What is Surveying?

Definition
Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three dimensions, of
natural and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the Earth. These features may be
represented in analogue form as a contoured map, plan or chart, or in digital form such as a digital ground
model (DGM). (Schofield & Breach, 2007)
Surveying is the process of determining the relative position of natural and manmade features on
or under the earth’s surface, the presentation of this information either graphically in the form of plans or
numerically in the form of tables, and the setting out of measurements on the earth’s surface. It usually
involves measurement, calculations, the production of plans, and the determination of specific locations.
(Minchin, 2016)

Objectives
● To ascertain the relative location of certain objects or points on the surface of the planet.
● Calculate the distance and angle between two objects.
● To create a map or plan that depicts a region horizontally.
● To develop approaches based on current understanding of science and technology and to apply
them in the field.
● To solve estimation problems in the most efficient manner possible.

Uses
● Surveying is used to create topographical maps that depict hills, rivers, cities, villages, and
forests, among other features.
● Surveying is necessary for the preparation and estimation of new infrastructure projects such as
water supply and irrigation schemes, mines, railroads, bridges, transmission lines, and structures.
● Surveying is used to create cadastral maps that indicate the borders of field houses and other
properties.
● Surveying is used to create infrastructure maps that depict the locations of engineering works
such as bridges, highways, houses, lakes, and canals.
● To plan a job and pass information from map to land, surveying experience is used.
● Sea and hydrographic surveying was used to design navigation routes and harbours.
● Surveying is used to create military maps that aid in strategic planning.
● Mine surveying is needed for the purpose of discovering mineral wealth.
 ● Geological surveys are needed to determine the various strata of the earth’s crust.
● Archaeological surveys are used to uncover antiquity’s relics.

Survey Process
Reconnaissance: During the reconnaissance phase, the surveyor will obtain an overall picture of
the area that the project will be conducted in. They will select where the control points will be located, the
accuracy required for the control, and which survey instruments will be required for the project.
Measurement and Marking: During the measurement and marking phase, the surveyor will
perform all the observations in the field required to accurately determine the control points, as well as
placing and observing any temporary points such as wooden pegs. They would also perform any
calculations from the observations, such as angular and linear misclosure and area and volume
calculations.
Plan Preparation: During the plan preparation phase, the calculations that were performed from
the field observations would be further enhanced and used to produce the final plans for the project.

In Architecture
Surveying in the context of architecture pertains to the process of measuring and recording the
physical characteristics of a building or land with the aim of producing records that aid decisions related to
construction, engineering, or development. Surveying technology involves a variety of instruments,
ranging in complexity from a simple measuring tape to sophisticated laser-scanning instruments and
satellite navigation systems. Surveying is often the first step in the design process, enabling architects
and engineers to accurately map the boundaries of the area being studied and to understand the existing
physical features of the building or land. This helps inform the design process, allowing for a more
efficient use of resources and a better understanding of potential risks and challenges that may arise
during construction. (Johnson, 2023)

History of Surveying

Egypt 2700 BC - Ancient Egypt

● The Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza,
built c. 2700 BC (755 feet long, 480
feet high), showcases advanced
surveying skills.
● Precise squareness and north-south
orientation affirm Egyptians' command
of surveying.
● Evidence of boundary surveying found
in fertile valleys of the Tigris,
Euphrates, and Nile rivers (1400 BC).
● Sumerian clay tablets show records of
land measurement and plans,
preserving boundary stones.
● Representation of land measurement
on a tomb wall in Thebes, Egypt
(1400 BC) depicts chainmen
 measuring a grain field with a marked
rope.
● Egyptians used the groma for right
angles—a horizontal wooden cross
with plumb bobs.
● Simple devices, including a marked
cord and wooden rods, allowed
Egyptians to measure land, replace
property corners, and build pyramids.

Greece 325 BC - Ancient Greece

● Greeks use a log line for recording
distances during coastal voyages.
● Introduction of the astrolabe in the
2nd century BC—an instrument for
measuring star altitudes.

Rome Roman Period

● Romans, during their occupation of
Egypt, acquired and enhanced
Egyptian surveying instruments.
● Roman architect Vitruvius developed
the first odometer around 15 BC.
● Use of water levels and plane tables
in Roman aqueduct construction.
● Plane table—an instrument with a
drawing board on a tripod, used in
mapping and road system layout.

Middle Ages 12th Century AD - Arab Traders

● Arab traders bring the magnetic
compass to the west.
● Plane tables in use in Europe in the
16th century.
● Graphic triangulation and intersection
principles applied by surveyors.

17th Century 1615-1620

● Willebrord Snell measures an arc of
meridian by instrumental triangulation.
● Edmund Gunter developed the
surveying chain in 1620.
● Surveyor's chain—a series of links for
accurate distance measurement.
● Angle-reading devices based on large
radii, leading to the use of topographic
instruments or theodolites.
 18th Century 1775
● Development of the circle-dividing
engine for precise angle
measurements.
Late 18th Century
● Modern surveying begins with the
measurement of the meridian from
Barcelona to Dunkirk (1790s).

19th Century 19th Century

● Combination of hot air balloons and
cameras used for mapping.
● Aerial photographs became practical
in the early 20th century with the
invention of the roll of photographic
film.

20th Century 1943

● Development of the first light wave
Electronic Distance Measurement
instrument.
1954
● Replacement of light wave with a
radio wave to increase measurement
distances.
Late 1960s
● Introduction of lasers with EDMs.
Mid to Late 1970s
● Launch of the Global Positioning
System (GPS) satellites by the United
States.
Twentieth Century
● Extensive use of computers for
common data processing and
recording of survey data.

General Classification of Surveying

Plane Surveying
Plane surveying involves surveying a portion of the Earth as if it were a flat plane, and it is
specifically applied when the surveyed area is relatively small, allowing the Earth's curvature to be
disregarded without significant error. The term is generally used for surveys of limited extent. While
precise results can be achieved using plane surveying methods for smaller areas, the accuracy and
precision diminish as the surveyed area increases in size. Formulas from plane trigonometry, algebra,
and analytical geometry are employed for computations in plane surveying. This surveying approach is
commonly employed in various projects such as highway and road construction, canal development,
landing fields, and railroad projects. The negligible impact of Earth's curvature on smaller-scale surveys is
emphasized by illustrating that even for a 10-mile arc, the curvature deviation is only 0.04 greater than its
subtended chord. The reasonable conclusion is drawn that errors induced by neglecting Earth's curvature
in precise surveys of larger areas are minimal.

Geodetic Surveying
Geodetic surveying is a surveying method that takes into account the shape and size of the
Earth. Particularly suitable for large areas and extended lines, this type of survey is employed to
determine the precise locations of fundamental points crucial for establishing control in other surveys.
Geodetic survey stations are typically spaced over long distances, necessitating more advanced
instruments and surveying techniques compared to plane surveying. The Earth's shape is conceptualized
as a spheroid, as adopted by the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union in 1924, with specified
diameters at the equator and polar axis. Due to the Earth's gravitational flattening, distances on or near its
surface are not along straight lines or planes but follow a curved surface. In geodetic surveys,
computations account for the Earth's minor and major diameters, establishing a reference spheroid.
Geodetic station positions are then expressed as latitudes (angles north or south of the Equator) and
longitudes (angles east or west of a prime meridian), or as northings and eastings on a rectangular grid.

Types of Surveying

Based on Nature of Survey

● Land Survey: It is the survey being carried out on land. It involves running survey lines and
determining their length and directions, thereby subdividing the area into definite shapes and
sizes and calculating their areas as well in order to set up a structure.
 ● Marine or Hydrographic Survey: It involves a survey of water bodies like streams, seas, ponds,
etc. the basic purpose of this survey is to establish shorelines. This survey is also done to
determine the amount of water stored by a water body, water supply, navigation possibilities etc.
● Underground Survey: Underground surveys are done to construct tunnels for railways,
highways, water supply, mines, etc.
● Aerial Survey: This survey is carried out above ground by taking aerial photographs with
cameras fitted to aeroplanes, helicopters etc. This survey is particularly required for preparing
large-scale maps of an area and for the development of projects in areas which are practically
inaccessible or too time-consuming.

Based on the Object of Surveying

● Engineering Survey: This survey is required to be done for acquiring information for the planning
and design of engineering projects like highways, railways, dams, reservoirs, water supply etc.
● Military Survey: This method of survey is employed for determining points of strategic
importance.
● Mine Survey: To explore mineral wealth of an area, a mine survey is done.
● Geological Survey: This type of survey is used to determine various layers of strata in earth
crust.
● Archeological Survey: It is a type of field research to find out location, distribution and
organization of past human cultures and civilisations.

Based on Instruments Used

● Chain Survey: In chain survey, only linear measurements are made with chain or tape, and no
angular measurements are made. This survey is of limited use since it requires clear ground
without any obstructions like trees, buildings, rivers etc. This survey is particularly useful for
constructing roads, sewer lines, water supply lines, etc.
● Traverse Survey: In a traverse survey, both linear and angular measurements are made. Linear
measurements are done using chain or tape and angular measurements are done using
compass. This type of survey is done for large areas like dams and reservoirs.
● Triangulation Survey: This method is also used for larger areas. The entire area is divided into a
network of triangles, and any one side of the triangle is measured with very high precision. This
line is termed as a base line. All the angles of the network are measured. The lengths of the sides
of the triangle are then computed using the laws of triangles.
 ● Tacheometric Survey: In this survey, both horizontal and vertical distances are measured by
sighting a graduated staff with a transit telescope fitted with an anallactic lens. It is particularly
useful when direct measurements on a horizontal plane are impossible.
● Plane Table Survey: Observations and plotting are done simultaneously in plane table surveys.
The advantage of this method is that there is less possibility of omitting any important
measurement since the actual field being surveyed is in view of the plot in the field itself.
● Total Station Survey: Total station is the combination of conventional transit theodolite with an
EDM (Electronic Distance Meter) instrument. It reads and records the horizontal and vertical
distances together with slope distances. The data of the total station survey can be fed into the
computer very easily and instantaneously making it error-free and less time-consuming.
● Satellite Survey: In this method of survey, information about the land or space is determined
using satellite-based navigation systems like the GPS.

References:

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Magic, B. C. (n.d.). Methods of Surveying: its History, Types, Objectives, Principles and Uses – Civil
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