edbyasi ngl et urbiditycur rentmay
bedeci met erorev enmet er st hickbutt akesonl yamat terofhour st of orm.Thi sepi sodi c
char act erofsedi ment at ioni sal soappar enti nst orm deposi tsont heshel fandi nf loodpl ain
deposi tsonl and.Ev endeposi tionwi thint hechannelofar i
v er,deltaorest uaryisnotcont i
nuous.
Thi s epi sodic char act er of sedi ment ation means t hati n al mostal lel astic sedi ment ary
env ir
onment smor et i
mei sr epr esent edbyt hesur facesbet weenbeds,t hebeddi ngpl anes,t han
thebedst hemsel ves.
10-Pl at et ectonicsandpal aeocl imat es:
Chemi calweat her ingpr ocessesi nv olv er eact ionsbet weensi l
icatemi ner al sinr ocksandcar bon
dioxide,andi fther ear el argesur facear easofbedr ockexposedt oweat heringt heef fecti st o
remov ecar bondi oxidef rom t heat mospher e.Itisest imat edt hat17%oft hepr esent -dayl andar ea
wascov eredbyshal lowseasi nt heCr etaceousandt hegener alcont i
nent altopogr aphywasv ery
subduedwi ththeconsequencet hatmor ecar bondi oxidewasf reeint heat mospher ei nsteadof
beingt akenupbyweat her i
ngr eactions.
Upl if
toft heTi bet anPl at eaut oitspr esentposi ti
onof4700m abov eseal ev eloccur reddur ingt he
mi d-t ol at eMi ocene.Oneconsequenceoft hef ormat ionofal argear eaatahi ghal ti
tudei san
i
ncr easei nthet ot alamountofweat her i
ngt hatr esul tinar educt ionincar bondi oxidel evel sint he
atmospher e.Af ur therconsequenceoft heTi betanPl ateaui st hedi sr
upt i
onofgl obalat mospher i
c
circulationbyi nter rupt ingai rf lowacr osst hecont inent.

2
Q2:
Dif
fer
ent
iat
einsi
mpl
ewor
dsbet
ween
1-Chr onost rat i
gr aphy :
Abodyofr ockwhi chhasl owerandupperboundar i
eswhi char eeachi sochronoussur faces.An
i
sochr onoussur facei sonewhi chf ormedatt hesamet imeev erywher e.
Al l
ost rat i
gr aphy :
Abodyofr ockdef inedbyi tsposi t
ionr elat ivet ounconf or mitiesorot hercorrelatablesur faces
whi chr eflectchangesi nbasel ev eldur ingdeposi ti
onoft hesedi ment ar ysuccessi on.‘Sequence
strat i
gr aphy ’ isanal l
ost rat i
graphi cappr oacht omat eri
al stratigraphi cuni ts.
2-Bi ost ratigr aphy :
Abodyofr ockwhi chi sdef i
nedandchar act er i
zedbyi tsf ossi lcont ent .
Li t
host ratigraphy :
Abodyofr ockdi st i
ngui shedanddef i
nedbyi tsl it
hologi calchar act er isticsandi t
sst rati
graphi c
posi tion r elat ivet o ot herbodi es ofr ock.These ar e gener allyl ay er ed sediment aryr ocks.
Lithodemi cr er efst oNonst ratifiedi gneous&met amor phi cr ocks.
3-Usi ngear ly -
lat esubdi visionsofst rati
gr aphi cuni ts:
Thebedst hatar eear lysedi ment edi sol dert hant hebedst hatar elat elysedi ment ed.
Usi ngupper -lowersubdi visionsofst ratigraphi cuni t
s:
Inr ightwayupr ocksuccessi on,t hebedshi gheri nel evat i
onar ey oungert hant hel oweronesi n
elev ation.
4-Me mberassubdi visi onsofaf ormat ion:
Thet er m memberi susedf orr ockuni tswhi chhav elimi tedl ater alext entandar econsi stent l
y
relatedt oapar ti
cul arf or mat ion.
Bedassubdi v i
sionsofaf ormat ion:
Bedsorset sofbedswhi char ev erydi stinct ivei nl i
thology ,f ossilcont entorchemi strycanbe
named.Bedsmayhav eeconomi csi gni ficanceorbeusef uli n cor r elati
on becauseoft heir
recogni zabl echar act erist icsacr ossanar ea.
5-Ty pesect ion:
Ist hel ocat i
onwher et hel it
hol ogi calchar act eristi
csar eclearand, ifpossi ble,wher ethel owerand
upperboundar iesoft hef ormat ioncanbeseen.
Ty pear ea:
Ist hel ocat i
onwher et hel ithol ogicalchar act er i
sticsar ecl earbutt heupperandl owerboundar ies
oft hef ormat ionar en' tatt hesamel ocat i
on.
6-Consecut iv ebi ozone:
Wher eat axoncanber ecogni zedashav i
ngf oll
owedanot herandpr ecedi ngat hirdaspar t ofa
phy leticlineage.
Acmebi ozone:
Theabundanceofapar ticulart axonmayv ar yt hrought ime.Thei nt er valcont aini
ngacer tain
stat i
st i
cal l
yhi ghpr opor tionoft hist axondef ineacmebi ozone.
7-Tot al r
angebi ozone:
Iti st he st rat i
graphi ci nter valbet ween t he f irstappear ance ofa si ngl
et axon and t he
disappear anceoft hatt axon.Thel i
neageoft het axoni snotconsi der ed.
Par t
ial rangebi ozone:
Itischar act erizedbyasi ngl et axon,buthebaseoft hebi ozonei smar kedbyt heext incti
onofa
3
secondt axonandt het opbyt heappear anceofat hird.
9-Pr ov enanceSt rat igr aphy :
Det ritalgr ainsandcl ast sar eder ivedf rom sour cear easofhi ghgr oundar ound t hebasi nof
sedi ment ationwhi char ebei nger oded.Theappear anceofnew t y
pesofgr ainsorgr av el-si
zed
mat eriali nt hesuccessi onofsedi ment swi llmar kt het imewhent hatnew sour cear eal i
thology
wasexposedander oded.
ChemoSt ratigr aphy :
Thi st echni quei sat tempt edwhenal lot hermet hodsofcor rel ationf ail
.Thebul kchemi stryof
deposi tsdependonv ariousf actor s,i ncludi ngt henat ureoft hedet ri
tussour cear eaandt he
composi tionofwat er sent eringacl osedbasi n.Changesi nbul kchemi st ryoccur redacr osst he
basi natt hesamet imemayhel pmaki ngsomer ockuni tscor relat i
onpossi ble.
10-Aggr adat ion:
Ifthespacecr eat edandt hev olumeofsedi mentar eexact l
yinbal ance,t hebeachwi l
lst ayi nt he
sameposi tiont hr ought ime.
Pr ogr adat ion:
Ifsedi menti ssuppl iedatahi gherr at et hanaccommodat ionspace,t hedeposi t
smaynotonl y
bui l
dupont hespaceav ai l
abl ebutal sobui ldout war ds. Themar inef acieswi llchanget oshal lower
facies.Thi si sal sor ef er redt oasar egr essionoft hedeposi t
ional env ir
onment .
Ret rogr adat i
on:
Commonl y known as sea t ransgr essi on,occur s when cr eat i
on ofaccommodat ion space
exceedi ngt hesedi mentsuppl y .Landwar dshi fti nf aci esi sseeni nal lt hef aciesbel ts,wi than
upwar dchanget odeeperwat erf aciesi nv ertical pr of ile.
11-Deposi ti
onal sequence:
Itisapackageofsedi mentboundedati tst opandbasebyunconf or mi ti
esort heircor r
elative
conf or mi ti
es.Usi ngt hedeposi tional sequencest hebasi nfil
lsuccessi oncanbesubdi vided.
Sy stem t ract s:
Di f
fer entsy stemst ract scanber ecogni zedbyt hepat ternsandr elatedt ost agesi nt hecy cleof
riseandf allinseal ev el .Asf i
rstst epani deal izedmodelofseal ev elfluctuat ionsi sassumedwi th
asi mpl esi nusoi dal cur vet odescr ibet her iseandf all andaconst antsedi mentsuppl y.
12-Pr imar ysequenceboundar y :
Asequenceboundar ynor mal lyconsi stsofanunconf or mi tyasapr imar ysequenceboundar y.
Secondar ysequenceboundar y:
It'
scor rel ativeconf or mi ty, theequi v alentsur facei nt heout ershel fwher ether ewasnoer osi on.
13- Faci espat ternsi ndeposi tional sequencef ort heshel fedgesy st emst ract:
Dur ingt heper iodofseal ev ell owst and,sedi mentwi llst arttobui ldbackupt hecont inent alslope
asabl anketofsl opedeposi tsandaccumul at ei nv al l
ey sandcany onscuti nt heshel f.Andt he
faciespat t
er nswi ll fi
neup.
Faci espat t
er nsi ndeposi ti
onal sequencef oradeepwat erlowst andsy st emst ract:
Ar api dseal evel fal lleadst ot heexposur eofander osi onacr osst heshel ff loor .Themai npr ocess
oft ranspor tofcoar secl ast icmat er iali ndeepwat erwi l
lbet ur bidi t
ycur rentswhi chmaydeposi t
sedi mentonsubmar inef ans.Low-st andsar et her ef or echar acter izedbydeposi tiononsubmar ine
fans.
14- Sei smi cpr of i
les:
Invest igat i
onofsubsur facegeol ogyi st heanal y sisoft her eflect ionofsoundwav es.Asei smi c
reflect ionpr ofilei spr esent edasal ineconsi stingofaser i
esofcl oselyspacedv erticalt races.
Eacht racei sar ecor doft heacoust ici mpedancecont rastswhi chgener at edr eflectionsr ecor ded
att hesur face.Acont actbet weent wor ockuni tswi ll notshowuponasei smi cpr ofileift her ei sno
acoust i
ci mpedancecont rast .Thehor izontalscal eonasei smi cpr of i
lei snor mal lyi nki lomet ers
andt heuni tsont hev er ticalscal ewi llusual lybei n2wayt ravelt ime.Theangl esofl ay eringand
theat titudesoff aul tson a pr of i
lescal ed i n secondsar enott rueangl esand t her elative
thicknessesofl ay ersar edi stor tedunl essadept hconv ersioni scar ri
edout .
4
 Geol ogi cal cr oss- sect i
ons:
It'
saschemeoft hesubsur facegeol ogyt oshow t her elat i
onsbet weenr ockuni t
sandot he
feat ures.Acont actbet weent wor ockuni tswillshowupcl ear l
yongeol ogical cross- sect i
ons.The
hor izont alscal eongeol ogi calcr oss- sect ionsi scloset ot hev erticalscal einmagni tudeanduni ts.
Theangl esofl ay eringandt heat ti
tudesoff aultsonageol ogi calcr oss-sect ionsmaybet rue
angl esandt her elativet hicknessesofl ay ersist ruewi thoutt heneedofadept hconv ersi
on.
15-Cl inof orm:
Incl i
nedsur f acesboundi ngst ratalpackagesonsei smi cr ef l
ect ionpr ofi
lesar er eferredt oas
clinof or ms.Thei rpat ter nsuggest sapr ogr adat i
onalgeomet ryofpackagesofsedi mentbui lding
outi ntodeeperwat er.
Er osi onal truncat ion:
Ift runcat ionsur facei satahi ghangl et ot heor ientat i
onoft hel ayersi tint ersect s,erosi onal
truncal i
onsar eeasyt or ecogni ze.Theypr obabl yr esul tfrom t her emov alofpackagesofbedsby
subaer i
aler osi on,orsubmar ineer osi on.Theyar emostdi st inctwher et heunder lyingl ayershav e
beenupl i
ftedandt i
ltedpr i
ort oer osi on.At runcat ionsur facecausedbyt hei nci sionofar iv
er
valleyi nt oshel fst rataf ollowi ngaseal ev elfallmayal sober ecogni zed,i fincisioni ssev eralt ens
ofmet resenought ober esol vedonsei smi cpr ofi
les.
16-Onl ap:
Itf ormswher et her ei sacl eart opogr aphyatt heedgeoforwi thint hebasi n.Ref l
ect orsindi cate
thaty oungerl ay er ssuccessi vel ycov er ingmor eoft heunder lyinguni tandsomet imescov eringi t
compl etel y.Geomet ri
esoft hist ypemayf orm byt hedr owni ngofat opogr aphy.
Of flap:
Isapat ter nofst rat al packageswhi chbui ldupwar dsandout war dsi ntot hebasi n.
17-Topl ap:
Descr ibesi ncl inedr ef lect orswhi chhav euppersur f
aceswhi cht er minateagai nstahor izont al
sur face. Thi sr elationshi poccur swher et herei sasuccessi onofpackagesofsedi mentwhi ch
progr adebasi nwar ds, wit houtanyaggr adat ion.
Bot t om l ap:
Descr ibes i ncl ined sur f
aces whi ch t er minate downwar ds agai nsta hor izont alsur face . Thi s
geomet ricalr elationshi pi sr arel yseeni nt hesmal lerscal eofout cr opbecausest eeplyi nclined
beddi ngsur f acesar euncommon.For e-reefsl opesandGi lber t-typedel t
asar et heonl ynot able
except ions.
18-Jökul hlaupsanddam bur sts:
Thesuddenr eleaseofwat erf rom wi thi nagl acierasaj okul hl auporf r
om behi ndat empor arily
dammed l ake r esul ti n cat ast rophi cf looding downst ream.Wat ermass may sweep away
veget ationandsedi menti ni t
spat handcar rylargeamount sofsedi ment ,deposi t
ingat hickl ayer
ofmat er i
almuchcoar sert hant henor malsedi ment ationi nt hear ea.I nar easper ipheralt ot he
Plei stocenei cesheet st her ear esi gnsoff loodev ent swhi chcar ri
edcoar semat erialhundr edsof
kilomet r esdownr iverv al l
ey sandacr ossf l
oodpl ains.Thus,suchev entsmayber ecogni zedi n
cont i
nent al st ratabydi st inct l
ycoar serchar acter .

5
Q3:
Def
ine
1-I nclusi ons:
Inmi ner alogy ,ani ncl usi oni sanymat eri
alt hati str appedi nsideami ner aldur i
ngi t
sf ormation.
Ingemol ogy ,ani nclusi oni sachar act er
isticencl osedwi thi
nagemst one,orr eachi ngi t
ssurface
from t hei nt erior.Accor di ngt ol awofi nclusi ons,f r
agment sincludedi nahostr ockar eolderthan
thehostr ocki tsel f.
2-Super posi t
ion:
At ypeofst ratigraphi cr elat i
onshi pst hatusedt odet ermi net her ightor derofl ayersaccor di
ngt o
twoPr i
nci ples:a-a‘ lay er-cake’st ratigraphy ,b-st rat i
graphicr el ationsar oundar eeforsi milar
feat urewi thadeposi tionalt opogr aphy .Andt hemostsi gnifi
cantst atementi sinr ightwayupr ock
successi on, thebedshi gheri nel ev at i
onar ey oungert hant heloweronesi nel evation.
3-For mat ion:
Iti sabodyofmat er i
alwhi chcanbei dent if
iedbyi tslit
hol ogicalchar acteristicsandbyi ts
strat i
gr aphi cposi tion.I tmustbemapabl eatt hesur f
aceort r
aceabl ei nsubsur face.Li t
hology
doesnotnecessar ilyhav et obel ithified.Agei snotr equi redt odef i
neaf or mat i
on.
4-Li thodemi cuni ts:
It
'sar ockuni tthatmai nl yf ormedofi gneoasand/ ormet amor phi cr ocksandi thasav eryunique
shapet hatwecanknowf rom t heabsenceofal ll
ayer s( therear enol ayring) .
5-Assembl agebi ozone:
Itisdef i
nedbyanumberofdi f
f erentt axawhi chmayormaynotber elated.Thepr esenceand
absenceoft heset axaar eusedt odef i
neast rati
graphi cinterval.
6-Asedi ment arybasi n:
Thepl aceswher esedi ment saccumul ateint ost rati
gr aphi csuccessi onsar ecol l
ect ivel
y.
7-Ty pe2sequencei nt heExxont er mi nology :
Isasi tuat ionwher et heseal eveli scont i
nual lyr i
singbutt her ateofseal evelr iseischangi ng
throught ime.Pat ternsofsedi ment ational low t hesuccessi ont obedi vi
dedi ntosy stemst r
act s
butwi thouter osi onalunconf ormi tiesboundi ngt hedeposi tionalsequencesandt hel owstand
sy stemst racti sr epl acedbyashel fmar ginsy stemst ract .
8-Par asequence:
Ar elat i
vel yconf or mabl esuccessi onofgenet icall
yr elatedbedsboundedbymar inef l
ooding
sur facesandt heircor relat i
v esur faces.Par asequencesar eident ifiablei ncar bonat esuccessions
ont hebasi sofbot hl ithof aciesandbi ofaci eschar act eri
sticswhi chi ndicat eupwar dshal lowi
ng.A
singl epar asequencei st y picallymet rest ot ensofmet erst hi
ck.
9-Epi cont inent al sea:
Isashal lowseat hatcov er scent ralar easofcont i
nent sdur i
ngper iodsofhi ghseal evelthatresult
6
i
nmar inet r ansgr essions.
10-Var ves:
Atechni queoft heannualcy clesi nnatur ecategor
y .Seasonalv ariati
onsi ntherateofgr owthof
tr
eesl eav er ingsofdi ff
erentthicknessi nt hewoodoranannual l
ayerofsedi ment.
11-Uni formt arianism: (t
hepresenti st hekeyt othepast)
Atcer t
ai nl ev elsitisreasonabl etoexpectt hi
ngstohav ebehav edexact l
ythesamewayi nthepast
astheydot oday .Thebasi clawsofphy sicsandchemi strymustbeassumedt obeconst antand
i
nviolate, e.g.gr avi
tati
onalattraction,andoxy gen.Wecant hereforer easonablyapplytheselawsto
i
nterpretpur elyphy si
calandchemi calphenomenasuchast hemov ementofboul dersdownhi l
l
andt hef or mat i
onofmi neral
s.
12-St r
omat ol i
tes:
Theyar el ay eredmounds,col umns,andsheet -
li
kesediment aryr ockst hatwereor i
ginal
lyformed
byt hegr owt hofl ayeruponl ayerofcy anobacter
ia,asi ngl
e- cell
edphot osynthesizi
ngmi crobe.
Fossili
zedst romat olit
esprovider ecordsofanci entli
feonEar th.

Q4:Det
erminetheagedat i
ngt echni
que(
s)t
hatbestf
itt
hef
oll
owi
ng
appl
i
cat
ionsandjust
if
yyouranswer
1-Fossi liferousSedi ment aryrocks
Radiomagnet i
cdat ing
Magnet ost ratigraphy
Justifi
cat ion:
Igneousr ockshav ebeenwi delydated,butt hisisnott hecasei nsedi ment ar
yr ockswiththe
except i
on t ot he mi ner algl auconite,an aut hi
genic mineralwhi ch forms in shall
ow marine
environment( K_ ArorAr _Ar ).
Asf ossi lespar t
iclesset tleoutofwat ert heyt aket hedir
ectionoft heEar th’
sfiel
dandt hatwil
l
makesedi mentar emnantpol ari
ty.
2-Sanddunes
Lumi nescencet echni ques
Radiomagnet i
cdat ing
Justifi
cat ion:
These t echni ques ar e based on t he i onizing ef f
ects ofnat ur
alr adioacti
vit
yf rom miner
als
containingpot assi um, t
hor ium andur anium.
Radiat i
onaccumul atedi nquar tzandf i
eld-spari nsandgr ai
ns.
3-Lithifiedpet ro-wood
Annual cy clesi nnat ur e
Justifi
cat ion:
Seasonal variationsi nt her ateofgr owt hoft reesl eaveri
ngsofdi ff
erentthicknessinthewoodand
thepr esenceofper tol eum i m woodar ethekeyt odatetheli
thifi
edpet r
o-wood
4-Basementr ocks
Radiomagnet i
cdat ing
Justifi
cat ion:
Igneousr ockshav ebeenwi delydated,butt hisisnott hecasei nsedi ment ar
yr ockswiththe
except i
on t ot he mi ner algl auconite,an aut hi
genic mineralwhi ch forms in shall
ow marine
environment( K_ ArorAr _Ar )
5-Phar osMummi es
Ami no-aci dr acemi zat ion
Justifi
cat ion:
Racemi zat i
onofami noaci dsf rom LtoDf orm af terdeathoverthousandsofy ear
s.
6-Glacial deposi t
s
Carbon- 14dat ing
7
Fissiontrackdati
ng
Just i
fi
cation:
Decayofcar bon14wi thi
nor gani
cmatterburiedorpr eservedinglacier
s.Carbon14 presentina
sampl estarttobecomet ool owtobedetectedwi t
haccur acyinmat er
ial
solderthan50000y ears.
Atl owert emperaturesemi ssi
onofhigh-energyal phapar ti
clesl
eav estr
aceasaf i
ssi
ont rack
whichcanbedet ectedandmeasur ed.
7-Rockswi thcar
bonat emineral
supto350000y ears’ol
d
Uranium ser i
esdating
Just i
fi
cation:
Partoft heUr ani
um decayser i
es,i
smostusef ulindat i
ngcarbonatemi ner
alsupt oabout350000
yearsold.AsThal fofUrani
um isveryl
arge( morethan350000y ears)soit
'ssutiabl
eforsuchage
dating.

Q5:Gi
vethebesttypeofbasi
n(s)t
hatfi
t(y
oumayseekt
heint
ernethel
p);
Gi
veyourjust
if
icat
ionsi
ntheli
ghtoft
hiscour
sei
nfor
mat
ion
1-TheGul fofSuezbasi n
Riftbasin
Justif
icati
on:
Asi tformedduet oext ensi
onbet weent heAr abi
anplateandnor t
hAf r
ica.TheGul fofSuezi sno
l
ongeract i
v el
yext endingbecauset hemov ementbet weent heAf ri
canandAr abi
anplatesisnow
takenupal ongt heGul fofAqaba-east er
nsideoft heSi
nai Peni nsul
a.
2-Mat ruhbasi n
Riftbasin
Justif
icati
on:
Exhibit
edar apidsubsi dencedur i
ngMi ddleandLat eJurassicwhi chcontinueddur i
ngtheear l
y
Cretaceous.Thi ssubsi dencewasf oll
owedbyat hermalsubsi dencethatstartedapproximatelyat
theTur onian.
3-NileDel taandVal l
eybasin
Passivemar gin
Justif
icati
on:
Thecont inent alcrustiscommonl yt hi
nnedi nthedeltaregionandt hereisazoneoft r
ansit
ional
crustbef orebecomi ngaf ullyoceani ccrustatMedi terraneansea.I tresultedbyt hether mal
subsidencesubsequentt ot hetectonicextensionseparatedt heAf r
o-Arabianplateawayf r
om t he
Eurasianpl ateiniti
atedintheLat eTriassi
cupt otheEarlyCr etaceoustimes.
4-West ernDeser tofEgy ptbasin

8
Ther
ear
eal
otofbasi
nsi
ntheWest
ernDeser
tshownatf
igur
eat
tached:

ForGui
ndi
,Hasal
al,
AbuGhar
edi
gandSi
wabasi
nst
heyar
eri
ftbasi
nsandi
ntr
acr
atoni
cbasi
ns.

Justi
fi
cation:
Astheyar eawayf rom oceaniccr ust
.Andt heyaret
ypi
call
ybroadbutnotverydeepandtherateof
subsi
denceduet ot hecoolingoft helit
hosphereisslow.Fluvi
alandlacustri
nesediment
sar e
commonl y encount ered alt
hough f l
ooding fr
om an adjacentocean may r esul
tin a broad
epi
continentalsea.Theyar ev er
ysensiti
vetocli
matefl
uctuati
onssuchasincreasedtemper
ature.
5-SouthEgy ptbasin

Ther
ear
eal
otofbasi
nsi
ntheSout
hEgy
ptbasi
nshownatf
igur
eat
tached:

9
ForDakhl aandUpperNi l
e,theyar eintracratoni
cbasin
Just i
fi
cat i
on:
Ast heyar eawayf r
om oceani ccr ust.Andt heyaret
ypi
call
ybr oadbutnotv erydeepandt herateof
subsidenceduet ot hecool i
ngoft hel i
thosphereisslow.Fl uvi
alandl acustri
nesedimentsar e
commonl y encount ered although f l
oodi ng fr
om an adjacentocean may r esulti
n a br oad
epicont i
nent alsea.Theyar ev er ysensiti
vet ocli
matefl
uctuationssuchasi ncreasedtemperature.
6-Medi t
erraneanbasi n
oceani cbasi n(
For mer l
y)
Forear cbasi n
Just i
fi
cat i
on:
It was f irst f ormed by t he conv ergence of theAf r
icanandEur asian pl at
esduri
ng t he
LateTr iassicandEar lyJurassi c.Becausei tisanear-
landl
ockedbodyofwat erinanormallydry
cl
imat e, t
heMedi t
err
aneani ssubj ectt ointensiveev
aporati
onandt heprecipitati
onofevapori
tes.
7-RedSeabasi n
Proto-oceani ctr ough
Just i
fi
cat i
on:
Asi tisint hest ageoft r
ansitionf r
om ar i
ftbasintoanoceanbasi n.

8-LakeVi ctor
iabasinatthemi dAfr
icancont i
nent
Int
racratoni
cbasi n
Justi
ficati
on:
Asitlocatedatt hemi dafri
cancontinentandit'
stypical
lybr
oadbutnotver
ydeepandtherat
eof
subsidenceduet ot hecooli
ngoft hel it
hospher
ei sslow.Fluv
ialandl
acust
ri
nesedi
mentsare
commonl y encountered al
though flooding f
rom an adjacentocean may r
esul
tin a br
oad
10
epicontinental sea.It'
sv erysensiti
vet oclimatefluctuationssuchasincreasedtemperat ur
e.
9-ThePhi li
ppi netrenchbasi n
Trenchbasi n
Oceani ct r
ench
Just i
fi
cat i
on:
Asi tiselongat e,
gentlycur v
ingtroughswhi chform wher eanoceani
cplatebendsasi tentersa
subduct ionzone.Thei nnermarginoft het renchisthel eadingedgeoftheov er
-r
idingplateoft
he
arc-tr
enchsy st em.Andt hedept hofi t10,539m.
10-Nor thSi nai basin
Thei nformat ionoft hispartwasv erydif
ficulttoobtainedbutf r
om amor edeepr esearchithad
beenf oundt hatitmaybeaPassi v emar ginbasinasshown:

Justi
ficat
ion:
In compr essi
onalconv er
gence r egi
mes the over-
ri
ding cont
inent
alpl at
e shor
tens by t
he
developmentofamount ai
nbel t.Theconti
nent
alcrustwillbecl
oset osealevelsomostofthe
sedimentationoccur
si nfluvi
al,coast
alandshall
ow mar i
neenv i
ronments.Themainsourceof
detr
itusisthemountainbeltandv ol
canicar
c.

Q6:Fi gur
e1showsanexampl eofast r
atigr
aphicsuccessionandt he
l
egendsl istswhatt hety pesofrocksar ethatar eli
sted.Basedont he
studi
edst rat
igraphicpri
ncipl
es,li
stthesequenceoft hegeol ogicevents
thattook pl ace to develop t
his str
ati
graphic sect
ion with a si
mpl e
j
ustif
icati
on f ory ouranswer .In some st age,mul ti
ple answers are
11
possi
ble!
!!

Fi
gur
e1.Composi
teSt
rat
igr
aphi
c

Answer :
From oldestt oy oungest:
1-A Intr
usi veIgneousRocks
2-B Limest one
3-C Sandst one
4-Nor mal f
aul tthroughA, BandCl ayers
5-D Shal e
6-E Limest one
7-Unconf ormi tysurfaceoftypeDi sconformity
8-F Siltstone
9-G Sandst one
10-H Shal e
11-Unconf ormi tysurfaceoft y
peAngul ar
12-I Limest one
13-J Shal e
14-K Sandst one
Justi
ficat
ion:
Bysuper positionpr inci
pleswecanor derthest r
ati
graphi
csuccessionfrom oldertoy oungeras
whatcomef irstinor derist heol destonebecausei thadbeensedi mentatedthencomest he
secondoneandsoon.Butbef oreDappear s,anor malfaultwasdeter
minedsoi twi l
lbey ounger
thanCandol dert hanD.Bef oreFappear sthesedi mentat
ionstopedforalargeperiodoft imeso
thattheli
nebet weenE&Fi snotst ri
ghtduet oerosi
onsoi t
’sanunconfor
mitysur f
ace.BetweenH
&I,thereisadi ff
erenceinangl eofsediment ati
onwhichmeanst hisi
sanunconf ormitysurface.

12