Marine and Petroleum Geology: Gregers Dam, Martin Sønderholm

Marine and Petroleum Geology 129 (2021) 105047
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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Tectonostratigraphic evolution, palaeogeography and main petroleum

plays of the Nuussuaq Basin: An outcrop analogue for the
Cretaceous–Palaeogene rift basins offshore West Greenland
Gregers Dam *, Martin Sønderholm
Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350, Copenhagen K, Denmark
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The onshore Nuussuaq Basin in central West Greenland comprises a complete Albian–Paleocene succession and
Nuussuaq Basin as such represents the only complete rift succession outcrop analogue for the Cretaceous–Palaeogene offshore
West Greenland frontier basins in West Greenland. The basin fill reflects five tectonostratigraphic phases: 1) Pre-rift, 2) Albian –
North Atlantic
Early Cenomanian Early Rift, 3) Early Cenomanian – Early Campanian Thermal Subsidence, 4) Early Campanian
Cretaceous–Paleocene
Tectonostratigraphy
– Early Paleocene Late Rift, and 5) Early Paleocene – Late Eocene Break-up and Drift. In addition, the succession
Basin analysis is divided into nine tectonostratigraphic sequences (TSSs), each representing a specific configuration of depo
Play analysis sitional elements resulting mainly from tectonic events, which caused major palaeogeographic reconstruction of
Petroleum systems the basin and therefore critical to the petroleum systems. The sequences are bounded by unconformities or, in
one case, by a major flooding phase. The Early Rift Phase in the Nuussuaq Basin was initiated in the Albian with
development of half-grabens along N–S directed extensional faults. This phase was characterised by continued
growth along extensional faults and embraces three TSSs (TSS1–3). They are characterised by alluvial fan, fan-
delta and lacustrine sedimentation, wave- and tidal-dominated deltaic deposition, followed by a major fall in
relative sea level and canyon incision. Oil seeps indicate presence of a lacustrine/brackish-water source rock at
depth. During the following Late Cenomanian – Early Campanian Thermal Subsidence Phase a regional marine
drowning of the basin took place with deposition of organic-rich mudstones, followed by re-establishment of
deltaic deposition in the Coniacian–Santonian (TSS4). The Early Campanian – Early Paleocene Late Rift Phase
was associated with a change in stress regime, formation of NW–SE directed extensional faults, uplift of highs and
a major change in depositional environments from deltaic deposition to deposition from gravity flows in a
confined system of slope channels and canyons. During the initial phase, structurally-controlled turbidite
channels were established in a NW–SE trending graben-like structure that acted as conduits for sediment
transport into the offshore areas (TSS5). This was followed by several phases of major uplift resulting from the
rise of the Proto-Icelandic Mantle Plume prior to continental break-up eventually leading to the deposition of two
structurally controlled TSSs (TSS6–7) characterised by the formation of submarine and subaerial canyons that
acted as conduits for huge amounts of sediments transported into the offshore areas. The Nuussuaq Basin
experienced significant subsidence during the initial phase of break-up volcanism with deposition of organic-rich
Lower Paleocene marine mudstones blanketing the basin followed by a thick succession of Paleocene–Eocene
volcanic rocks referred to as the West Greenland Basalt Province (TSS8–9). Volcanism gradually spread east
wards eventually blocking the connection to the sea stemming up a large lake between the prograding volcanic
front and the cratonic mainland to the east. Finally, when the volcanic rocks covered the entire basin, rivers were
redirected, and sediments were deposited in the offshore Sisimiut Basin to the south and the Melville Bay Basin to
the north. During this latest rifting and break-up phase, the Nuussuaq Basin was aborted and terminated as a
failed rift basin.
Four main plays have been defined based on the tectonostratigraphic subdivision: An Early Rift Play, a
Thermal Subsidence Play, a Late Rift Play and a Break-up and Drift Play. The Early Rift Play has alluvial and
estuarine sandstones as reservoir, Albian lacustrine/brackish-water mudstones as source rock and Cen
omanian–Turonian mudstones as seal. The Thermal Subsidence Play has deltaic and shallow marine sandstones
as reservoirs, Cenomanian–Turonian mudstones as source and Campanian mudstones as seal. The Late Rift Play
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G. Dam), [email protected] (M. Sønderholm).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.105047
Received 1 October 2020; Received in revised form 1 March 2021; Accepted 20 March 2021
Available online 31 March 2021
0264-8172/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Dam and M. Sønderholm Marine and Petroleum Geology 129 (2021) 105047
has incised valley, submarine canyon and turbidite sandstones as reservoirs, and Campanian and Paleocene
mudstones as seal and source. The Break-up and Drift Play is subdivided into three sub-plays, including: a
Lacustrine Sub-play, an Intra-basaltic Siliciclastic Sub-play and a Fractured Volcanic Sub-play. The Lacustrine
Sub-play has fluvio-deltaic sandstones as reservoir and intra-formational lacustrine and delta-plain mudstones as
seal. The Intra-basaltic Siliciclastic Sub-play comprise fluvial and lacustrine sandstones as reservoir and volca
niclastic or siliciclastic mudstones as seal. The Fractured Volcanic Sub-play comprises fractured, porous volcanic
rocks as reservoir and intra-basaltic mudstones or tight fine-grained volcanic rocks as seal. All three sub-plays
require vertical or long-distance migration of hydrocarbons from deeper-seated Cretaceous – Lower Paleocene
kitchens. Because the tectonostratigraphic phases recognised in the Nuussuaq Basin can also be applied to the
regional seismic mapping offshore Greenland the implications of the Nuussuaq Basin plays can be applied to the
frontier offshore basins.
1. Introduction application to the offshore basins in the wider Labrador Sea – Davis
Strait – Baffin Bay region and in this way use them as a derisking tool for
Even though the West Greenland Cretaceous–Paleocene basins of the future exploration in West Greenland.
Labrador Sea – Davis Strait – Melville Bay region comprise one of the few
huge frontiers left in the World, with only 15 exploration wells drilled to 2. Methodology and previous work
date, nearly all exploration activities have ceased. West Greenland
exploration is now challenged by large areas with poor seismic imaging Understanding the potential petroleum systems and main plays
and disappointing drilling campaigns in 2010 and 2011 with eight dry offshore West Greenland has been the motive for much of the work
exploration wells. This has led to a general notion by the industry that carried out in the Nuussuaq Basin by the Geological Survey since the
the petroleum systems in West Greenland have failed. As part of a 1970s. These studies gained increased focus in 1992 when oil seeps were
recently finalised play-based yet-to-find assessment of West Greenland discovered in basalts near the base of the volcanic succession of the West
with published data on the Greenland Hydrocarbon Resource Assess Greenland Basalt Group (Christiansen et al., 1994b) and subsequent
ment Data Portal (GHRA, 2021) GEUS and partners have performed a work has resulted in a huge number of case studies dealing with espe
post-well analysis of the 15 exploration wells in order to test these as cially the stratigraphy of the sedimentary and volcanic succession,
sumptions. In the Labrador Sea and Davis Strait area south of the West structural geology, sedimentology and diagenesis, biostratigraphy and
Greenland Basalt Province eight exploration wells have been drilled palaeontology, and organic geochemistry of the oil seeps. The strati
(Fig. 1). Of these, one technical gas discovery (Kangâmiut-1) was made, graphic, sedimentological and biostratigraphic work on the Creta
three wells were drilled off structure (Nukik-1, Nukik-2 and Ikermiut-1) ceous–Paleocene succession has to a large extent been compiled and
and four wells were dry valid trap tests (LF7-1, Qulleq-1, AT2-1 and summarised in two monographs by Dam et al. (2009) and Nøhr-Hansen
AT7-1). However, in LF7-1 the Cretaceous targets were not present, in (1996) with additional data presented in Pedersen and Nøhr-Hansen
AT2-1 the primary target turned out to be a volcano, the Qulleq-1 well (2014). The work on the overlying volcanic succession of the West
appears to be situated in a migration shadow and only the AT7-1 well Greenland Basalt Group are compiled and summarised in two mono
has a proven charge issue. The remaining seven exploration wells were graphs by Pedersen et al. (2017) and Pedersen et al. (2018). Two key
drilled in the West Greenland Basalt Province (Fig. 1). Of these, one well papers dealing with the oil and gas seepages that have been found in
is an off-structure test (GRO#3), three wells never reached the surface outcrops and in cores over a wide area in the region includes
sub-volcanic Cretaceous – Early Paleocene targets (Hellefisk-1, Alpha-1, Bojesen-Koefoed et al. (1999) and Christiansen et al. (2020). Geophys
Delta-1) because the volcanic succession turned out to be much thicker ical data and the overall structural configuration of the basin is pre
than expected by the operators, two wells were post-volcanic, dry sented by Chalmers et al. (1999). The hydrocarbon potential of the
structural and combination trap tests (T4-1, T8-1) and one well Nuussuaq Basin itself has been summarised by Hopper et al. (2016),
(Gamma-1) was a dry stratigraphic trap test (Fig. 1). The post-volcanic Sørensen et al. (2017) and by the Greenland Hydrocarbon Resource
tests failed due to charge and reservoir presence issues. The post-well Assessment project (GHRA, 2021). The tectonostratigraphic evolution,
analysis therefore indicates that the exploration potential of the West palaeogeography and main petroleum plays of the Nuussuaq Basin
Greenland Labrador Sea and Davis Strait area cannot be written off presented in this paper are based on observations by Dam et al. (2009)
based on the results from the drilled exploration wells. The Melville Bay and subsequent work carried out by the authors. In addition, new
region, that is considered to have the largest exploration potential in stratigraphic correlations and palaeogeographic maps have been
West Greenland, has never been tested, although 12 shallow strati compiled that have significant implications for the understanding of the
graphic wells could confirm both presence of reservoir and source tectonostratigraphic evolution of the basin.
(Fig. 1). However, it is obvious from both seismic, potential field, and
well data that the offshore volcanic succession of the West Greenland 3. Regional geological setting
Basalt Province reaches a significant thickness which has a severe
impact on seismic imaging, and reservoir effectiveness and source rock The Nuussuaq Basin belongs to the complex of Early Cretaceous –
maturity expectations in these areas. Paleocene rift basins which were established as a result of the opening of
Because of the scattered amount of data available in the offshore the Labrador Sea in the south to Baffin Bay in the north (Fig. 1; cf.
areas, the onshore analogues are extremely important for understanding Chalmers and Pulvertaft, 2001). The rifted margin between Canada and
the exploration potential of the offshore frontier basins in this region. Greenland had a multi-phase evolution that began in the Jurassic south
Unfortunately, onshore analogues are few, but the succession in the of the Labrador Sea, propagated towards north to Baffin Bay during the
Nuussuaq Basin in central West Greenland, which is anticipated to Cretaceous and culminated with the final break-up of Laurentia in the
represent the southern extension of the Melville Bay basins, provides an Paleocene. Indications of several tectonic phases have been recognised
almost complete succession of Cretaceous–Paleocene strata (Fig. 2). In on both the Canadian and Greenland side as a series of major un
this paper we have placed the sediments of the Nuussuaq Basin in a conformities in the offshore areas and onshore in the Nuussuaq Basin in
tectonostratigraphic context accompanied with a series of new palae West Greenland and at Cape Dyer and on Bylot Island in Arctic Canada
ogeographic maps and correlations. This provides the framework for (Fig. 2; cf. Chalmers and Pulvertaft, 2001; Dickie et al., 2011; Gregersen
establishment of the main plays of the Nuussuaq Basin, discuss their et al., 2013).
2
Fig. 1. Tectonic element map of the West Greenland margin. The map shows the main structural highs, major deep-rooted faults, main Cretaceous–Paleocene basins,
Palaeogene oceanic crust, and non-oceanic Palaeogene volcanic areas (West Greenland Volcanic Province) on the continental margin that cover Creta
ceous–Paleocene basins in many places. Abbreviated names are from north to south: HG: Hareøen Graben; ITF: Itilli Fault; IH: Ilulissat High; IG: Ilulissat Graben; KH:
Kangeq High; IZ: Ikermiut Fault Zone; DSH: Davis Strait High. FZ: Fracture Zone. Modified from Gregersen et al. (2019) and Larsen et al. (2009). Red frame indicates
location of the Nuussuaq Basin and yellow profile line shows position of stratigraphic section shown in Fig. 3. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
3
Knowledge on the earliest stages of basin evolution related to the 3.1. Early Rift Phase
initial separation of Greenland and Canada is very sparse and mainly
comes from separate families of volcanic intrusives onshore Greenland Basin-forming rifting between Labrador and Greenland probably
and Canada that can be linked to discrete extensional phases (Larsen began in the Valanginian–Hauterivian (c. 140–133 Ma), when extension
et al., 2009). Incipient stretching during the Early to Middle Jurassic (c. had reached the point where the upwelling asthenospheric mantle
200–150 Ma) is reflected by intrusions in South-West Greenland (Fig. 1; started to melt resulting in extrusion of basalts. In West Greenland a 400
Larsen et al., 2009). Igneous rocks of equivalent age occur along the km long swarm of NW–SE oriented dykes was emplaced into a coast-
Atlantic margin along Nova Scotia and Newfoundland (Pe-Piper and parallel fracture system indicating significant regional stretching and
Reynolds, 2000) where the occurrence of Triassic and Jurassic volcanic rifting (Fig. 1; Larsen et al., 2009). On the Canadian margin develop
and intrusive igneous rocks with ages in a wide range (247–140 Ma) ment of NW–SE trending grabens and half-grabens within which syn-rift
have been related to initial rifting and opening between North America sedimentation and emplacement of Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks of
and Europe. South of the Labrador Sea, most of the Jurassic extension the Alexis Formation took place during the Early Rift Phase (Fig. 2;
was probably taken up by the Charlie Gibbs Transfer Zone and Jurassic Balkwill et al., 1990). The oldest Cretaceous syn-rift strata drilled by the
basin formation in the Labrador Sea is speculative. However, increased offshore exploration wells are of possible Barremian–Aptian age (Fig. 2;
extension during the Kimmeridgian (~150 Ma) is recorded by the Dafoe and Williams, 2020). Early Rift Phase deposition took place in a
intrusion of a more than 60 km long NNW-oriented dyke swarm in non-marine setting becoming marginal-marine to lagoonal or even
South-West Greenland, originating from deep lithospheric melting marine by the Late Albian (Dickie et al., 2011). Early Cretaceous,
(Fig. 1; Larsen et al., 2009). This rift phase is contemporaneous with Late pre-Albian basin development appears mainly to have taken place along
Jurassic – earliest Cretaceous rifting on the northern Grand Banks, the Canadian shelf margin but local basin development along the West
eastern Canada. On the Labrador side dykes have ages around 142 Ma Greenland margin cannot be excluded (cf. Gregersen et al., 2019). In
(Tappe et al., 2006). The existence of a deep seismic stratigraphic West Greenland the Early Rift Phase was initiated in the Albian along the
sequence of unknown age, and the presence of reworked Kimmeridgian entire West Greenland margin and syn-rift deposits are known from the
and Early Cretaceous palynomorphs in strata drilled by the Qulleq-1 onshore Nuussuaq Basin, shallow cores in Melville Bay and the AT7-1
well and from dredge samples offshore West Greenland (Fig. 2) leaves exploration well (Figs. 1 and 2; Dam et al., 2009; Gregersen et al.,
the possibility of Jurassic and earliest Early Cretaceous strata being 2019; GHRA, 2021). Albian rifting was accompanied by intrusion of a
present at depth (Nøhr-Hansen, 2003; Piasecki, 2003; Dalhoff et al., large coast-parallel dyke of Albian age in West Greenland (Fig. 1; 106.1
2006). Also, Enachescu (2006a) and Enachescu (2006b) suggested that ± 1.5 Ma, Larsen et al., 2009). As in the Canadian Labrador Sea, Early
the Bjarni Formation on the Canadian side could be as old as the Late Rift Phase deposition in West Greenland started in a non-marine setting
Jurassic, since the deepest grabens have not been sampled. However, becoming marginal-marine to lagoonal and even marine by the latest
there are no direct indications that widespread Late Jurassic basin for Albian–Cenomanian (Dam et al., 2009; Pedersen, G.K. and
mation should have taken place in the region. Nøhr-Hansen, 2014; Nøhr-Hansen et al., 2016).
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic summary scheme of West Greenland basins from Archaean to Present with indication of stratigraphic coverage of Greenland exploration wells
and stratigraphic boreholes in Melville Bay (modified from Gregersen et al., 2019). See Fig. 1 for profile line of stratigraphic section.
4
3.2. Thermal Subsidence Phase have been drilled by several wells (Figs. 1 and 2). The two phases have
been associated with a change in spreading direction where early
Large-scale growth faulting of the Early Rift Phase ceased in the spreading and movement of the Greenland plate was in an ENE–WSW
Cenomanian throughout the region. However, some volcanism is proven direction and associated with strike-slip faulting during the Paleocene
by a phonolitic volcano >1.2 km high of Turonian age (93 Ma) that has (chrons C27N–C25N), that changed near the Paleocene–Eocene transi
been drilled in the Greenland AT2-1 exploration well (Fig. 1; Knudsen tion to a N–S direction continuing into the Eocene (Fig. 2; chrons
et al., 2020). In the Canadian Labrador Sea a prominent erosional un C24N–C13N; Oakey and Chalmers, 2012). The Eocene spreading system
conformity (Avalon Unconformity) of mid – Late Cretaceous age indicates cuts the Palaeocene oceanic crust at a highly oblique angle. Three
that significant amount of Lower Cretaceous strata were removed from prominent fracture zones (the Bower, 64◦ W and 60◦ W Fracture Zones)
structural highs during the transition from rifting to the following period developed during this phase in Baffin Bay and are nearly parallel to the
characterised by passive post-rift subsidence (Fig. 2; Enachescu, 2008; Eocene (C24N to C13N) motion vector of the Greenland Plate (Fig. 1;
Dickie et al., 2011). This unconformity corresponds to the unconformity Chalmers and Pulvertaft, 2001; Oakey and Chalmers, 2012). The change
between the Appat and the overlying Kangeq seismic sequences offshore in plate motion was accompanied by northwards drift and
West Greenland (Fig. 2; Nøhr-Hansen et al., 2016). Thermal subsidence counter-clockwise rotation of Greenland relative to North America.
dominated the whole region during the Late Cenomanian and Santo These events contributed to the Eocene Eurekan Orogeny in northern
nian. A passively subsiding, post-rift succession was deposited on the Greenland and on Ellesmere Island and adjacent areas and resulted in
Canadian shelf only interrupted by a localised phase of uplift in the the development of strike-slip systems, local extension and formation of
Coniacian resulting in deposition of marine mudstones and more prox pull-apart basins, development of flower structures as well as inversion
imal sandstones (Fig. 2; Dickie et al., 2011). Strata of the Thermal of major structures and faults (Trettin, 1991; Chalmers et al., 1993;
Subsidence Phase have been sampled in several wells along the southern Whittaker et al., 1997; Oakey and Chalmers, 2012; Gregersen et al.,
and northern West Greenland margin, where marine mudstones and 2019).
deltaic sandstones were recovered (Fig. 2). In the Nuussuaq Basin Several unconformities were developed related to episodic volca
thermal subsidence deposits are marked by a conspicuous change to nism and changes in spreading direction. Regional uplift produced an
marine shelf mudstones following a major valley and submarine canyon unconformity that eroded all Danian and Maastrichtian strata offshore
incision event in the Cenomanian grading upwards into latest Turonian southern West Greenland and eastern Canada (Balkwill, 1987; Dalhoff
– Santonian deltaic deposits (Figs. 2 and 3). et al., 2003; Japsen et al., 2005; Dickie et al., 2011). Offshore eastern
Canada it is referred to as the Bylot Unconformity (cf. Nøhr-Hansen et al.,
3.3. Late Rift Phase (Early Campanian – Early Paleocene) structures 2016) which probably reflects the situation seen the Nuussuaq Basin
with several coalesced unconformities with different ages occurring
On the Canadian shelf initiation of the Late Rift Phase is marked by a during this time interval (Fig. 2; McWhae, 1981; Nøhr-Hansen et al.,
major transgression of the margin and the onset of deeper water con 2016). Paleocene and Eocene sediments deposited during this tectoni
ditions in the Santonian with the deposition of the marine shales (Fig. 2; cally active drift phase can be correlated across the entire region
Dickie et al., 2011). During the Late Rift Phase rifting was focused ((Dickie et al., 2011; Gregersen et al., 2019) and most wells south of the
further offshore beyond the continental rise rather than on the shelf, and West Greenland Basalt Province have drilled marine mudstones, and silt-
sands of mainly Late Campanian age were deposited in offshore graben and sandstones of this age (Fig. 2; Rolle, 1985; Gregersen et al., 2019). A
systems. In the Nuussuaq Basin the Late Rift Phase was associated with a Lutetian unconformity is present on both the Greenland and Canadian
series of major tectonic events resulting in the formation of prominent shelves and has been related to the synchronous slowdown in the rate of
unconformities in the Early Campanian, Maastrichtian, early Danian and seafloor spreading. Above the unconformity, during the apparent Lute
late Danian (Figs. 2 and 3). During this phase highs were uplifted, and tian lowstand, some sand-bearing sediments were deposited seaward of
crests of rotated faults blocks were subaerially exposed. Along basin the Greenlandic and Canadian shelf edges (Fig. 2; cf. Dickie et al., 2011).
highs and on the crests of the rotated fault blocks, some or all of the Seafloor spreading came to an end in the Late Eocene and a thick
unconformities are coalesced into one unconformity that shows a Late post-drift sedimentary succession was deposited (Fig. 2; Oakey and
Campanian to Danian age, whereas a nearly complete Late Rift succes Chalmers, 2012; Gregersen et al., 2019).
sion is preserved in the grabens. Offshore West Greenland the Late Rift
Phase is associated with the development of deep syn-rift basins and 3.5. Post-drift Phase
uplift of rift flanks during Late Cretaceous to early Paleocene (Gregersen
et al., 2019). On the southern West Greenland margin, rifting episodes The post-drift phase was associated with vertical tectonic adjust
during the Late Cretaceous to earliest Paleocene are indicated by ments and phases of uplift and exhumation and development of a major
prominent extensional faulting and erosion of crestal areas. Tectonic late Eocene unconformity along both margins, with renewed sedimen
activity, uplift and inversion is also indicated by mass-flow deposits from tation offshore Labrador in the Oligocene. The hiatus offshore southern
several structural highs and development of prominent stratigraphic West Greenland extended until the mid-Miocene (Fig. 2; Sørensen,
hiati revealing missing Campanian to Lower Paleocene sections (Fig. 2; 2006). Unconformities are identified off Labrador during the late
Gregersen et al., 2019). The Late Rift Phase culminated with break-up Oligocene and early Pliocene, offshore Greenland during late Miocene
and drift in both the Labrador Sea, Davis Strait and Baffin Bay. and regionally during the late Pliocene related to episodes of uplift along
the present-day coasts (Fig. 2; Japsen et al., 2005; Japsen et al., 2006).
3.4. Break-up and Drift Phase The youngest Cenozoic post-drift development on the West Greenland
shelf is characterised by kilometre-thick successions of clayey and silty
Break-up and drift are considered to have taken place in the Paleo drift system deposits formed since the middle Miocene by along-slope
cene–Eocene. However, recent work suggests that sea-floor spreading bottom currents (Nielsen et al., 2011; Müller-Michaelis et al., 2013).
may have started as early as in the Maastrichtian (chron 31) in the They are succeeded by prograding shelf packages on both the Canadian
Labrador Sea (Keen et al., 2018). The Break-up and Drift Phase was and Greenland shelf margins which on the Greenland margin have been
associated with extensive volcanism, uplift, and formation of oceanic related to several phases of shelf-edge ice advance (Knutz et al., 2015,
crust (Fig. 1). The volcanism in the Labrador Sea – Baffin Bay region can 2019).
be divided into two main phases: Danian–Thanetian and Ypresian (e.g.
Oakey and Chalmers, 2012). Basalts of these ages are widespread around
the northern margin of the Labrador Sea and southern Baffin Bay and
5
G. Dam and M. Sønderholm
6

Fig. 3. Simplified lithostratigraphy of the Nuussuaq Basin showing lithostratigraphic units, depositional environments, tectonostratigraphic phases and sequences, and hydrocarbon plays. Partly modified from Dam
et al. (2009) and Pedersen and Nøhr-Hansen (2014). The Albian–Paleocene sedimentary strata are referred to as the Nuussuaq Group and the overlying volcanic strata to the West Greenland Basalt Group.
4. The Nuussuaq Basin No prominent faults define the southern boundary of the basin,
where the Cretaceous strata onlap the basement. This may suggest that
The Nuussuaq Basin is exposed on several peninsulas and islands in the basin evolved as a huge ramp during the early phase of rifting,
the Disko – Nuussuaq – Svartenhuk Halvø region and covers an area of bordered to the east by the present-day basin-bounding fault and the
approximately 24,000 km2 (Fig. 4; Dam et al., 2009). It comprises an Kuugannguaq–Qunnilik Fault to the west (Fig. 4). The tip of the ramp
almost complete and well-exposed record of Albian to Early Paleocene would be where the eastern bounding fault terminates towards the south
sedimentary strata including both marine and terrestrial sediments of and the minor NW–SE trending faults mapped in Disko Bugt could
the Nuussuaq Group (Dam et al., 2009) as well as the Paleocene –Eocene represent breaching faults. A ramp setting with an overall northward dip
volcanic succession of the West Greenland Basalt Group (Fig. 3; Peder is supported by the general northward palaeocurrent directions recor
sen et al., 2017, 2018). The sedimentary succession is in places up to 6 ded in the Early Rift Phase succession (see later). Based on the structural
km and possibly up to 10 km in thickness (Chalmers et al., 1999). The framework and the uniformity of the known Albian–Turonian strata of
basin is bounded to the east by an extensional fault system formed the Nuussuaq Basin and the Melville Bay Basin in the north, it is
during the Early Campanian – Paleocene Late Rift Phase (Fig. 4). On generally considered that the Nuussuaq Basin is the southern extension
Nuussuaq and Upernivik Ø Late Albian deposits are abruptly cut off to of the Melville Bay basins (Fig. 1; e.g. Whittaker et al., 1997; GHRA,
the east by the present-day bounding faults (Pulvertaft, 1979) and it is 2021).
expected that the Upper Albian, Early Rift Phase sediments originally The evolution of the sedimentary succession in the Nuussuaq Basin
extended beyond this fault and further east of their present-day outcrop can be divided into five tectonostratigraphic phases (Fig. 3; e.g. Dam
(e.g. Chalmers et al., 1999). The configuration and extent of the basin et al., 2009; Gregersen et al., 2013; Gregersen et al., 2019):
into the offshore areas to the west and north is unknown due to the lack
of seismic imaging beneath the volcanic succession (Fig. 4). 5. Break-up and Drift Phase (Early Paleocene – Late Eocene)
Fig. 4. Simplified geological map of the Nuussuaq Basin with only major faults depicted (based on Chalmers et al., 1999; Hopper et al., 2016; Gregersen et al., 2019).
AD: Agatdalen; AF: Aaffarsuaq; AK: Ataata Kuua; AN: Annertuneq; DGR: Disko Gneiss Ridge; I: Itilli; IF: Ikorfat Fault; ITF: Itilli Fault; KQF: Kuugannguaq–Qunnilik
Fault; N: Nuugaarsuk; NR: Nuussuaq Ridge; PI: Pingu; PF: ‘P’ Fault; PK: Paatuutkløften; T: Tartunaq; TS: Talerua/Slibestensfjeldet. The offshore geology is indicated
by paler shades. Red profile line shows position of section shown in Fig. 3. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the Web version of this article.)
7
4. Late Rift Phase (Early Campanian – Early Paleocene) (1999). This suggests that these faults have been part of the main
3. Thermal Subsidence Phase (Late Cenomanian – Early Campanian) basin-forming extensional fault system during the Albian – Late Cen
2. Early Rift Phase (Albian–Cenomanian) omanian Early Rift Phase with development of dominantly north–south
1. Pre-rift Phase trending half-grabens, bounded by westward-dipping extensional faults
(Fig. 5A). However, their effect on the basalts shows that they continued
The structural evolution of the Nuussuaq Basin is complex involving to be active throughout the evolution of the basin into the Paleocene
multiple phases of rifting, major thermal uplift caused by the arrival of (Chalmers et al., 1999).
the Proto-Icelandic Mantle Plume, and strike-slip movements, inversion
and counter-clockwise rotation of Greenland associated with the open
4.2. Late Rift Phase (Early Campanian – Early Paleocene) structures
ing of the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay, and finally by post-drift uplift (e.
g. Dam et al., 1998a; Chalmers et al., 1999; Dam et al., 2000; Japsen
The Late Rift Phase was initiated in the Early Campanian (Dam et al.,
et al., 2005; Dam et al., 2009; Japsen et al., 2009; Oakey and Chalmers,
2000) and continued into the Early Paleocene culminating with active
2012).
sea-floor spreading in the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay (Oakey and
Previous work indicates the presence of two extensional fault sys
Chalmers, 2012). This phase marks a change in stress regime in the
tems trending N–S and WNW–ESE to NW–SE and a NE–SW trending left-
Nuussuaq Basin from E–W during the Early Rift Phase to NE–SW during
lateral strike-slip system (Chalmers et al., 1999) reflecting different
the Late Rift Phase, giving rise to WNW–ESE and NW–SE trending
tectonic phases in the Nuussuaq Basin (Figs. 4 and 5). In addition, a
extensional faults, parallel to the Paleocene spreading axis in Baffin Bay
latest Paleocene NNE–SSW trending compressional system has been
(Figs. 1 and 5B; cf. Oakey and Chalmers, 2012). A conspicuous repre
recognised (Marcussen et al., 2002; Sørensen, 2006; Gregersen et al.,
sentative of this phase is the present-day basin-bounding fault system
2019). The tectonic phases can be related to the Early Rift, Late Rift and
(Figs. 4 and 5B). It is marked by a complex of faults with an overall
Drift Phases of the basin, but many of the faults were active during
NNW–SSE trend that extends from Svartenhuk Halvø in the north
several phases of basin formation and dating of fault movement can be
through Qeqertarssuaq and Upernivik Ø and central Nuussuaq into
difficult due to the nature of the exposures. In the following sections the
Disko Bugt (Fig. 5B; Chalmers et al., 1999). In detail, the fault segments
fault systems are related to the various phases of basin evolution based
are oriented in directions between NW–SE and NNE–SSW that are linked
on our present-day knowledge.
by W–E and WNW–ENE trending transfer faults. On Svartenhuk Halvø,
exposures of the bounding fault system at Uparuaqqusuitsut show
4.1. Early Rift Phase (Albian–Cenomanian) structures rock-fall boulder conglomerates on the western down-thrown side of the
fault (Fig. 5B; Dam et al., 2020). Stratigraphic relations indicate that this
By combining seismic data from the fjord areas and 3D photogram fault segment was active in the Late Cretaceous – earliest Paleocene. In
metric mapping in the onshore areas, it is indicated that the N–S other areas the basin-bounding fault system remained active into the
trending half-graben systems and many of the extensional faults mapped Paleocene as they also displace the Paleocene volcanic succession
on seismic data belong to the Early Rift Phase (Figs. 4 and 5A). Onshore, (Pedersen et al., 1996; Chalmers et al., 1999).
the Kuugannguaq–Qunnilik, the ′ P′ and the Talerua faults are the most Facies relations, palaeocurrent directions and the overall
prominent faults defining this system (Fig. 5A; Chalmers et al., 1999; tectonostratigraphic evolution implies that some of the major structural
Marcussen et al., 2002). Across the Kuugannguaq–Qunnilik and ‘P’ elements of the Nuussuaq Basin, including the Nuussuaq Ridge and
faults the depth to basement increases significantly to the west, and a Disko Gneiss Ridge, were formed during the Late Rift Phase (Fig. 5B). It
down-throw in the order of 4–5 km has been modelled by Chalmers et al. is suggested that the NW–SE trending Nuussuaq Ridge (cf. Hopper et al.,
Fig. 5. Structural map of the Nuussuaq Basin showing main faults and assumed relation to tectonic phases. A) Faults assumed to be active during the Albian – late
Cenomanian Early Rift Phase. Notice the large density of mapped structures in the offshore areas, compared to the onshore areas. B) Faults assumed to be active
during the Early Campanian to Early Paleocene Late Rift Phase and major structural elements. C) Tectonic features assumed to be active during the Early Paleocene to
Late Eocene Break-up and Drift Phase and major structural elements. AF: Agatdalen Fault; AKF: Ataata Kuua Fault; GF: Gassøen Fault; IF: Ikorfat Fault; ITF: Itilli
Fault; KQF: Kuugannguaq–Qunnilik Fault; PF: ‘P’ fault; TF: Talerua Fault.
8
2016, Qaarsut Ramp of Chalmers et al. (1999)), was established during Most of them are bounded by unconformities or, in one case, by a
the Early Campanian and acted as the north-eastern basin boundary flooding event.
during the Early Campanian – Early Paleocene. In the south-western part The nine tectonostratigraphic sequences are:
of the basin, the Disko Gneiss Ridge acted as the south-western boundary Break-up and Drift Phase
of a large NW–SE trending graben system formed in the Early Campa
nian between the Disko Gneiss Ridge and the Nuussuaq Ridge (Figs. 4 - TSS9: Drift Volcanic Sequence (Eocene)
and 5B). A number NW–SE trending normal faults of the Late Rift Phase - TSS8: Break-up and Drift Volcanic and Lacustrine Sequence (Late
system are exposed in central Nuussuaq and on the south coast of Paleocene)
Nuussuaq (Figs. 4 and 5B) and facies relations indicate that they were
active during several Early Campanian – Early Paleocene rifting events Late Rift Phase
(Dam et al., 2000). Movements along these faults gave rise to de
velopments of syn-rift angular unconformities in the sedimentary suc - TSS7: Syn-rift Incised Valley Sequence (Early Paleocene)
cession. During the Late Maastrichtian – Early Paleocene increased - TSS6: Syn-rift Sub-marine Canyon Sequence (Late Maastrichtian)
faulting and uplift took place due to the arrival of the Proto-Icelandic - TSS5: Syn-rift Turbidite Sequence (Early Campanian to Early
Mantle Plume (Dam et al., 1998a; Pedersen et al., 2017, 2018). Maastrichtian)
4.3. Break-up and Drift Phase (Early Paleocene – mid Eocene) structures Thermal Subsidence Phase
The Late Rift Phase was followed by extrusion of the volcanic rocks of - TSS4: Thermal Subsidence Shelf and Delta Sequence (Latest Cen
the West Greenland Basalt Group contemporaneous with the opening of omanian to Early Campanian)
Baffin Bay (Figs. 1 and 2; Pedersen et al., 2017, 2018). During this phase
older structures were reactivated, and new faults, compressional struc Early Rift Phase
tures and structural elements were formed (Figs. 4 and 5C). A high
density of NW–SE and WNW–ESE trending, mainly syn- and - TSS3: Syn-rift Incised Valley Sequence (Late Cenomanian)
post-volcanic extensional faults have been mapped on Svartenhuk Halvø - TSS2: Syn-rift Delta Sequence (Late Albian to Cenomanian)
(Larsen and Pulvertaft, 2000) and in the offshore areas to the west and - TSS1: Syn-rift Terrestrial to Lacustrine/Brackish-water Sequence
north-west (Fig. 5C; Gregersen and Bidstrup, 2008). Much of the (Middle to Late Albian)
extension associated with the opening of Baffin Bay was taken up by
left-lateral movements along the Bower, 64◦ W, and 60◦ W Fracture Only the strata of TSS1–TSS8 are dealt with in this paper. See
Zones and the Ilulissat Fault Zone along Ilulissat Graben (Fig. 1; Oakey (Pedersen et al., 2017, 2018) for a description of the volcanic succes
and Chalmers, 2012). During this phase the Davis Strait High, the Ilu sions referred to here as TSS8 and TSS9.
lissat High, the Hareøen Graben and the Ilulissat Graben developed (e.g.
Gregersen and Bidstrup, 2008; Gregersen et al., 2019), the latter as a 5.1. Pre-rift Surface
pull-apart basin (Figs. 1, 4 and 5C). The Eocene NE–SW trending Itilli
Fault is a splay from the Ikermiut Fracture Zone and is related to a final The Archaean and Proterozoic basement in the Disko – Nuussuaq –
phase of strike-slip movements connected to sea-floor spreading (Figs. 1, Svartenhuk Halvø region consists of orthogneisses, in places including
4 and 5C; (Chalmers et al., 1999). The NW–SE trending Hareøen Graben, Proterozoic metasediments (Garde and Steenfelt, 1999). The basement
located north-west of the Nuussuaq Basin, appears to be connected to is dominated by NW–SE trending ductile shear zones and brittle faults
the Ilulissat Graben (Gregersen et al., 2019) but also lines up with the related to the Palaeoproterozoic Nagssugtoqidian and Rinkian mobile
Vaigat fjord between Disko and Nuussuaq and is also parallel to the belts (Connelly et al., 2006). The pre-rift basement surface is strongly
swarm of extensional faults trending NW–SE on Svartenhuk Halvø undulating, with steep-sided basement valleys. Several lines of evidence
(Figs. 4 and 5C). Seismic data suggest that movements along the indicate that the basement was deeply weathered pre-dating basin for
bounding faults of the Ilulissat Graben ceased during the late drift phase. mation (Ravn and Johansen, 1911; Pulvertaft, 1979; Bonow, 2005). An
During the drift phase an E–W directed compressional event was exerted up to 35 m thick succession of deeply kaolinized basement below Albian
on the Nuussuaq Basin resulting in the formation of latest Paleocene strata has been reported from northern Nuussuaq and Disko by Pulver
compressional structures (Figs. 4 and 5C; Chalmers et al., 1999; Hopper taft (1979) and preserved pre-Paleocene landforms and lineaments have
et al., 2016; Sørensen et al., 2017). Guarnieri (2015) ascribed this event been described from southern Disko by Bonow (2005). He also recog
to a compressional palaeostress regime in this area due to the nised that the landforms were governed by the ENE–WSW schistocity of
counter-clockwise rotation of Greenland prior to NE Atlantic spreading. the gneiss and NW–SE trending fracture zones, whereas N–S trending
Following the drift phase, the West Greenland margin turned into a faults, that represent the main structural lineaments of the Nuussuaq
passive margin. During this phase the Nuussuaq Basin experienced Basin, had not been weathered, suggesting that the basement experi
major uplift of up to 2 km (Japsen et al., 2005). They argued that uplift enced substantial chemical weathering prior to Cretaceous basin
and erosion took place during two late Neogene phases, one starting in formation.
the Late Miocene between 11 and 10 Ma and the other in the latest Dam et al. (2020) described an up to 2 km wide and 750 m deep
Miocene – Pliocene between 7 and 2 Ma. In contrast Jess et al. (2018) pre-Paleocene canyon system incised into basement at Upar
argued for uplift during Paleocene–Eocene volcanism and that isostatic uaqqusuitsut on Svartenhuk Halvø (Fig. 4). On a much larger scale
response to unroofing of the lithosphere resulted in the elevated modern Bamber et al. (2013) and Morlighem et al. (2018) described the presence
topography of the Nuussuaq Basin. of a large sub-glacial dendritic canyon system beneath the ice cap
extending from the present-day Ilulissat Icefjord (Fig. 4) more than 400
5. Tectonostratigraphy km of kilometres into the central parts of Greenland. At Ilulissat, the
icefjord is 6 km wide and up to 1400 m deep. Facies relationships and
The main tectonostratigraphic phases of the Nuussuaq Basin have provenance data indicate that the basement-bounded Ilulissat Icefjord
been divided into a total of nine tectonostratigraphic sequences (TSSs). Canyon acted as a major conduit for sediments to the Nuussuaq Basin
In this paper a tectonostratigraphic sequence is regarded as a specific during the Cretaceous to earliest Paleocene (Dam et al., 2009, 2020).
configuration of depositional elements resulting from tectonic events, Zircon provenance data from the Cretaceous strata are compatible with
that caused significant palaeogeographic reconstruction of the basin. a source from the West Greenland crystalline basement. However, the
9
presence of small, but significant zircon populations in the Cretaceous movements along N–S trending faults (Chalmers et al., 1999) and
strata and hydrological modelling of Greenland’s isostatically balanced deposition syn-rift deposits in a series of half-grabens (Figs. 3 and 5A).
basement topography suggest that the drainage system reached as far The syn-rift strata of TSS1 are of Middle to Late Albian age and are
east as East Greenland thereby covering large parts of central Greenland exposed along the north coast of Nuussuaq (Dam et al., 2009; Pedersen
(cf. Scherstén and Sønderholm, 2007; Dam et al., 2020; Jess et al., 2020). and Nøhr-Hansen, 2014. The exposed part of the succession is up 350 m
thick (Fig. 6; Dam et al., 2009) and can be divided into three units: a
basal Alluvial Fan Unit, a middle Fluvio-deltaic Unit and an Upper
5.2. Early Rift Phase Lacustrine Unit.
5.2.1. TSS1: Syn-rift Terrestrial to Lacustrine/Brackish-water Sequence 5.2.1.1. Basal Alluvial Fan Unit. The basal syn-rift strata consist of
(middle to Late Albian) poorly sorted sandstones, diamictites, conglomerates and breccias with
The Early Cretaceous basin-forming rift phase was dominated by
Fig. 6. A) Albian palaeogeographic map of the Basal Alluvial Fan Unit (TSS1, Early Rift Phase) as exposed along the north coast of Nuussuaq. B) Syn-rift deposits of
the Kome Formation onlapping Precambrian basement at Talerua (from Dam et al., 2009). C) Interbedded distributary river, floodplain and alluvial fan deposits west
of Talerua. D) Alluvial fan conglomerates east of Talerua. For detailed legend for sedimentological logs see Dam et al. (2009, Plate 1).
10
boulders of basement and intra-formational mudstone clasts of the Al topped by rootlet horizons and in-situ tree trunks representing bay-head
luvial Fan Unit (Fig. 6D). These deposits form debris cones and alluvial deltas prograding into delta-plain lakes (Midtgaard, 1996; Dam et al.,
fans situated close to the basement highs along the main faults (Fig. 6; 2009). Deposition was characterised by an axial drainage pattern to
Midtgaard, 1996). The alluvial conglomerates are laterally interfinger wards north, parallel to the faults (Fig. 7).
ing with floodplain and river deposits, indicating an axial drainage
pattern (Fig. 6C). 5.2.1.3. Upper Lacustrine Unit. The Upper Lacustrine Unit is separated
from the underlying fluvio-deltaic deposits by a drowning surface. The
5.2.1.2. Middle Fluvio-deltaic Unit. The Alluvial Fan Unit is overlain by unit is up to 200 m thick, and dinoflagellate cysts indicate a fresh-to
thin conglomerates, cross-bedded, locally channelised, coarse-grained brackish-water depositional environment (Dam et al., 2009; Pedersen
sandstones, and mudstones deposited in a fluvio-lacustrine deltaic and Nøhr-Hansen, 2014).
environment (Fig. 7). The upper part of this unit is composed of fine- The lower part consists of mudstones with thin intercalations of
grained sandstones with wave ripples arranged in coarsening-upward structureless, parallel and wave-ripple-laminated and hummocky cross-
successions. Occasionally these successions are succeeded by coarse-to stratified fine-grained sandstones deposited at water depths above storm
medium-grained, cross-bedded fining-upward channel sandstones wave base and below fair-weather wave base. Wave ripple crestlines
Fig. 7. A) Albian palaeogeographic map of the Middle Fluvio-deltaic Unit (TSS1, Early Rift Phase). B) Lacustrine and fluvial syn-rift deposits. C) River, delta front
and lacustrine deposits. For detailed legend for sedimentological logs see Dam et al. (2009, Plate 1).
11
Fig. 8. A) Albian Palaeogeographical map of the Upper Lacustrine Unit (TSS1, Early Rift Phase). B) Lacustrine/brackish-water shoreface sandstones. C) Lacustrine/
brackish-water mudstones and Gilbert-type delta sandstones. D) Lacustrine/brackish-water mudstones and Gilbert-type delta sandstones. E) Lacustrine/brackish-
water mudstones (person for scale). For detailed legend for sedimentological logs see Dam et al. (2009, Plate 1).
indicate an E–W trending coastline (Fig. 8; Midtgaard, 1996). The 5.2.2. TSS2: Syn-rift Delta Sequence (Late Albian to Cenomanian)
sandstone interbeds become increasingly common upwards and the During the latest Albian – Early Cenomanian a new rift event
succession grades into thick beds of medium-grained sandstone with occurred in the Nuussuaq Basin and new sub-basins were established
steeply dipping foreset beds deposited from progradation of a now exposed on Svartenhuk Halvø, Qeqertarsuaq, Upernivik Ø, and the
Gilbert-type delta during the final stage of filling of the lake (Fig. 8C). In north coast of Disko (Figs. 3 and 4). On northern Nuussuaq the tectonic
the eastern part of the basin the unit comprises several minor event is recorded by a 4–9◦ angular unconformity that separates TSS1
coarsening-upward cycles composed of parallel and wave-ripple lami from TSS2 (Fig. 9). It resulted in a major regional change in depositional
nated, and hummocky cross-stratified sandstones interbedded with thin environment from a lacustrine/brackish-water environment to an
mudstones and conglomerate beds deposited during multiple lacustrine overall deltaic, estuarine and marginal marine environment. The Late
shoreface progradations (Fig. 8B, D). The presence of hummocky Albian – Cenomanian syn-rift succession is characterised by three main
cross-stratification indicates that the lake/brackish-water basin had a depositional environments, with a huge alluvial cone on Disko in the
significant wave fetch. Similar lacustrine/brackish-water deposits of the south-eastern part of the Nuussuaq Basin, deltaic environments on
same age in the Melville Bay area suggest that the Upper Lacustrine Unit southern and central Nuussuaq and with an estuary located in the Ikorfat
may represent the southern margin of a very extensive Graben on the north coast of Nuussuaq and on Upernivik Ø (Fig. 10).
lake/brackish-water basin that covered all or large parts of the Melville
Bay area (Pedersen and Nøhr-Hansen, 2014). 5.2.2.1. Alluvial CCone Unit. Along the southern and eastern coast of
Disko, TSS2 consists of a proximal succession comprising stacked
braided fluvial channel and floodplain deposits up to 470 m thick in
12
Fig. 9. Angular unconformity at the base of TSS2 on northern Nuussuaq where wave- and storm-influenced Gilbert-type deltas (TSS1) are overlain by fluvial
sandstones deposited in an incised valley (TSS2). The height of the section is c. 100 m (from Dam et al., 2009).
exposure. However, seismic data suggest that it may exceed 2 km in The half-graben is evident both in the coastal seismic section and in the
thickness in the subsurface (Chalmers et al., 1999). The strata consist of outcrops where a 4 –9◦ angular unconformity separates the lacustrine
◦
medium- to coarse-grained channel sandstones, in places with channel deposits from the incised valley fill (Ravn Kløft Member; Fig. 11). The
lags of intraformational mudstones, coal clasts or pebbles of Ordovician geosection (Fig. 5A) shows that the valley is more than 800 m deep and
chert and limestone (Fig. 10A; cf. Dam et al., 2009; Peel, 2019). The the width exceeds 10 km (Fig. 11). The eastern margin of the valley was
sandstones are dominantly cross-bedded or structureless, but commonly controlled by the Talerua Fault and the valley fill pinches out within less
show soft-sediment deformation structures. They are interbedded with than 500 m. The angular unconformity at the base of the member and
dark grey to black mudstones with ubiquitous presence of comminuted the overall thickening towards the Talerua Fault suggest that deposition
plant debris and thin coal beds deposited on a subaerial to shallow occurred in an active half-graben with continued growth along the fault.
limnic floodplain. Occasionally root horizons and tree trunks are pre The basal unconformity of the valley is overlain by conglomeratic,
sent. The sediment transport directions vary from NNW to SW (Schiener, multi-storey braided channel-fill sandstones showing palaeocurrent di
1975; Pedersen and Jeppesen, 1988; Pedersen and Pulvertaft, 1992), rections towards north, parallel with the main faults in the area (Figs. 9
suggesting the presence of a huge alluvial cone with an apex east of and 10C; Midtgaard, 1996; Dam et al., 2009). A gradual upward tran
Disko at the mouth of the present-day Ilulissat Icefjord Canyon that sition to fine-grained sandstones and rooted carbonaceous mudstones
probably acted as the main conduit for sediments into the basin reflects abandonment of the braided fluvial channels and a change to a
(Fig. 10A; Dam et al., 2020). The succession is characterised by a strong tidally influenced, estuarine environment dominated by fluvial and tidal
vertical aggradational stacking pattern. The westerly palaeocurrent di channel sandstones, separated by fine-grained intervals of mudstone and
rections indicate that the Disko Gneiss Ridge was not a prominent thin coals (Midtgaard, 1996).
structure at this stage of the basin evolution (Figs. 4 and 10). At Upernivik Ø, further to the north, TSS2 comprises sandstones and
mudstones of a large tidal plain and fluvial complex (Fig. 10D). The tidal
5.2.2.2. Delta Unit. On northern Disko, southern Nuussuaq and on plain deposits include tidal channel, tidal point bar, tidal flat and tidal
Svartenhuk Halvø, fluvial and deltaic deposits characterise TSS2. Ten to bay deposits comprising well-sorted, fine-to medium-grained sandstones
25 m thick depositional cycles, which comprise coarsening-upward with abundant mudstone beds. The tidal channel sandstones show cross-
successions of mudstones, heteroliths and well-sorted sandstones bedding, frequently with mud-draped foresets showing tidal bundling.
showing wave ripple cross-lamination and hummocky cross- Cross-bedding indicates palaeocurrents towards north. The interbedded
stratification were deposited during progradation of deltas in delta braided fluvial channel deposits consist of coarse-grained, poorly sorted
front and mouth bar environments (Fig. 10B. The coarsening-upward fining-upward sandstones. The fluvial channels show an erosional base
successions are occasionally topped by sharp-based, cross-bedded and the channel fills consist of cross-bedded sandstones indicating
fining-upward distributary channel deposits. Directional features from palaeocurrent directions generally towards the west. Sandstone dykes
the distributary channel deposits indicate drainage towards north, sug are common, and gentle folding indicates that they were intruded before
gesting that the depositional system was controlled by predominantly or during compaction, possibly due to seismic activity (Fig. 10D; Mid
N–S trending faults (Dam et al., 2009). On Svartenhuk Halvø palae tgaard, 1996; Dam et al., 2009). The overall facies pattern and the
odirectional features are few but suggest an ENE–WSW trending coast palaeocurrent data from Upernivik Ø suggest that at this location the
line and distributary channels drainage towards north-west (Fig. 10E). fluvial channels drained the hinterland to the east feeding into a large
tidal plain complex draining towards north.
5.2.2.3. Estuarine and Ttidal Plain Unit. On the north coast of Nuussuaq
a large incised syn-rift valley formed in a half-graben between the 5.2.3. TSS3: Syn-rift Incised Valley Sequence (Late Cenomanian)
Ikorfat and Talerua Faults during the Late Albian (Figs. 5, 10C and 11). Strata of TSS3 are only exposed on the south-eastern coast of
13
14

Fig. 10. Latest Albian – Early Cenomanian palaeogeography. A) River and floodplain deposits on eastern Disko. B) Floodplain delta front and coastal plain deposits on south-eastern Nuussuaq. C) Estuarine lacustrine and
river deposits on the north coast of Nuussuaq. D) Estuarine, coastal plain and fluvial deposits on Upernivik Ø. E) Alluvial fan and deltaic deposits at Itsaku. For detailed legend for sedimentological logs see Dam et al. (2009,
Plate 1).
15

Fig. 11. Ikorfat Graben on the north coast of Nuussuaq shown on A) geosection from Pedersen et al. (2006b) and B) offshore seismic line from Hopper et al. (2016). Location of seismic line and geosection is shown on
insert map and as TS on Fig. 4.
Nuussuaq. The strata in this area are dated to Middle – Late Cenomanian north of Nuussuaq characterised by sub-marine fan and slope deposits.
and show major down-cutting related to a fall in relative sea level fol The TSS4 post-rift thermal subsidence phase is represented by two major
lowed by deposition of fluvial sandstones and conglomerates during the units representing deep basin and slope, and shelf delta environments,
ensuing transgressive phase. respectively.
5.2.3.1. Incised Valley Unit. This unit consists of a complex of incised 5.3.1.1. Deep Basinal and Slope Unit. Cenomanian to Lower Turonian
valleys up to 100 m deep (Fig. 12; Jensen and Pedersen, 2010) reflecting basinal mudstones are present on the north coast of Disko, on southern
a major relative sea-level fall in the Nuussuaq Basin which resulted in a and northern Nuussuaq and on Svartenhuk Halvø where they have been
transition from regional deltaic deposition to confined fluvial deposi cored by the Umiivik-1 borehole (Figs. 3, 4 and 13). Although the
tion. The valley fills comprise up to five vertically stacked channel belts presence of thick Paleocene volcanic intrusions in the lower part of the
separated by overbank deposits with coal beds arranged in an aggra borehole has resulted in thermal deterioration of age-diagnostic paly
dational stacking pattern. Each channel belt consists of multilateral and nomorphs it is assumed that the Cenomanian–Turonian transition zone
multi-storey primary channels and is interpreted as a large, braided river is represented in this succession (Dam et al., 1998b). The distal basinal
system characterised by high but fluctuating discharge and deposition of deposits consist of sulphurous mudstone with very thin sandstone
coarse-grained gravelly sands. The geometry of the sand bodies suggest streaks grading into thinly interbedded sandstone and mudstone and
that the rivers were at least 500–600 m wide and up to 10–20 m deep heavily bioturbated, thinly interbedded sandstone and mudstone ar
(Jensen and Pedersen, 2010). The dominant architectural element in the ranged in coarsening-upward cycles (Fig. 13). The sulfidic conditions
channels is large downstream-accreting macroforms. The vertical and the rare occurrence of bioturbation indicates that the mudstones
stacking of storeys is interpreted as autogenic cycles generated by the were deposited in a distal basinal environment during anoxic conditions.
lateral mobility of the channel belts. Palaeocurrent directions range The bioturbated sand-streaked mudstones were deposited from
from NW to NE, suggesting that the canyons were oriented north–south low-density turbidity currents grading into moderately to heavily bio
with an overall drainage towards north, parallel with the main faults in turbated thinly interbedded sandstones and mudstones deposited from
the area (Jensen and Pedersen, 2010). traction and fall-out processes associated with sedimentation from
waning, low-density turbidity currents in an aerobic to dysoxic bottom
5.3. Thermal Subsidence Phase environment (Dam, 1997). Regardless of the deterioration of the organic
matter the deep basinal and overlying submarine strata show very high
5.3.1. TSS4: Thermal Subsidence Shelf and Delta Sequence (Latest concentrations of wet gases including both propane, butane and pentane
Cenomanian – Early Campanian) (Figs. 13 and 14; Christiansen et al., 1997), suggesting that these mud
Following the Early Albian rift phase, the Nuussuaq Basin experi stones have originally been very rich in organic matter.
enced a period of post-rift thermal subsidence in the latest Cenomanian – The Lower Turonian basinal mudstones in the Umiivik-1 borehole
Early Campanian. Exactly when growth faulting ceased and gave way to are succeeded by stacked, 2–57 m thick upward-coarsening successions
post-rift thermal subsidence is not clear, but the first fully marine of non- to weakly bioturbated sand-streaked mudstones grading into
drowning of the basin, reflected by the presence of marine dinocysts, moderately to heavily bioturbated thinly interbedded sandstones and
occurred in the middle to late Cenomanian (Pedersen and Nøhr-Hansen, mudstones deposited from traction and fall-out processes associated
2014). The overall facies distribution indicates that following the latest with sedimentation from waning, low-density turbidity currents in a
Cenomanian drowning the Atane delta was re-established to a position dysoxic bottom environment (Fig. 14B). The coarsening-upward cycles
close to the mouth of the present-day Ilulissat Icefjord. It covered most of and are interpreted to result from progradation of lobes formed in front
the southern and central parts of Nuussuaq during the Coniacian and of minor distributaries or as channel, levee and overbank complexes
Santonian, reaching into deep water environments on Svartenhuk Halvø (Dam, 1997; Dam et al., 1998b). These coarsening-upward successions
Fig. 12. Incised-valley fill of TSS3 at Tartunaq on south-eastern Nuussuaq composed of stacked multi-story channel sandstones (T on Fig. 4).
16
Fig. 13. A) Cenomanian – Early Turonian palaeogeographic map of the Deep Basinal and Slope Unit (lower TSS4. Thermal Subsidence Phase). B) Distal basinal
marine mudstones, siltstones and fine-grained sandstones cored in the lower part of the Umiivik-1 borehole. For detailed legend for sedimentological logs see Dam
et al. (2009, Plate 1).
are arranged in three units, 184–295 m thick, showing an overall persistent and show no significant thickness variations when traced
thickening- and coarsening-upward trend (Figs. 13 and 14) which is laterally, some for distances up to 8 km (Olsen, 1993). Wave ripples and
interpreted to reflect progradation of distal, major submarine fans (Dam palaeocurrent measurements from cross-bedding in the distributary
et al., 1998b). channel sandstones indicate that flow direction was generally towards
The upper 247 m in the Umiivik-1 borehole are of Coniacian age the north and the coastline was oriented east–west (Olsen, 1993; Dam
(Fig. 14B). This part is characterised by a relatively large amount of et al., 2000; Pedersen and Bromley, 2006). The stacking pattern of the
slump deposits with no overall coarsening-upward trend. The scarcity of deltaic deposits seems to be aggradational with no overall prograda
systematic vertical variation in the thinly interbedded sandstone and tional or retrogradational trends (Dam et al., 2009). However, the up
mudstone suggests that these deposits were not confined to channel- permost preserved Atane cycle is 84 m thick and is by far the thickest
levee systems, but were more likely deposited in an interchannel cycle recognised in this unit (Fig. 14C), suggesting a major relative
slope-apron setting (Dam, 1997; Dam et al., 1998b). The upwards in sea-level rise in late Santonian time that was possibly a result of
crease in bioturbation observed in the underlying units and the increase tensional sagging preceding the early Campanian – Early Paleocene Late
in the amount of slump deposits suggest an overall progradation of a Rift Episode (Dam et al., 2000). Based on the present-day exposures it
muddy submarine fan and possibly a steepening slope. The increase in has not been possible to establish the position of the shelf break between
slump and debris flow deposits may, however, also result from the Atane delta and the deep basin in the Svartenhuk Halvø region. A
increasing seismic activity. similar Santonian relative sea-level rise has been recorded on the Ca
nadian Labrador margin beginning with the deposition of the shales of
5.3.1.2. Shelf Delta Unit. Throughout southern and central Nuussuaq the upper part of the Markland Formation (Dickie et al., 2011).
the Coniacian – Early Campanian Atane delta deposits, more than 800 m
thick in exposed sections, comprise stacked delta front and delta plain
deposits (Fig. 14C and D). The delta front deposits are arranged in 5.4. Late Rift Phase
coarsening-upward successions with well-sorted sandstones showing
wave ripple cross-lamination and hummocky cross-stratification. The 5.4.1. TSS5: Syn-rift Turbidite Sequence (Early Campanian to Early
delta front deposits are succeeded by cross-bedded fluvial channel Maastrichtian)
sandstones and delta plain deposits that in turn are capped by trans During the Early Campanian a new rift phase was initiated associated
gressive sand sheets (cf. Dam et al., 2009; Pedersen and Nøhr-Hansen, with a change in the extensional stress field from E–W to NE–SW
2014). Individual coarsening-upward successions are laterally very (Fig. 5B). This rift phase lasted until continental break-up occurred in
Baffin Bay in the Paleocene–Eocene, which resulted in the extrusion of
17
Fig. 14. A) Coniacian palaeogeographical map of the Deep Basinal and Slope, and Shelf Delta Units (upper TSS4. Thermal Subsidence Phase). B) Fine-grained sub-
marine fan deposits cored in the upper part of the Umiivik-1 borehole. C) Delta front and distributary channel deposits in central Nuussuaq. D) Typical outcrop of the
deltaic deposits on the south coast of Nuussuaq. Dominant palaeocurrent directions based on Olsen (1993), Pedersen and Bromley (2006) and Dam et al. (2009). For
detailed legend for sedimentological logs see Dam et al. (2009, Plate 1).
vast amounts of basalts giving rise to the West Greenland Basalt Prov north-east, parallel with the main, late rift faults. Fluvial deposition was
ince (Fig. 1). It is separated from the underlying deltaic deposits by a quickly outpaced by subsidence during time of maximum rate of fault
basal rift-onset unconformity. Renewed extension had a huge impact on displacement. During this phase a significant relief was created in the
the structural configuration and resulted in a major change in palae basin, which resulted in deep-marine incursion and deposition from
ogeography and the drainage pattern of the Nuussuaq Basin. The marine gravity flows. The presence of basement and sandstone clasts
Nuussuaq and Disko Gneiss Ridges were uplifted during this phase from the underlying deltaic deposits of the Thermal Subsidence Phase
resulting in erosion of a significant part of the previously deposited indicates that during the Late Rift Phase erosion of the crestal areas of
Cretaceous sediments in the elevated areas (Fig. 15). A large submarine fault blocks took place. In the exposures in the Aaffarsuaq valley (Fig. 4)
graben-like structure formed between the Disko Gneiss Ridge and the directional features are few but palaeocurrent data suggest an overall
Nuussuaq Ridge and deltaic deposition was taken over by deep-water NW-directed drainage pattern parallel to the inferred rift faults (Fig. 15).
deposition that became a major conduit for sediments into the In the western part of Nuussuaq (Figs. 4 and 15B) directional features
offshore areas in the Early Campanian – Paleocene. The present-day show bipolar palaeocurrent directions with a population indicating flow
outline of the Nuussuaq Basin was also established during this phase towards NW and a secondary population that indicates flows towards
(Fig. 4). SW (Dam and Sønderholm, 1994). This may either indicate a secondary
In the central part of Nuussuaq the basal unconformity is developed source area to the north-east in the Svartenhuk Halvø area, or that some
as an erosional unconformity that outlines a series of small, incised of the turbidity currents were deflected towards south-west. Strata of the
valleys (Dam et al., 2009). The valleys are up to 100 m wide and 38 m Early Campanian – Early Maastrichtian syn-rift sequence of TSS5 in
deep, and are incised into the deltaic deposits of the Atane Formation cludes turbidite slope channel and turbidite lobe deposits.
below and filled with coarse-grained, cross-bedded fluvial channel
sandstones (Dam et al., 2000, 2009). Palaeourrents are towards 5.4.1.1. Syn-rift Turbidite Dlope Channel Unit. The Syn-rift Turbidite
18
19

Fig. 15. A) Campanian palaeogeographic map showing distribution of major depositional environments during the Syn-rift Turbidite Sequence (TSS5, Late Rift Phase). Presence of basin-floor fans in the offshore areas is
hypothesised and based on the occurrence of stacked, major turbidite slope channels in the western part of Nuussuaq (B). C) Interbedded slope channels and slope mudstones from the Aaffarsuaq valley on central
Nuussuaq. From Dam et al. (2009). D) Fine-grained turbidite lobe deposits cored by the FP-94-11-04 borehole on the north coast of Nuussuaq. From Dam and Nøhr-Hansen (1995). For detailed legend for sedi
mentological logs see Dam et al. (2009, Plate 1).
Slope Channel Unit is made up of turbidite slope channel and inter 5.4.1.2. Syn-rift Basinal and Turbidite Lobe Unit. Fine-grained Campa
channel slope deposits. The stacking pattern of these turbidite deposits is nian turbidite lobe deposits are widely exposed on northern Nuussuaq
aggradational with no overall progradational or retrogradational trend where they also have been cored in several boreholes (Christiansen
(Fig. 15B) indicating continued creation of accommodation space. In the et al., 1994a; Dam and Nøhr-Hansen, 1995; Nøhr-Hansen, 1996). The
western part of Nuussuaq, the exposed part of the syn-rift turbidite slope cores display mudstone, thinly bedded sandstone and mudstone,
channel unit is up to 1.5 km thick. The slope channel sandstones are strongly bioturbated thinly interbedded mudstone and sandstone,
invariably underlain by slump-scar fill composed of chaotic beds of medium-to coarse-grained sandstone and chaotic beds, arranged in four
contorted mudstone and heteroliths and homogenised mudstones with major coarsening-upward successions, 30–85 m thick. Some of these
ankerite concretions, semi-indurated sandstone, mudstone, and base successions can be divided into several smaller coarsening-upward cy
ment clasts deposited from debris flows (Dam and Sønderholm, 1994). cles, 2–10 m thick (Fig. 15D). The heterolithic strata are interpreted as
The beds only have a limited lateral extent in strike section and are deposits of traction and fall-out processes associated with various stages
frequently succeeded by an erosional surface followed by undisturbed of sedimentation from waning, low-density turbidity currents, whereas
channel sandstones, suggesting that channels were excavated largely by the medium-to coarse-grained sandstones were deposited from
retrogressive downslope slumping of unstable mudstones. The turbidite high-density turbidity currents (Dam and Nøhr-Hansen, 1995). The
slope channel deposits form lensoid sandstone or conglomeratic bodies, overall coarsening-upward trends are interpreted to result from pro
up to 2 km wide and 50 m thick. Internally the channel-fill sandstones gradation of submarine lobes and the minor cycles represent compen
are composed of stacked, sharp-based, parallel-sided, normally graded sation cycles produced by progressive smoothing of the depositional
pebbly sandstone beds deposited from sandy high-density turbidity relief as a result of lobe build-up or aggradation. The chaotic beds are
currents. They may show an upward thinning of the beds associated with interpreted as formed by downslope displacement of semi-consolidated
an upward fining of the channel successions (Dam and Sønderholm, sediments during periods of slope instability (Dam and Nøhr-Hansen,
1994). The conglomerates consist of rip-up mudstone and sandstone 1995).
clasts, concretions and basement lithologies and occasionally coalified
logs and plant debris are present. The conglomerates are either un 5.4.2. TSS6: Syn-rift Sub-marine Canyon Sequence (Late Maastrichtian)
graded and normally graded and were deposited from high-density Rifting continued with increased intensity during the Late Maas
turbidity currents (Dam et al., 2009). The sharp upper boundary of trichtian to Early Paleocene resulting in significant palae
some of these channels suggests that filling of the channels was rapid, oenvironmental changes in the Nuussuaq Basin. The Late Maastrichtian
and that cessation of channel sedimentation was abrupt. The presence of Syn-rift Sub-marine Canyon Sequence (TSS6) is the first of two major
syn-sedimentary faults and discrete angular unconformities (slump tectonic events during this period when rifting was associated with
scars) underneath several of the major turbidite channels suggest that substantial uplift due to the arrival of the Proto-Icelandic Mantle Plume.
channel excavation was associated with destabilisation due to structural This produced repeated erosion and filling of incised subaerial valleys
movements and seismic activity (Figs. 15B and 16). Interchannel de and submarine canyons and in the development of basin-wide un
posits consist of laterally persistent, graded sandstone laminae inter conformities (Fig. 3). The initial event (TSS6) is represented by an Upper
bedded with black, parallel laminated mudstone. These occur in Maastrichtian erosional unconformity that can be traced throughout
monotonous successions, up to 200 m thick, deposited from traction and Nuussuaq and Svartenhuk Halvø (Larsen and Pulvertaft, 2000; Dam
fall-out processes associated with various stages of sedimentation from et al., 2009). In these areas, the basal conglomerates unconformably rest
waning, low-density turbidity currents (Fig. 15B). The lateral continuity upon the underlying formations of various ages (Fig. 3). The deep
and general lack of systematic vertical thickness or grain-size variations erosional nature of the unconformity, the very coarse-grained nature of
suggest that these deposits were not confined by channel-levee systems the canyon fill and the parallel alignment of the canyons and the
and were deposited in an interchannel slope setting (Dam and younger mappable Early Paleocene faults, suggest that the Late Maas
Sønderholm, 1994). trichtian canyons were structurally controlled. Two conspicuous sub
marine canyons associated with the basal unconformity are the Ataata
Fig. 16. Stacked turbidite channel deposits in the Aaffarsuaq valley (AF in Fig. 4). Several internal unconformities (marked by red arrows) and minor faults indicate
syn-sedimentary faulting. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
20
Kuua and Annertuneq Canyons. matrix-supported, ungraded to normally graded and were deposited
from high-density turbidity currents. Ungraded, disorganised matrix
5.4.2.1. Ataata Kuua Canyon. The sub-marine Ataata Kuua Canyon is supported conglomerates also occur and were deposited from debris
well exposed in a transverse section on the south coast of Nuussuaq flows. In some cases, deposition of conglomerates from high-density
(Figs. 2, 17 and 18; Dam and Nøhr-Hansen, 2001; Dam et al., 2009). The turbidites was followed by deposition of well-developed, parallel-lami
canyon is governed by a NW–SE trending listric fault parallel to the nated and cross-laminated sandstones deposited from late-stage, low-
Vaigat coast that controls the northern edge of the canyon. Erosion was density residual currents which formed after deposition of the more
restricted mainly to the basal part of the canyon along the detachment coarse-grained, high-density, suspended-load sediments. Imbrication
surface, whereas the steeply dipping part of the listric fault appears to of gneiss clasts indicates that palaeocurrents were directed towards the
have escaped any significant erosion suggesting a very rapid infill of the north-west, parallel to the canyon axis (Dam et al., 2009).
canyon. The width of the canyon is unknown, but it is 105 m deep in The Ataata Kuua and Annertuneq Canyons are succeeded by Early
exposure (Dam et al., 2009). The fill of the Ataata Kuua Canyon con Paleocene slope deposits composed of mudstones and thinly interbedded
stitutes an overall fining-upward succession (Fig. 17B). The basal part sandstones and mudstones several hundreds of meters thick (Figs. 18
comprises amalgamated, structureless coarse-grained pebbly sand and 19). Occasionally, these deposits are interbedded with turbidite
stones, locally containing outsized transported concretions, grading into slope channel deposits showing the same facies as the sandstones and
fine-grained sandstones deposited from high- and low-density turbidity conglomerates observed in the Annertuneq Canyon, suggesting
currents. The basal amalgamated sandstones are succeeded by chan continued unstable slope conditions possibly due to seismic activity. The
nelised interbedded sandstones and mudstones composed of sharp upper boundary of most of these channels suggests that filling of
sharp-based laminae and beds deposited from turbidity currents. the channels was rapid, and that cessation of channel sedimentation was
Palaeocurrent directions indicate flows in a north-westerly direction, abrupt.
parallel with the listric fault. The uppermost part of the canyon fill is
dominated by massive mudstones containing scattered sand grains and 5.4.3. TSS7: Syn-rift Incised Valley Sequences (Early Paleocene)
few pebble and cobble sized basement clasts deposited from debris flows Two pulses of uplift occurred during in the Early Paleocene as a
(Fig. 17; Dam and Nøhr-Hansen, 2001; Dam et al., 2009). result of the arrival of the Proto-Icelandic Mantle Plume (Fig. 3; Dam
et al., 2009 and references therein). This event was associated with
5.4.2.2. Annertuneq Canyon. The Annertuneq Canyon is exposed on the faulting along NW–SE striking normal faults, parallel to the Paleocene
north coast of Nuussuaq (Figs. 4, 18C and 19). The canyon is 85–140 m Baffin Bay spreading axis (Fig. 1; Dam et al., 2000). The uplift caused
deep, cutting down into Upper Campanian marine slope mudstones with erosion of more than 1 km of sediment in the crestal areas and incision of
a NW–SE trend parallel to the Late Cretaceous – Paleocene faults valleys along the NW-trending normal faults (Fig. 20). The sedimentary
(Figs. 5B and 18A). Outcrop and data from the GANT#1 borehole (Dam development indicates that the period of plume-related uplift and
et al., 2009) indicate that the canyon width is in the order of 6–10 km associated rifting prior to the eruption of volcanic rocks was very short
(Dam et al., 2009 and references therein) with a fill consisting of stacked (<5 Ma). The uplift episodes were followed by very rapid subsidence
conglomerate and sandstone beds (Figs. 18C and 19). The conglomer during the Early Paleocene (nannoplankton zone NP4) (Dam and
ates are composed of basement clasts, transported intraformational Sønderholm, 1998; Nøhr-Hansen et al., 2002). Subsidence was as much
sandstones and mudstones and concretions, and rare clasts of Ordovi as 700 m immediately prior to extensive volcanism in the area, as
cian cherty ooidstones. The conglomerates are mainly clast- or indicated by the height of the hyaloclastite foreset beds (cf. Pedersen
Fig. 17. The western side of the Ataata Kuua gorge on southern Nuussuaq (AK in Fig. 2) showing the Ataata Kuua Canyon fill of the Syn-rift Submarine Canyon
Sequence (TSS6, Late Rift Phase). Below the volcanic succession, deposits of the Paatuutkløften Canyon (Upper Syn-rift Incised Valley Sequence, TSS7) are exposed.
Slightly modified from Dam et al. (2009).
21
Fig. 18. A) Late Maastrichtian palaeogeographic map showing distribution of major depositional environments during the Syn-rift Submarine Canyon Sequence
(TSS6, Late Rift Phase). Presence of basin-floor fans in the offshore areas is hypothesised and based on the occurrence of stacked, major turbidite slope channels in the
western part of Nuussuaq. B) Sedimentological log showing the canyon fill of the Ataata Kuua Canyon on the south coast of Nuussuaq. C) Sedimentological log of the
Annertuneq Canyon fill on the north coast of Nuussuaq. For detailed legend for sedimentological logs see Dam et al. (2009, Plate 1).
Fig. 19. Sharp-based canyon conglomerates of the Annertuneq Canyon. See Figs. 4 and 18 for location. From Dam et al. (2009).
et al., 2017). It has been speculated that the extreme subsidence rate was exposed on central Nuussuaq and the Uparuaqqusuitsut Submarine
due to loading of the prograding thick volcanic succession from the west. Canyon on Svartenhuk Halvø. The later uplift pulse is recorded by the
Canyons associated with the early uplift pulse are the Tupaasat Canyon Paatuutkløften Canyon that cuts deeply into the Tupaasat Canyon fill
on southern Nuussuaq, the Agatdalen Submarine Canyon system (Fig. 20).
22
23

Fig. 20. A) Early Paleocene palaeogeographic map showing distribution of major depositional environments during the Syn-rift Incised Valley Sequence (TSS7, Late Rift Phase). Presence of basin-floor fans in the
offshore area is hypothesised and based on the occurrence of major canyons on southern and central Nuussuaq. B) Tupaasat Canyon fill represents the initial pulse of uplift during this phase (see also Fig. 21). The lower
part of the canyon fill consists of giant-scale, low-angle cross-bedded pebbly sandstones and conglomerates, and sandstones and mudstones arranged in an overall fining upward succession. The entire lower unit was
deposited from a single, tectonically-induced catastrophic outburst. The upper heterolithic sediments were deposited in a lake confined by the canyon during a period of tectonic quiescence. C) At Uparuaqqusuitsut on
Svartenhuk Halvø, a large canyon is incised into the underlying Precambrian basement and filled with Paleocene turbidite conglomerates and sandstone overlain by marine mudstones. D) The later uplift pulse is
represented by the Paatuutkløften Canyon that in many places has totally eroded the earlier deposits of the Tupaasat Canyon (see also Fig. 22). The Paatuutkløften Canyon consists of a lower fluvial part and an upper
tidal-influenced estuarine part reflecting initial drowning of the basin. E) Composite sedimentological log of the submarine canyon fill cored by the GANE#1/1A borehole on western Nuussuaq equivalent to Agatdal
Canyon exposed on central Nuussuaq (see Figs. 4 and 20 for locations). For detailed legend for sedimentological logs see Dam et al. (2009, Plate 1).
5.4.3.1. Tupaasat Canyon. The Tupaasat Canyon is at least 175 m deep (Dam, 2002).
and locally cuts down into Early Paleocene faults (Fig. 21). The fill
comprises a lower conglomeratic and sandy part characterised by giant- 5.4.3.2. Agatdalen Submarine Canyon. On central Nuussuaq the time-
scale cross-bedding arranged in an overall fining-upward succession and equivalent Agatdalen Canyon comprises two, up to 100 m thick
an upper heterolithic part (Fig. 20B; Dam and Sønderholm, 1998; Dam, erosionally based fining-upward successions separated by black, lami
2002; Dam et al., 2009). The giant-scale low-angle cross-beds in the nated mudstones (Figs. 3, 4, 20A). The fining-upward successions
lower part consist of sharply-based, graded pebbly sandstones and consist of a basal unit of amalgamated conglomerates grading upward
conglomerates deposited from flows characterised by very high con into stacked, sharply-based, graded pebbly sandstone beds, thinly
centrations of suspended coarse-grained load (Dam, 2002). These interbedded sandstone and mudstone, and mudstones, deposited from
cross-beds are succeeded by amalgamated horizontally to gently in high- and low-density turbidity currents. The conglomerates are usually
clined graded pebbly sandstone beds also deposited from very imbricated and were deposited from high-density turbidity currents
high-concentration flows. The sandstone and conglomerate fill is (Dam et al., 2009).
exceptional in that a large part of the succession was deposited from a
single, tectonically induced catastrophic outburst (Dam, 2002). Cata 5.4.3.3. Uparuaqqusuitsut Submarine Canyon. At Uparuaqqusuitsut on
strophic deposition was followed by rapid decrease in flow discharge Svartenhuk Halvø (Figs. 4 and 20D), a large canyon is incised into the
and establishment of lacustrine environment within the canyons underlying Precambrian basement and filled with Paleocene turbidite
(Fig. 20B). The lacustrine strata forming the upper part of the canyon fill deposits. It is up to 2 km wide and 750 m deep and forms a dendritic
consist of silt and sand-streaked mudstones overlain by sandstones with drainage system, with small tributary valleys present along the main
abundant in-situ tree trunks. The strata are arranged in thin axis of the canyon (Dam et al., 2020). The canyon can be followed for 4
coarsening-upward successions which were formed by repeated pro km to the north-east, where it becomes covered by Paleocene volcanic
gradation of shoreface or bayhead deltas into a lacustrine environment rocks. The canyon fill consists of a basal succession of amalgamated
Fig. 21. The Paleocene Tupaasat Canyon cutting into the fault scar of the Paleocene NW–SE trending Ivisaannguit Fault at Tupaasat. Maximum thickness of canyon
fill is 120 m. See Figs. 4 and 20 for location.
Fig. 22. Paatuutkløften Canyon as exposed in Ippigaarsukkløften just east of Paatuutkløften where it has completely eroded the underlying Tupaasat Canyon Fill
away. See Figs. 4 and 20 for location.
24
Fig. 23. A) Early Selandian palaeogeographic map during TSS8 times showing the damming of lakes between the Paleocene volcanic front to the west and the
crystalline basement to the east. B) Measured section of the lacustrine deltas at Pingu. C) Measured section of the lacustrine deltas at Nuugaarsuk. Based on Pedersen
et al. (1998); Dam et al. (2009) and Pedersen et al. (2017).
basement conglomerates deposited from debris flows and sandstones repetitive genetic units such as stacked upward-fining successions. The
deposited from high-density residual turbidity currents. The basal con only vertical trend is an overall upward decrease in grain size, clast size
glomerates are overlain by a succession of interbedded sandstones and set thickness. This overall uniform composition and the absence of
deposited from sandy high-density turbidity currents and parallel stacked channel units indicates that a single flow occupied the full width
laminated black mudstones deposited from diluted muddy low-density of the valley without segregation into multiple channels. The slightly
turbidity currents. The turbidite succession is succeeded by a thick dipping down-lapping surfaces seen in downstream sections and the
succession of marine Paleocene mudstones, several hundred of metres very homogeneous nature of the cross-beds suggest that the sandstones
thick capped by Paleocene basalts (Figs. 3 and 20C; Dam et al., 2020). represent a major, giant-scale downstream accretion element indicating
very rapid vertical aggradation caused by an oversupply of sand (Dam,
5.4.3.4. Paatuutkløften Canyon. The Paatuutkløften Canyon was mainly 2002). The fluvial sandstones are separated from the overlying tidal
cut into the Tupaasat Canyon fill, which in many places was completely estuarine sandstones by a mudstone unit deposited in a mid-estuary
or almost completely eroded away. The canyon is 1–2 km wide and up to funnel environment (Fig. 20C). The sharp boundary between the
190 m deep (Figs. 20C and 22). The valley-fill deposits comprise a mid-estuary funnel mudstone and the overlying estuary-mouth sand
uniform succession of fluvial and estuarine sandstones (Dam and stone represents a significant transgressive surface formed as the ebb
Sønderholm, 1998; Dam, 2002; Dam et al., 2009). At most localities a tidal delta retreated into the estuary. The estuarine sandstones are
fluvial conglomerate overlies the valley floor, either as a lag or deposited cross-bedded showing tidal bundling and bipolar palaeocurrent di
by migration of longitudinal bars. Cross-bedded fluvial sandstones make rections. Marine molluscs, including oysters, are locally present and
up monotonous successions up to 120 m thick. They constitute a major marine trace fossils are common. At several localities the valley fill
composite bedset in which the set boundaries dip a few degrees and sandstones are succeeded by one or two upward-coarsening shoreface
downlap onto the valley floor. The fluvial fill shows an absence of successions composed of silt- and sand-streaked mudstones, grading
25
upward into bioturbated heterolithic and heavily bioturbated, immediately prior to eruption of the hyaloclastite breccias, along some
medium-grained sandstones showing abundant marine bioturbation. of the north-west trending extensional faults. The thickness of
The fluvial valley-fill and shoreface sandstones are abruptly succeeded cross-bedded hyaloclastite sets indicates that subsidence locally excee
by offshore marine mudstones reflecting sudden drowning and signifi ded 700 m during the early phases of volcanism (Pedersen et al., 1993).
cant deepening of the basin (Fig. 20C). The mudstones were deposited A huge lake complex filled with lacustrine mudstones and fluvio-
shortly before and during the initial extrusion of a thick hyaloclastite deltaic sandstones, as well as hyaloclastite breccias was established
succession. The Paatuutkløften Canyon fill and the overlying marine when the marine connection was sealed off between the actively
deposits are attributed to a very rapid rise in relative sea level growing Paleocene volcanic pile to the west and the crystalline Pre
contemporary with extensive volcanism of Early Paleocene nanno cambrian basement to the east (Fig. 23; cf. Dam et al., 2009; Pedersen
plankton NP4–NP5 age (Nøhr-Hansen et al., 2002). et al., 2017). On south-eastern Nuussuaq and eastern Disko the lacus
On western Nuussuaq the Paleocene Tupaasat and Paatuutkløften trine deposits unconformably rest on tilted Albian–Cenomanian deltaic
Canyons pass into a submarine canyon system as they cross a fault- strata with an unconformity locally showing a relief of up to 250 m
controlled slope along the Kuugannguaq–Qunnilik Fault (Fig. 20; Dam (Pulvertaft, 1989). In more restricted areas, the strata conformably
et al., 2009 and references therein). The submarine canyon fill is overlie the incised valley fill of TSS7. Eruption sites also moved eastward
penetrated by the GRO#3 well and has been cored by the GANE#1 with time and gave rise to local deposition of more irregularly bedded
borehole where it comprises an overall fining-upward sandstone unit, up hyaloclastite mounds. Foreset-bedded hyaloclastite breccias indicate
to 295 m thick grading upwards into a more heterolithic unit up to 120 that water depths of the lake locally reached 450 m (Pedersen et al.,
m thick (Fig. 20E). The sandy unit is dominated by stacked, thickly 1998). Radiometric dating of the time equivalent volcanic units provide
bedded, coarse to very coarse-grained sandstone with normally graded ages of 61.3+/− 0.5Ma – 61.2+/− 0.4Ma, indicating that the lake com
beds deposited from high-density turbidity currents. The upper hetero plex only existed for a very short time period (Pedersen et al., 1998; Dam
lithic succession consists of thinly interbedded sandstone and mudstone. et al., 2009; Larsen et al., 2016a). The overlying volcanic rocks mainly
The sandstone laminae and beds have sharp bases and show normal form thick subaerial lava flows; however, hyaloclastite breccias were
grading and were deposited from high-density turbidity currents. The still formed in local lakes. Clastic sedimentation came to an end in the
mudstones are usually made up of thin, graded laminae deposited from Nuussuaq Basin when the lakes were filled in Late Paleocene time and
diluted low-density turbidity currents. The strata are arranged in thin the rivers draining the central parts of Greenland were banked towards
fining-upward and coarsening-upward successions typical of turbidite the volcanic front and redirected towards south-west into the Sisimiut
channel and associated levee deposition within the submarine canyon Basin and to the north-west into the Melville Bay Graben (Fig. 1; Dalhoff
system (Fig. 20E). At some levels, especially in the upper part of the et al., 2003; Jess et al., 2020).
succession, the thinly bedded sandstone and mudstone beds are inter Throughout the volcanic succession there are several intercalations
bedded with contorted beds and homogenised mudstones and muddy of volcaniclastic strata deposited in marine, marginal marine, lacustrine
sandstones with scattered sand grains, granules, concretions and vol and fluvial environments. Intra-basaltic siliciclastic strata are only
canic clasts. These beds were deposited from downslope displacement of known from the boundary between two volcanic units of Svartenhuk
semi-consolidated sediments. The introduction of hyaloclastite clasts Halvø. Here about 50 m of fluvio-lacustrine strata, tuffs and hyaloclas
and the dominance of chaotic beds suggest that the sediment failures tite overlie the Paleocene volcanic rocks (Larsen and Pulvertaft, 2000).
were caused by tectonic activity as well as loading of the hyaloclastites They were deposited during a period with less volcanic activity and were
connected with the initiation of volcanic activity in the region. sourced from the surrounding basement area.
5.5. Break-up and Drift Phase 5.6. Petroleum Plays
5.5.1. TSS8: Break-up and Drift Volcanic and Lacustrine Sequence The break-down of the Cretaceous–Paleogene succession of the
(Paleocene) Nuussuaq Basin into a series of tectonostratigraphic phases equivalent in
The Nuussuaq Basin is blanketed by Paleocene volcanic rocks that time to those that have been mapped on a regional scale in the offshore
are part of the West Greenland Basalt Group (Pedersen et al., 2017, areas (cf. Gregersen et al., 2019) supports that the Nuussuaq Basin can
2018). The early volcanism marks the transition from rift to drift, and be used as a world-class analogue to the offshore frontier basins in large
break-up apparently took place simultaneously in the Labrador Sea and parts of West Greenland (Fig. 2). Of course, it has to be taken into
Baffin Bay, which were linked by a complex zone of transtension and consideration that the Nuussuaq Basin is located in a proximal position
transpression in the Davis Strait (cf. Oakey and Chalmers, 2012). to the drainage area in central Greenland, and that the deposits of the
Volcanism began in Early Paleocene nannoplankton NP4–NP5 times Break-up and Drift phase can only be applied to the offshore areas
(Nøhr-Hansen et al., 2002) in accordance with palaeomagnetic results covered by the volcanic rocks of the West Greenland Basalt Group. This
and 40Ar/39Ar dating indicating the age of the onset to 62.5 Ma (Storey part of the succession is developed very differently in the Labrador Sea
et al., 1998; Riisager and Abrahamsen, 1999; Larsen et al., 2016a). The and Melville Bay area compared to the region that was influenced by
magmas were emplaced during several tectono-magmatic events closely volcanism.
associated with the arrival of the Proto-Icelandic Mantle Plume beneath Four main petroleum plays have been defined for the Nuussuaq Basin
the lithosphere causing lithospheric stretching and continental break-up based on the presence of regionally widespread mappable units
(cf. Larsen et al., 2016a). comprising genetically related reservoirs, source and sealing rocks
In the onshore areas the thickness of the volcanic pile is at least 3 km (Fig. 3). These include the:
(cf. Pedersen et al., 2017, 2018). Data from the offshore areas indicate
thicknesses locally exceeding 5 km (Skaarup, 2002). Lateral infilling of 4. Break-up and Drift Play
the volcanic basin from west to east, shifting eruption sites with time, 3. Late Rift Play
tectonic movements, and facies changes between subaerial and sub 2. Thermal Subsidence Play
aqueous volcanic facies and their intercalations with marine and 1. Early Rift Play
lacustrine strata have been extensively documented in geological sec
tions across the basin (cf. Pedersen et al., 2006a). At the start of volca We have used this approach in order make a direct comparison and
nism, submarine eruptions led to deposition of mounds of hyaloclastite correlation of the onshore areas with the offshore areas based on the
breccias which rapidly built up to sea level, after which a subaerial lava existing regional offshore seismic interpretations and well data (e.g.
plateau started forming (cf. Pedersen et al., 2017). Faulting took place Gregersen et al., 2019) and in this way extract critical onshore
26
information and use it for the evaluation of the exploration potential of It is evident from the fjord seismic data in the Nuussuaq Basin that a
the offshore frontier basins. large number of prominent half-grabens formed during the Early Rift
Reservoir rocks occur at every stratigraphic level of the sedimentary Phase are present (e.g. Fig. 5A). Due to Neogene uplift of up to 2 km in
syn-rift succession throughout most of the Nuussuaq Basin. Therefore, the Nuussuaq Basin (Japsen et al., 2005) the main risk for this play is
several reservoir intervals are present within each of the syn-rift plays regarded to be retention. In the deep western part of the basin reservoir
and these are all capped by a regional seal. quality will also be a significant risk.
Many observations of gas and oil seepage have been recorded in the
Nuussuaq Basin from outcrops, lakes and pingos as well as stratigraphic 5.6.2. Thermal Subsidence Play
and exploration boreholes. Despite the very widespread distribution of The Thermal Subsidence Play comprises deltaic and deep marine
oil and gas seepages in the Nuussuaq Basin a full understanding of the deposits of TSS4 (Figs. 3, 13 and 14). The main reservoirs of the Thermal
distribution of mature source rocks in the subsurface and the vertical Subsidence Play are Turonian–Santonian deltaic and shallow-marine
and lateral migration of petroleum into traps is still lacking. Neverthe sandstones that are present in the proximal areas of the basin and the
less, they clearly document the presence of several working petroleum possibility of basin-floor fan sandstones in the more distal offshore areas.
systems including four distinctive source rocks (Fig. 3; Bojesen-Koefoed Source is provided by Cenomanian–Turonian mudstones and regional
et al., 1999; Christiansen et al., 2020 and references therein). Because distributed Campanian mudstones provide a high-quality seal (Fig. 3).
there is a possibility of both vertical and lateral migration, and migration Furthermore, Albian and Paleocene mudstones could also act as source
along faults, the known source rocks may act as source for several of the rocks for the play if situated in juxtaposition to the reservoir sandstones
plays. This relation is illustrated by the red arrows in Fig. 3. If present at along faults.
suitable depth in the subsurface, fault-bounded three-way closures, The palaeogeographic reconstruction at late TSS3 time indicates that
four-way dip closures and combination traps form the main traps in the the shelf deltas fanned out to the north and are restricted to Disko and
Nuussuaq Basin. In addition to rift structures, mapped anticlines formed Nuussuaq (Fig. 14). The shelf delta sandstones of TSS4 provide good to
during a compressional phase in latest Paleocene time also provide valid excellent reservoirs with a cumulative exposed thickness up to 560 m
structural traps (Sørensen et al., 2017). with a net reservoir thickness of 50–66%. The average porosity of the
sandstones is 17%, ranging from 1.5 to 19% and permeabilities range
5.6.1. Early Rift Play from <10 mD to high values of several hundreds of mD. The basin floor
Reservoirs of the Albian – Early Cenomanian Early Rift Play are sandstones on Svartenhuk Halvø are tight and have no reservoir po
associated with thick successions of alluvial, deltaic, and estuarine tential (Ichron Ltd, 2009; Hopper et al., 2016; Hjuler et al., 2017). The
incised valley siliciclastic sandstones of TSS1, TSS2 and TSS3 (Fig. 3). Campanian basinal mudstones provide an excellent regional seal for this
The source rock is anticipated to be Albian lacustrine/brackish-water play capable of trapping a P50 oil column of up to 970 m. The Coniacian
mudstones and deltaic coals of TSS1 and a high-quality regional seal is marine mudstones interbedded with the shelf deltaic sandstones form
provided by Cenomanian–Turonian mudstones of TSS4. intra-formational seals that can hold a P50 oil column of up to 1838 m
Early syn-rift sandstones of TSS1, TSS2 and TSS3 provide good to (Almon, 2010). A Cenomanian–Turonian Type II–III marine source rock
excellent reservoirs in the Nuussuaq Basin. Reservoirs of TSS2 show a deposited during the initial subsidence phase is the main candidate for
much more widespread distribution than TSS1. One possible explana source rock of the Thermal Subsidence Play based on the widely
tion for this is that the reservoir sandstones of TSS1 were deposited distributed Itilli type oil surface seeps (Bojesen-Koefoed et al., 1999,
during initial rifting when faults and grabens were more isolated and 2007). A marine ?Cenomanian–Turonian potential source rock was
consequently initial reservoir deposition during TSS1 shows a more local cored by the Umiivik-1 borehole on Svartenhuk Halvø (Fig. 13).
development (Fig. 3). With progressive rifting the faults started to Although the organic matter is deteriorated due to heating from
interact and link up causing increased subsidence, deepening of the Paleocene intrusions, the interval shows very high concentrations of wet
basins and transition from overfilled to underfilled basins. This resulted gases including both propane, butane and pentane (Christiansen et al.,
in drowning and establishment of a deep lacustrine/brackish-water 1997), suggesting that these mudstones have been very rich in organic
environment in the Nuussuaq Basin. During TSS2 times faults and gra matter. The content of total organic carbon (TOC) is moderate to high
bens became more connected and with increased subsidence sand and with values between 2 and 6% and pyrite is very common.
deposition became more widespread. The palaeogeographic re As with the Early Rift Play the main risks for this play in the Nuus
constructions illustrate that in TSS2 times a large delta had established suaq Basin is related to retention due to the Neogene uplift. However,
with an apex close to the present-day Ilulissat Icefjord Canyon (Fig. 10). reservoir presence and quality also constitute a significant risk in the
This delta drained a huge part of central Greenland resulting in northern and western part of the basin.
continued transport of sediments into the Nuussuaq Basin. In outcrop
the thickness of this play (TSS1, TSS2 and TSS3) ranges from 35 m to 5.6.3. Late Rift Play
560 m showing cumulative net reservoir thickness of 60–100%. How The Early Campanian – Early Paleocene Late Rift Play has turbidite
ever, it may be much more thickly developed in the subsurface. Poros slope, submarine canyon and incised valley syn-rift sandstones of
ities range from 0.5% to 17% and permeabilities are generally less than TSS5–7 as reservoirs (Fig. 3). The main source rock is provided by
10 mD, but locally with high values of several hundreds of mD (Ichron Danian deltaic and basinal mudstones that also constitute a regional
Ltd, 2009; Hopper et al., 2016; Hjuler et al., 2017). The marine Cen high-quality seal (Fig. 3). Secondary source rocks include the Albian and
omanian–Turonian shelf mudstones provide an excellent seal for this Cenomanian–Turonian mudstones in areas where these source rocks are
play and are capable of trapping a P50 oil column of 785–836 m (Almon, in juxtaposition with the reservoir sandstones along faults.
2010). An additional seal may include the thick succession of Late Reservoirs of the Late Rift Play mainly comprise turbidite channel
Albian lacustrine/brackish-water mudstones of TSS1 (Fig. 3). This Late sandstones of Early Campanian – Late Maastrichtian age and incised
Albian lacustrine/brackish-water mudstone is anticipated to be the main submarine canyon and incised valley sandstones of Late Maastrichtian –
source rock for the Early Rift Play as indicated by the Kuugannguaq type Early Paleocene age TSS5–7 (Fig. 3). The paleogeographic maps in
oil known from the oil seeps (Bojesen-Koefoed et al., 1999). The pres Figs. 15, 18 and 20 show that valleys and canyons were structurally
ence and distribution of hummocky cross-stratified sandstones in both controlled and that sediment transport directions were to the north-west
the Nuussuaq Basin and in the Melville Bay cores (Nøhr-Hansen et al., into the offshore areas. It is anticipated that these valleys and canyons
2021) suggest that these lakes/brackish-water basins had a huge sourced large sandy basin-floor fan systems in the offshore areas south-
regional distribution with a large wave fetch and therefore have the west and west of the Disko – Nuussuaq – Svartenhuk Halvø area.
potential for providing excellent regional source rocks. Measured sections of this play range from 145 m to 1050 m in thickness
27
with a cumulative net reservoir thickness of 7–99%. Low net values are several billion barrels (cf. Christiansen et al., 2020).
restricted to areas outside the large valley and submarine canyon sys As with the previous plays the main risks for the Late Rift Play in the
tems. Net porosities are in the range of 11–24% and permeabilities of Nuussuaq Basin is related to retention and partly exhumation due to
several hundred mD are common (Ichron Ltd, 2009; Hopper et al., 2016; Neogene uplift.
Hjuler et al., 2017). The Early Paleocene seal of TSS7 provides an
excellent seal in the Nuussuaq Basin that can hold a P50 oil column of up 6. Discussion
to 1267 m (Almon, 2010). This mudstone also provides a marine/deltaic
Type II–III source rock that is known from the Marraat type oil seeps and The Nuussuaq Basin provides World class exposures of the full life
stainings found throughout the Nuussuaq Basin (Bojesen-Koefoed et al., cycle of a rift basin within the Cretaceous–Palaeogene rift system
1999). An additional Campanian potential source rock interval has been extending from the Labrador Sea in the south to Melville Bay in north
drilled in the GANT#1 borehole on Nuussuaq (Fig. 4). The source rock (Fig. 1). The basin comprises an almost complete sedimentary succes
quality of the Campanian mudstone in this well is relatively poor but it sion representing an Albian – Late Cenomanian Early Rift Phase, a Late
has the same geochemical characteristics as the Niaqornaarssuk oil type Cenomanian – Early Campanian Thermal Subsidence Phase, an Early
that is relatively widespread on Nuussuaq (cf. Christiansen et al., 2020 Campanian – Early Paleocene Late Rift Phase terminating with the
and references therein). If better developed in other areas of the basin it Paleocene Break-up and Drift phase. These phases have also been rec
can be an additional marine/deltaic Type II–III source rock. ognised in the offshore areas (Fig. 2; Gregersen et al., 2019) and are
As with the previous plays the main risks are related to retention due closely related to the main plays that have been recognised (Fig. 3). In
to the Neogene uplift. In the western part of the Nuussuaq Basin the this way it has been possible to apply the tectonostratigraphy of the
reservoir quality has deteriorated detrimentally due to deep burial and Nuussuaq Basin to the offshore areas, despite the relatively few data
possibly diagenesis related to hydrothermal activity (cf. Ichron Ltd, points that are here.
2009).
6.1. Early Rift Play – implications for the offshore areas
5.6.3.1. Break-up and Drift Play. The Break-up and Drift Play includes
deposits of TSS8 and TSS9. Because of the very different lithological The Early Rift Play shows a classical development during the earliest
nature and depositional environments reflected by this play including phase of rifting with local development of north-south trending half-
both siliciclastic and volcanic deposits, it has been divided into three grabens and deposition of alluvial fan conglomerates and fluvial sand
sub-plays: A Lacustrine Sub-play, an Intra-basaltic Siliciclastic Sub-play and stones derived from local sources (TSS1). With progressive rifting the
a Fractured Volcanic Sub-play. faults started to interact, and syn-rift deposits became more widespread
The Lacustrine Sub-play has fluvio-deltaic sandstones as reservoir, (TSS2). Apart from the excellent exposures in the Nuussuaq Basin, Early
intra-formational lacustrine and delta-plain mudstones as seal. The Rift Play deposits have been drilled in exploration wells in the Labrador
Lacustrine Sub-play is present in the south-eastern part of the Nuussuaq Sea and four shallow boreholes in the Melville Bay (Nøhr-Hansen et al.,
Basin where a large lake complex was established between the actively 2021).
growing Paleocene volcanic pile to the west and the crystalline Pre Excellent Early Rift Play reservoir sandstones with porosities up to
cambrian basement to the east (Figs. 3 and 23). Lacustrine deltaic 27% were penetrated by the shallow stratigraphic boreholes in Melville
sandstones form sheet-like reservoir units and the seal is provided intra- Bay (Nøhr-Hansen et al., 2021). Early Rift sandstones, very similar to
formational lacustrine mudstones. The syn-volcanic lacustrine silici those of the Nuussuaq Basin, are present at Cape Dyer in eastern Canada
clastic succession is approximately 350 m thick with a cumulative net (Burden and Langille, 1990). TSS1–TSS2 sandstones also form the main
reservoir thickness of 74%. The lacustrine mudstones have no source reservoir of the gas discoveries on the Canadian Labrador Sea shelf
potential and the play therefore relies on long-distance migration from (Dickie et al., 2011) suggesting very similar depositional environments
deeper Albian, Cenomanian–Turonian, Campanian or Paleocene kitchen throughout the region during the initial Early Rift Phase.
areas. This play is only present along the eastern margin of the West Kerogen type II/III source rocks of Albian age documented by the
Greenland Volcanic Province. However, due to the Neogene uplift of the Nuussuaq Basin oil seeps are well known in the region from boreholes in
central West Greenland margin there are no areas where this play is Melville Bay (Nøhr-Hansen et al., 2021) and Ellesmere Island, Arctic
buried sufficiently deep to have any exploration potential. Canada (Morell et al., 1995). The presence of hummocky
The Intra-basaltic Siliciclastic Sub-play comprises fluvial and lacus cross-stratification in the lacustrine/brackish-water succession in both
trine sandstones as reservoir, volcaniclastic or siliciclastic mudstones as the Nuussuaq Basin and in the Melville Bay shallow cores indicates a
seal and requires vertical migration from deeper sub-volcanic kitchen large wave fetch and a regional distribution of
areas. The Intra-basaltic Siliciclastic Sub-play will only be present in lacustrine/brackish-water environments. This suggests the possibility of
areas with access to a siliciclastic source from the surrounding basement regional distribution of lacustrine/brackish-water Albian source rocks.
area during periods of waning volcanic activity. This has been observed In the Labrador Sea equivalent intervals with gas-prone type III kerogen,
on Svartenhuk Halvø where about 50 m of fluvio-lacustrine siliciclastic with some type II/III intervals (Bujak et al., 1989) provide the source
sediments were deposited between two volcanic units, sourced from the rock for many of the gas discoveries in this region, but it has been
nearby basement terrain (Larsen and Pulvertaft, 2000). The pause in speculated that many of the undrilled deep grabens offshore East Canada
volcanism between these two volcanic units was <1 Ma (cf. Larsen et al., could provide excellent conditions for deep lakes with deposition of rich
2016a). This play is not regarded to have any exploration potential in source rocks in anoxic bottom waters (Dickie et al., 2011).
the Nuussuaq Basin due to mapping issues. A significant unconformity separates TSS1 from TSS2 and is related
The Fractured Volcanic Sub-play comprises fractured porous volcanic to a new rift event during the Early Rift Phase in the Nuussuaq Basin
and hyaloclastic rocks as reservoir, intra-basaltic mudstones or tight, (Fig. 3). During this event the basin was connected to a huge drainage
fine-grained volcanic rocks as seal, and relies on migration of hydro area covering a large part of central Greenland (cf. Dam et al., 2009;
carbons from sub-volcanic kitchen areas. An exhumed accumulation is Dam et al., 2020) and the increased sediment input to the basin led to
partly exposed in an area of c. 15 km × 20 km on south-western Nuus the establishment of the large wave- and tidal-dominated Atane delta
suaq (cf. Christiansen et al., 2020). The porous basalts belong to the (Fig. 10). During this phase the Labrador Sea – Baffin Bay region was
lower part of the volcanic succession and shows porosities in the order of probably developed as a marine seaway indicated by sediment struc
1–8% but with measurements up to 16% (Hopper et al., 2016; Hjuler tures formed by tidal activity in the TSS2 deposits. This would allow
et al., 2017) resulting in the possibility of in-place volumes of up to sediments from the Atane delta to be distributed by tidal circulation in
the offshore areas.
28
Marine Cenomanian–Turonian shelf mudstones equivalent to the source rocks, but this is not considered a major risk in the areas outside
excellent sealing mudstones in the Nuussuaq Basin have been drilled by the volcanic province. Deltaic reservoirs comparable to the TSS4 reser
the shallow boreholes in Melville Bay (Nøhr-Hansen et al., 2021) and by voirs in the Nuussuaq Basin are only locally developed in the basins
exploration wells in the Labrador Sea (Dickie et al., 2011) and are a good along the Canadian and Greenlandic shelves and therefore reservoir
candidate for a high-quality regional seal. presence may be a risk in the offshore frontier basins. Oil-prone source
In the Canadian Labrador Sea, the syn-rift succession includes fluvial Cenomanian–Turonian rocks are only proven in the Nuussuaq Basin and
sandstones and lacustrine strata with good petroleum potential. The the Baffin Bay basins. A major transgression of the Labrador Sea basins is
increased marine influence towards the top is very similar to the situa evident and black shales equivalent to the globally significant Cen
tion observed in TSS1 and TSS2 in the Nuussuaq Basin. The Early Rift omanian–Turonian source rock could have been preserved in deeper
Play succession in the Canadian Labrador Sea hosts three hydrocarbon graben environments, although this has not been documented in any of
discoveries (Jauer et al., 2014) and the Greenland play-based resource the wells drilled in the Labrador Sea.
evaluation shows that this is also the most important play in the
Greenlandic Labrador Sea area (GHRA, 2021). 6.3. Late Rift Play – implications for the offshore areas
Since Early Rift reservoirs equivalent to TSS1 and TSS2 are present in
all exposures in the Nuussuaq Basin, in all shallow boreholes in Melville It is anticipated that the graben-like structure established in the
Bay, at Cape Dyer in eastern Canada and are the main reservoirs for the Nuussuaq Basin acted as major conduits for sands sourcing the basin-
gas discoveries in the Canadian Labrador Sea, reservoir presence is not floor fan systems in the offshore areas throughout Early Campanian –
considered to be critical in the offshore areas. However, significant Paleocene times (Figs. 15, 18 and 20). Similar Paleocene incised valley
reservoir deterioration is expected in the offshore areas that are covered and submarine canyon systems of TSS7 are prominent above a major
by the 2–7 km thick succession of volcanic rock of the West Greenland unconformity at Cape Dyer, Arctic Canada (Burden and Langille, 1990)
Volcanic Province. Similarly, any source rocks are considered to be and a slightly younger incised canyon system has been mapped in
overmature in these areas (GHRA, 2021). southern Melville Bay (GHRA, 2021). Similar Late Cretaceous rift plays
The Neogene uplift that the onshore Nuussuaq Basin experienced is are also present in regions in the North Atlantic that were influenced by
mainly restricted to the basin margin areas and containment is only this event (e.g. Lamers and Carmichael, 1999; Gjelberg et al., 2005).
considered as a prominent risk in the near-shore areas (cf. GHRA, 2021). Along the northern West Greenland margin, tectonism is indicated
by development of deep Late Cretaceous to earliest Paleocene syn-rift
6.2. Thermal Subsidence Play – implications for the offshore areas basins. Seismic mapping suggests deposition from Campa
nian–Paleocene basin-floor fans showing axial filling with major input
In the offshore areas the Thermal Subsidence Play is associated with from the Greenland craton and from the Melville Bay High (GHRA,
a thick succession of marine mudstones that both acts as intra- 2021). Around northern Baffin Bay, apatite fission-track data indicate
formational seal and source rock. Wet gasses from the ?Cen erosional cooling of uplifted rift flanks, and on the southern West
omanian–Turonian succession in the Umiivik-1 borehole and the widely Greenland margin rifting episodes during the Late Cretaceous to earliest
distributed oil seeps of the Itilli oil type has documented the presence of Paleocene are also indicated by prominent extensional faulting and
a Cenomanian–Turonian source rock in the Nuussuaq Basin. This is also erosion of some of the main structural complexes and significant syn-rift
well documented in boreholes in Melville Bay (Nøhr-Hansen et al., basin growth (Gregersen et al., 2019). The offshore wells in West
2021), from outcrops on Ellesmere Island, Arctic Canada (Núñez-Betelu Greenland that penetrate the Late Rift succession show prominent
et al., 1994) and anticipated from oil seeps in the Scott Inlet, Arctic stratigraphic hiatuses, including missing Maastrichtian to Lower
Canada (cf. Oakey et al., 2012). Together with the indications from the Paleocene and older sections (Fig. 2) and only the LF7-1 well penetrated
Nuussuaq Basin this suggests the presence of a regionally distributed strata of this age. Hence, the Late Rift Play is poorly constrained in the
Cenomanian marine Type II source rock in the entire Davis Strait – offshore areas. Nevertheless, it is anticipated that the offshore basins
Baffin Bay region. The presence of this source rock in the Labrador Sea is experienced the same major change from shelf deposition to deep ma
more speculative as no wells have penetrated this mudstone interval in rine turbidite deposition as recorded in the Nuussuaq Basin and with
source rock facies. deposition of sands from large basin-floor fan systems.
Coniacian–Santonian shelf delta sandstones are only exposed on the On the Canadian shelf initiation of the Late Rift Phase is marked by a
south coast and on central Nuussuaq. They are not present in the time major transgression of the margin and the onset of deeper water con
equivalent succession on the north coast of Nuussuaq or further north ditions in the Santonian with the deposition of the marine shales (Dickie
indicating that despite the delta was connected to a huge drainage area it et al., 2011). During the Late Rift Phase rifting focused further offshore
only had a local extent in the southern part of the Nuussuaq Basin. beyond the continental rise rather than on the shelf and sands of mainly
Consequently, thick reservoir development cannot be expected in the Late Campanian age were deposited in the grabens as also seen in central
Davis Strait area during this period. Excellent Santonian (TSS4) deltaic West Greenland.
reservoir sandstones were drilled by the Qulleq-1 well in the Labrador The two known source rocks of the Late Rift Play are of Campanian
Sea, whereas the AT7-1 well was devoid of sandstone at this strati and Paleocene age and responsible for the Niaqornarssuk and Marraat
graphic level. These observations suggest that TSS4 deltaic and shallow oil seeps in the Nuussuaq Basin, respectively. The Paleocene source rock
marine sandstones are only locally developed in the West Greenland is also locally known from the Nukik-1 and Nukik-2 wells on the West
basins (Figs. 1 and 2). In the Canadian Labrador Sea Turonian – Late Greenland shelf (Fig. 2) and from wells in the Canadian Labrador Sea
Campanian deltaic and shallow marine sandstones are present in thick (Bojesen-Koefoed et al., 1999; Jauer et al., 2014; Christiansen et al.,
wedge-shaped units around major highs and form reservoir for a gas 2020). Both source rocks are, however, considered to be deltaic point
discovery in the Canadian Labrador Sea proving the Thermal Subsidence sources and are not expected to have regional distribution. The seal
Play in the region (Dickie et al., 2011; Jauer et al., 2014). Late Cen study by Almon (2010) indicates that the Danian marine mudstones in
omanian – Campanian sealing mudstones as those documented in the the Nuussuaq Basin also have excellent sealing capacities that can retain
Nuussuaq Basin (Almon, 2010) are thickly developed in the Labrador a P50 oil column of up of 1600 m.
Sea and Baffin Bay suggesting that they provide regional seal in the In basins underlying the thick basalts of the West Greenland Volcanic
region (cf. Dickie et al., 2011; Jauer et al., 2014; GHRA, 2021). Province there is an imminent risk of reservoir deterioration and thermal
The imminent risks in the offshore basins underlying the thick vol degradation of the organic matter of the source rock. As with the two
canic succession of the West Greenland Volcanic Province are reservoir previous plays the main risk for the Late Rift Play in the Nuussuaq Basin
deterioration and thermal degradation of the organic matter of the is related to retention due to Neogene uplift. If present, the Paleocene
29
source rock would be immature in large parts of Melville Bay and the 5. The pre-rift basement surface is strongly undulating with steep-
Labrador Sea (GHRA, 2021). sided valleys. Several lines of evidence indicate that the base
ment was deeply weathered pre-dating basin formation and the
valleys have acted as conduit for sediment transportation,
6.4. Break-up and Drift Play – implications for the offshore areas draining large parts of central Greenland.
6. The Albian – Late Cenomanian Early Rift Phase deposits are
The extrusion of volcanic rocks of the Paleocene–Eocene West divided into three tectonostratigraphic sequences (TSS1–3). TSS1
Greenland Basalt Province had a major impact on the petroleum systems strata were deposited from alluvial fans and fluvial systems
for both the sub-volcanic and post-volcanic plays offshore West during the earliest phase of rifting in local north–south trending
Greenland. The infilling of the Nuussuaq Basin with volcanic rocks half-grabens. Progressive rifting resulted in increased subsidence,
resulted in a deflection of sand transport towards the south-west into the drowning of the basin and establishment of a deep lacustrine/
Sisimiut Basin and to the north into the Melville Bay Basin. Clastic brackish-water environment with local deposition of source
sedimentation ceased in the Nuussuaq Basin and the offshore areas to rocks. Similar TSS1 strata are present in Melville Bay to the north
the west which is documented by the four exploration wells drilled in and the Labrador Sea to the south indicating that this was a
this area (Alpha-1, Delta-1, T4-1 and T8-1) that did not penetrate any regional event. During the Late Albian rift event the Labrador Sea
significant sandstone reservoirs in the post-volcanic succession (Fig. 2; – Baffin Bay region probably developed into a marine seaway
GHRA, 2021). where tidal currents are expected to have been effective in
The Intra-basaltic Siliciclastic Sub-play and the Fractured Volcanic distributing sediments in the offshore areas (TSS2). In the
Sub-plays may, however, locally have a potential in the offshore areas, Nuussuaq Basin a large wave- and tidal-dominated delta was
but unfortunately none of the offshore exploration wells that TD’ed in established draining a large part of central Greenland. Uplift
the West Greenland Basalt Group reached the level where these sub- related to renewed rifting in the mid–late Cenomanian resulted in
plays could be tested. The Intra-volcanic Siliciclastic Sub-play is a development of large incised fluvial valleys (TSS3). Reservoirs of
proven play elsewhere in the North Atlantic Igneous Province where the Albian – Early Cenomanian Early Rift Play are associated with
siliciclastic sandstones interfinger with plateau basalts as it is observed thick successions of alluvial, deltaic, estuarine incised valley sil
in e.g. West of Shetland (Larsen et al., 2016b). The main risks associated iciclastic sandstones. The source rock is anticipated to be Albian
with this play is reservoir presence and reservoir quality, migration of lacustrine/brackish-water mudstones and deltaic coals of TSS1
hydrocarbons trough significant thicknesses of volcanic rocks, and and a regional seal is provided by high-quality Cen
thermal degradation of organic matter in underlying potential kitchen omanian–Turonian mudstones of TSS4.
areas. 7. The Thermal Subsidence Phase is marked by a Late Cenomanian
The exhumed accumulation and presence of widespread oil seepage drowning and regional deposition of marine mudstones and shelf
and staining observed in lavas and hyaloclastites in the lower part of the delta sandstones of TSS4. The mudstones include proven source
volcanic succession on western Nuussuaq (Christiansen et al., 2020) rocks in the Nuussuaq and Melville Bay Basins and latest Turo
indicates that the Fractured Volcanic Sub-play may be a valid sub-play nian – Santonian point-sourced shelf-delta sandstones forming
also in the offshore areas. Volcanic reservoir rocks are well known excellent reservoirs. Similar local deltaic reservoirs are developed
from East Asia where they have become one of the major exploration along major highs in the Labrador Sea (e.g. Qulleq-1 well). Source
targets in China (cf. Zou, 2013). Due to significant burial depth in large is provided by Cenomanian–Turonian mudstones and the seal by
parts of the offshore areas the lower, porous basalts of the West regionally distributed high-quality Campanian mudstones.
Greenland Volcanic Province have an imminent risk of poor reservoir 8. The Late Rift Phase was initiated in Early Campanian times and
and overmature source. The most likely candidate for a source rock is associated with a change in stress regime from E–W to NE–SW
the Paleocene deltaic mudstone immediately underlying the volcanic resulting in NW–SE oriented extensional faults parallel to the
succession in the Nuussuaq Basin. This is, however, point sourced extinct Paleocene Baffin Bay spreading axis. This phase was
(Bojesen-Koefoed et al., 1999) and is therefore expected to be only associated with a major change from shelf and deltaic deposition
locally present offshore West Greenland. to turbidite slope channels and basin-floor fan deposition in the
distal parts of the basin and incision of valleys and submarine
7. Conclusions canyons in the proximal parts (TSS5–7). The valleys and sub
marine canyons acted as major conduits funnelling sediments
1. The Nuussuaq Basin provides an exceptional onshore analogue into the offshore areas throughout Early Campanian – Paleocene
for the offshore Albian – Early Paleocene frontier rift basins in times. The sequences are bounded by prominent unconformities
Labrador Sea – Davis Strait and Baffin Bay region. reflecting major tectonic events and uplift associated with the
2. The succession exposed in the Nuussuaq Basin is divided into five arrival of the Proto-Icelandic Mantle plume. The Late Rift Play
tectonostratigraphic phases: 1) Pre-rift, 2) Albian – Late Cen has turbidite, submarine canyon and incised valley syn-rift
omanian Early Rift, 3) Late Cenomanian – Early Campanian sandstones as reservoir. The main source rock is provided by
Thermal Subsidence, 4) Early Campanian – Early Paleocene Late Early Paleocene deltaic to marine mudstones that also provide a
Rift, and 5) Early Paleocene – Late Eocene Break-up and Drift. regional high-quality seal. Equivalent source rocks are known
This division also defines the main plays of the Nuussuaq Basin from elsewhere in the Labrador Sea.
and the offshore basins. 9. The Paleocene–Eocene Break-up and Drift Phase is characterised
3. The tectonostratigraphic phases can be divided into nine tecto by extrusion of huge amounts of volcanic rocks leading to the
nostratigraphic sequences that represent a specific configuration formation of the West Greenland Basalt Province (TSS8 and
of depositional elements resulting from tectonic events, which TSS9). The basin was quickly filled from west to east by pro
caused major palaeogeographic reconstruction of the basin and grading basaltic flows and a huge lake complex was stemmed up
therefore are critical to the petroleum system. The sequences are between the actively growing volcanic pile and the crystalline
bounded by unconformities or, in one case, by a major flooding Precambrian basement to the east. The infilling of this lake with
surface. volcanic and siliciclastic sediments terminated sedimentation in
4. Palaeogeographic maps have been constructed for each of the the Nuussuaq Basin and rivers draining central Greenland were
tectonostratigraphic sequences which have been used to discuss redirected by the volcanic front, delivering sediments into the
implications for the frontier offshore basins. offshore Sisimiut Basin to the south-west and the Melville Bay
30
Graben to the north-west. The Break-up and drift Play is divided Burden, E.T., Langille, A.B., 1990. Stratigraphy and sedimentology of cretaceous and
Paleocene strata in half-grabens on the southeast coast of Baffin island, northwest
into three sub-plays including: 1) A Lacustrine Sub-play,2) an
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Declaration of competing interest Christiansen, F.G., Dam, G., Nøhr-Hansen, H., Sønderholm, M., 1994a. Shallow core
drilling summary sheets: Cretaceous sediments of Nuussuaq and Svartenhuk Halvø
(GGU 400701–400712). Open File Series Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 94/10,
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 31.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Christiansen, F.G., Dam, G., Pedersen, A.K., 1994b. Discovery of live oil at Marraat,
the work reported in this paper. Nuussuaq: field work, drilling and logging. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske
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