Performance

There are two types of Transmission Line performance analysis

S T
O
1. Transient Analysis
2. Steady State Analysis

MD
Transient Analysis is related to study of energy propagation through a

A
Transmission Line from sending end to receiving end.

E X
In Steady State Analysis we assume that voltage and currents are established at
both ends and the load draws power from the Transmission Line.
 Efficiency
There are three types of losses in Transmission Line,

S T
O
1. Ohmic Losses
2. Corona Loss
3.

MD
Loss due to leakage current

X A
E
 Regulation
the load is varied from No-Load to Full Load.

S T
Regulation represents the variation in the output voltage of Transmission Line as

D O
The variation of load voltage should be minimum and hence it is always
desirable that regulation should be as low as possible.

A M
E X
 Regulation

• Only magnitude of voltage should be considered

S T
The following points should be considered while computing regulation,

D O
Voltage Regulation is computed at specified pf
During No-Load and Full Load calculations, sending end voltage should be
same

A M
E X
 Classification
and wavelength of the signals being transmitted on the line.

S T
Transmission Lines are classified on the basis of comparison of physical length

D O
A M
E X
 Classification

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Short Transmission Line
•
capacitance.

S T
We ignore the charge stored on the line and hence ignore the shunt

•
into ground.

D O
Leakage Current is also ignored from Transmission Line through the tower

A M
E X
 Medium Transmission Line
•
leakage current through the Transmission Line.

S T
We consider the charge stored on the transmission line but ignore the

D O
A M
E X
 Receiving end C model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Sending end C model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Nominal T-model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Nominal pi-model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Long Transmission Line
•
distributed parameters

S T
In Long Transmission Line, parameters cannot be lumped and we use

D O
A M
E X
 ABCD Parameters
• Transmission Line can be modeled as two port

S T
O
network with one port as sending end and other as
receiving end.

MD
X A
E
 Receiving end Open

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Receiving end Short

S T
D O
A M
E X
Characteristic Impedance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Cascade Connection
•

S T
Transmission Lines are connected in cascade to increase the effective length of the

O
line.

MD
X A
E
 Cascade Connection

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Parallel Connection
• Transmission Lines are connected in

S T
O
parallel because of following reasons
• To increase current rating of the

•
system

MD
To increase maximum power
rating of the system

A
• To increase reliability
To reduce voltage drop

X
•
• To reduce losses and increase

Eefficiency
 Parallel Connection

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Important Parameters
• Voltage Regulation

S T
D O
Line charging Current
A M
X
•

E
Short Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Phasor Diagram

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Recap

• ABCD Parameters

S T
•

•
Voltage Regulation
Line Charging Current

D O
• Short Line Parameters

A M
•

E X
Phasor Diagram
Zero Voltage Regulation

S T
D O
A M
E X
Zero Voltage Regulation

S T
D O
A M
E X
Max Voltage Regulation

S T
D O
A M
E X
Max Voltage Regulation

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Sending end pf

• Load pf angle

S T
D O
•

A M
Impedance angle of line

E X
 Sending end pf

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Sending end pf

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Sending end pf

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Approximate VR

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Approximate VR

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Recap

• Receiving end C Model

S T
•

•
Ferranti Effect
Sending end C Model

D O
•

•
Nominal T Model
Nominal pi Model

A M
E X
Receiving end ‘C’ Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Ferranti Effect

• Under no-load or light load conditions the

S T
sending end voltage.

D O
magnitude of receiving end voltage is more than

A M
This is due to charging current carried by

X
Transmission Line.

E
 Phasor Diagram

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Comparsion with Short TL

• We can consider the receiving end C Model as a

S T
receiving end.

D O
short TL with purely capacitive load at the

A M
Due to leading pf load the Voltage Regulation

E X
would be negative and hence receiving end
voltage is more than sending end voltage.
 Sending end ‘C’ Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Nominal T-Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Nominal T-Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Nominal pi-Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Nominal pi-Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Nominal T vs pi Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Summary

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Recap

• Receiving End ‘C’ Model

S T
•

•
Sending End ‘C’ Model
Ferranti Effect

D O
•

•
Nominal T-Model
Nominal pi-Model

A M
E X
 Long Transmission Line
•

S T
For Long Transmission Line, we use distributed model instead of lumped model.

D O
A M
E X
 Long Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Long Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Long Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Long Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Long Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Propagation Constant

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Summary

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Recap

• Long Transmission Line

S T
•

•
ABCD Parameters
Propagation Constant

D O
•

A M
Characteristic Impedance

E X
 Wave Nature
•

S T
The voltages and currents in long Transmission Line exhibit wave nature.

D O
A M
E X
 Wave Nature

S T
D O
A M
E X
Forward and Backward Wave

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Wave Nature

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Wave Nature

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Characteristic Impedance
•

S T
The impedance offered to travelling wave in a Transmission Line.

D O
The value of load impedance at which there is no reflection is called as
characteristic impedance.

A M
E X
 Equivalent-pi Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Equivalent-T Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
Approximate ABCD Parameters

S T
D O
A M
E X
Approximate ABCD Parameters

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Per-Unit Parameters

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Complex ABCD Parameters

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Static Power Transfer Equation

S T
D O
A M
E X
Static Power Transfer Equation

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Maximum Power Transfer
•

S T
Sensitivity of Real Power with Voltage Magnitude is very low but sensitivity of

O
real power with power angle is high.

MD
Sensitivity of Reactive Power with Voltage Magnitude is high but sensitivity of

A
reactive power with power angle is low.

E X
Maximum Power Transfer

S T
D O
A M
E X
Power Angle Characteristics

S T
D O
A M
E X
Short Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Short Lossless Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Sending End Power

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Sending End Power

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Sending End Power

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Maximum Power

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Lossless Short TL

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Important Points

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Important Points

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Distortionless Line
•

S T
A Transmission Line is said to be distortion-less if the two time constants are

O
equal.

MD
This condition is same as the condition for a network to be independent of

A
frequency.

E X
 Flat Line or Infinite Line
•

S T
If the voltage magnitude is same at each and every point on the Transmission

O
Line but may have a different phase, it is termed as Flat Transmission Line.

MD
In a Transmission Line if there is no reflection at receiving end then the line is

A
said to be Infinite Line.

E X
 Lossless Transmission Line
•

S T
If there are no losses then the amplitude of wave remains same and does not

O
reduce as the wave propagates forward in a Transmission Line.

MD
Lossless line is also by default Distortion Less.

X A
E
 Surge Impedance
•

S T
Impedance offered by an apparatus for surges, travelling waves and transients.

D O
A M
E X
 Surge Impedance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Propagation Constant
•

S T
It represents changes in Voltage and Current waves during propagation.

D O
A M
E X
 Wavelength
• Wavelength is distance after which a wave repeats itself.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Lossless Line Parameters

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Equivalent-pi Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Equivalent-T Model

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
What is the condition for distortion-less transmission?

S T
D O
A M
E X
What is the condition for Infinite Transmission Line?

S T
D O
A M
E X
What is velocity of wave in a Transmission Line?

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Surge Impedance Loading
•

S T
Impedance offered to travelling waves or surges in a Transmission Line is called

O
as Surge Impedance.

MD
The power absorbed by the surge impedance connected at the receiving end is

A
called as Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)

E X
 Flat Line
•

S T
If the voltage magnitude is same at each and every point on the Transmission

O
Line but may have a different phase, it is termed as Flat Transmission Line.

MD
X A
E
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Loading on Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Loading of Lossless Line
• Maximum Power Transfer in a Lossless line is given by,

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Loading of Lossless Line
•

S T
For short Transmission line, loading is decided by thermal limit i.e. the maximum

O
temperature rise that the line can tolerate.

MD
For Medium Transmission Line, loading is decided by Voltage Drop limit i.e. the

A
maximum drop that can be tolerated between sending end and receiving end.

E X
For Long Transmission Line, loading is decided by Steady State Stability Limit.
 Wave Parameters
• Characteristic Impedance,

S T
Wavelength,
D O
M
•

X A
E
• Velocity
 Velocity of Wave

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
What is the time taken by a wave to reach end of a
400kV, 400km, 50Hz Power Line?

S T
D O
A M
E X
What is loading criteria for a UG Cable?

S T
D O
A M
E X
If a line is loaded below SIL, what type of

T
compensation is required at Sending end?

S
D O
A M
E X
 Surges
• Surge implies a sudden rise in voltage

S T
O
of transmission line due to

D
phenomenon such a lightning.

A M
Surge can only be studied in long

X
transmission line because of wave

E
nature of voltage and current.
 Wave Propagation
• When a dc voltage is suddenly

S T
O
impressed in transmission line it

D
propagates like a surge in
Transmission Line.

A M
E X
 Wave Propagation

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Wave Propagation

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Wave Propagation

S T
D O
A M
E X
Forward and Backward Wave

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Current Equation

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Boundary Condition

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Open Circuited TL

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Open Circuited TL

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Open Circuited TL

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Coefficients

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Steady State Performance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
What is transmitted voltage in open circuited line
at t=0+?

S T
D O
A M
E X
What is the relation between backward voltage
and current?
S T
D O
A M
E X
After what time the line returns to original state
in open circuited line?

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Recap
• Definition of Surge

S T
• Wave Propagation

D O
•

A M
Forward and Backward Wave

• E X
Boundary Conditions

Open Circuited Transmission Line

 Short Circuited Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Short Circuited Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Short Circuited Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Coefficients

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Steady State Performance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Thevenin Equivalent

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Coefficients

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Important Points
• The surge voltage increases when it travels from

S T
O
medium with lower surge impedance to higher

D
surge impedance and vice versa.

A M
Shunt Capacitor can be used to protect the

X
system against surges.

E
 Bifurcated Lines

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Bifurcated Lines

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
What is transmitted current in short circuited line
at t=T+?

S T
D O
A M
E X
What happens to surge voltage when a surge

Transformer?
S T
enters from a Transmission Line into a

D O
A M
E X
What is the transmitted voltage if a transmission

T
line is terminated in a shunt inductor?

S
D O
A M
E X
 Voltage Control
• The permissible range of voltage drop is

S T
O
5% but if voltage drop or rise exceeds 5%

D
then voltage control is required.

A M
Over-voltage may be due to Ferranti

X
Effect or leading pf load.

E
Under-voltage occurs in case of lagging
pf load.
 Internal Voltage Control
• The excitation of alternator is controlled

S T
O
by using AVR (Automatic Voltage

D
Regulator)

A M
Since a generator supplies multiple buses

X
so this may cause other bus voltages to

E
go out of limits.
 External Voltage Control
• Compensating Equipment is placed at the

S T
O
bus where voltage control is required so

D
that other bus voltage are unaltered.

A M
Reactive Power Compensation is required

X
in this case.

E
 Nature of Reactive Power
Apparatus Sink Q Source Q

S T
Neither sink

O
nor source
Synchronous
Generator
Induction Generator

MD
A
Transformer

X
Transmission Line

E
Synchronous Motor

Induction Motor

Heater
 Capacitor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Capacitor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Inductor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Inductor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Reactive Power

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Reactive Power

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Inductor absorbs leading reactive power.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Capacitor absorbs leading reactive power.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Induction generator delivers reactive power.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 Recap
• Internal Voltage Control

S T
• External Voltage Control

D O
•

A M
Reactive Power of Apparatus

• E X
Inductor and Capacitor

Receiving end Voltage

 Shunt Capacitor
• It is used to correct under-voltages in the

S T
O
system.

MD
Current in a Transmission Line can be

A
modified to reduce the voltage drop in the

X
line.

E
The leading pf current drawn by capacitor
compensates the lagging current drawn
by the load.
 Shunt Capacitor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Shunt Capacitor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Phasor Diagram

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Power Factor Correction

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Shunt Reactor
• It is used to correct over-voltages in the

S T
O
system.

MD
The lagging pf current drawn by inductor

A
compensates the leading current drawn

X
by the load. Hence it is used for leading

E
pf laods.
 Shunt Reactor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Shunt Reactor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Phasor Diagram

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Ferranti Effect Control

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Shunt capacitor can also improve along
with improving voltage profile.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Shunt Capacitor is used for pf load while
Shunt Reactor is used for
T
pf load.

S
D O
A M
E X
Ferranti Effect can also be controlled by the use
of Shunt Capacitor.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Recap
• Shunt Capacitor

S T
O
• Rating of Shunt Capacitor

D
• Phasor Diagram
Pf correction

M
•

X
Shunt Reactor
A
E
• Rating of Shunt Reactor
• Phasor Diagram
• Ferranti Effect Control
 Series Capacitor
• It is used to correct under-voltages and

S T
O
over-voltages in the system.

MD
Reactance in a Transmission Line can be

A
modified to reduce the voltage drop in the

X
line.

loads. E
It can work with leading and lagging pf
 Series Capacitor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Impact on Stability

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Impact on Fault Current

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Impact on Fault Current
•

S T
The rating of protection equipment depends on the value of fault current and

O
since fault current increases the rating of protection equipment also

D
increases.

A M
Series connected devices have low voltage rating but due to high current of

X
fault a large voltage appears across the capacitor which can lead to

E
breakdown.

• To protect against such a problem we connect a sphere gap across

capacitor.
 Sub-synchronous Resonance
•

S T
The electrical network exchanges energy with the turbine generator at one or

O
more natural frequency of the combined system below synchronous

D
frequency of the system.

A M
The oscillations may be due to LC series circuit formed in case of Series

X
Compensated Transmission Lines.

E
Due to oscillation the torque may increase which can damage the shaft of
the machine.
Sub-synchronous Resonance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Rating of Compensator

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Voltage Profile

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Surge Impedance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Surge Impedance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Series Capacitor can correct over-voltages as

T
well as under-voltages in the system.

S
D O
A M
E X
Cost of Shunt Capacitor is higher than Series

T
Capacitor for same voltage improvement.

S
D O
A M
E X
Capacitor _____ the SIL while Inductor _____
the SIL.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Recap
• Series Capacitor

S T
O
• Rating of Shunt Capacitor

D
• Voltage Profile
Impact on Stability

M
•

A
• Impact on Fault Current

X
• Sub-synchronous Resonance

E
 Series Vs Shunt Capacitor
Shunt Capacitor

S T
Series Capacitor

D O
Current in the line is modified

Uniform Voltage Improvement

Reactance of the line is modified

Non-Uniform Voltage Improvement

M
High Voltage, Low Current Rating Low Voltage, High Current Rating

A
X= high and C = low X= low and C = high

X
Q of capacitor does not change Q of capacitor changes by large
much with load variations amount due to load variations

E
Small Increment in maximum power

Power Factor Correction Device

Large Increment of Maximum Power

No Power Factor Correction

 Dynamic Voltage Control
• In static voltage control, the devices

S T
O
used for voltage control are static in

D
space i.e. they do not have any
moving parts.

A M
X
• The use of Synchronous Motor for

E
voltage control is called as Dynamic
Voltage Control.
 Synchronous Motor at No-Load
• The real power input to the

S T
O
Synchronous Motor is 0

MD
The reactive power input at no-

A
load is given by,

E X
 Synchronous Condensor
• An over-excited Synchronous Motor

S T
O
working at no-load is called as

D
Synchronous Condensor.

A M
E X
 Synchronous Coil
• An under-excited Synchronous Motor

S T
O
working at no-load is called as

D
Synchronous Coil.

A M
E X
 Synchronous Phase Modifier
• It is an over-excited Synchronous

S T
O
Motor working with some mechanical

D
load.

A M
E X
Synchronous Phase Modifier

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Approaching a Problem
• Step-1: Receiving end P = Load P

S T
O
• Step-2: Using expression for receiving end power, find power angle delta

D
• Step-3: Using the value of power angle find receiving end reactive power
Step-4: Using load pf find load reactive power

M
•

A
• Step-5: The difference between two reactive power gives the reactive power

X
of compensator.

E
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Which one has higher efficiency: Static or
Dynamic Control?

S T
D O
A M
E X
The power factor of Synchronous Motor can be
varied by varying field current.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Synchronous Motor delivers Q in _____condition

T
and absorbs Q in _________ condition.

S
D O
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 Load Frequency Control
• Power input to the machine must be

S T
O
continuously regulated to meet the active

D
power demand.

A M
When the load on alternator increases the

X
rotor slows down and results in reduction

E
of frequency.

• Governers adjust the input to bring

frequency to original level.
 Load Frequency Control
• The control of frequency by the action of

S T
O
speed governers is called as Primary

D
Control.

A M
Secondary Control involves controlling

X
the loading on different plants.

E
Primary Control is not adequate enough
for frequency control.
 Flat Frequency Control
•

S T
If two generators are connected by a tie line and additional load demand is

O
taken care by only one station.

MD
If load changes then generation at only one station changes.

X A
One station must have enough capacity to absorb load variations.

E
For this generator must have zero droop.
 Parallel Frequency Control
• If two generators are connected by

S T
O
a tie line and additional load

D
demand is taken care by both
stations together.

A M
E X
 Flat Tie-Line Control
• The increase in load demand in any

S T
O
area is met by generators in that

D
area.

A M
The power flowing over tie line

X
remains constant.

E
 AFRC
• AFRC: Area Frequency
Characteristics
Response

S T
•

D O
It represents how the system
frequency changes with change in

•
load demand of an area.

A M
B shows sensitivity of load wrt change

•
X
in frequency and is called as Load

E
Frequency Constant.

R is the speed regulation parameter

and shows how generated power
varies with frequency.
 Area Control Error
•

S T
It is the difference between scheduled and actual power generation within a
control area taking frequency bias into account.

D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Underground Cables
• In big cities and densely populated areas

S T
O
overhead lines become impractical owing

D
to safety regulations.

A M
In such places insulated conductors are

X
laid underground also called as UG

E
Cables.

• The main constraint is temperature rise

of insulating material used.
 Advantages
• It can be used in densely populated

S T
O
areas.

MD
UG Cable are more expensive than

A
Overhead Lines.

• UG

E X
Cable offers more safety, less
interference with amenities and better
outlook.
 Construction

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Insulation
•

S T
Insulating layer over the conductor prevents current from leaking into the ground.

O
• Properties

D
• High Insulation Resistance
• High Dielectric Strength
•

•
Non-Hygroscopic

A
Free from Impurities
M
•
•

E X
Electrically and Chemically Inactive
Examples
• Vulcanized Rubber, Polyvinyl Chloride, Impregnated Paper, XLPE
 Construction

Metallic Sheath

S T
•

D O
Used to avoid moisture from entering the
insulation so that dielectric strength does not

M
reduce. Eg. Al or Lead

Bedding

X A
E
• Used to avoid corrosion on metallic sheath due
to chemical and moisture inside earth’s
surface. Eg. Fibrous Material
 Construction

Armouring

S T
• Used to avoid

D O
mechanical damages or
mechanical injuries to the cable during laying

M
and transportation. Eg. Galvanized Steel Tape

Serving

X A
E
• Used to avoid corrosion on surface of
armouring. Eg. Fibrous Material
 UG Cables Vs OH Lines
•

S T
Insulator is placed on surface of conductor in UG Cables but Insulator is placed

O
between tower and conductor in a Transmission Line.

MD
The radius of conductor is same in UG Cable and OH Line so GMR remains

A
same.

E X
The distance between conductors in UG Cable is less than OH Line so GMD is
less.
 UG Cables Vs OH Lines
•

S T
Inductance of UG Cable is less than OH Line due to reduction in GMD.

D O
Capacitance of UG Cable is more than OH Line due to reduction in GMD.

A M
Surge Impedance of UG Cable is less than OH Line.

• E X
SIL of UG Cable is more than OH Line

Line Charging Current is more in UG Cable is more than OH Line.

 Proximity Effect
•

S T
If two conductors carrying current are placed close to each other then current
distribution in conductors is non-uniform and this effect is called as Proximity
Effect.

D O
A M
E X
 Proximity Effect
•

S T
If two conductors carry current in same direction then current is concentrated
at outer edges of conductors but if they carry currents in opposite direction

O
then current is concentrated at inner edges.

D
A M
E X
 Insulation Resistance
•

S T
As current flows through the conductor it encounters the conductor or core
resistance and leakage current flows through the insulator to ground and is

O
represented by Insulation Resistance.

D
A M
E X
 Insulation Resistance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Which one has higher SIL: UG Cable or OH Line?

S T
D O
A M
E X
Insulation Resistance increases with Temperature.

S T
D O
A M
E X
The Insulation Resistance of 100km cable is 50

T
Mega ohm. What is the Insulation Resistance of
50km of cable?

O S
MD
X A
E
 Recap

Underground Cables
S T
O
•

Advantages

D
•

• Construction of UG Cable
•

•
UG Cable Vs OH Cable
Proximity Effect

A M
•

E X
Insulation Resistance
 Electrostatic Stress
•

S T
The variation of Electric Field Vs Distance is called as Electrostatic Stress

O
Distribution.

MD
X A
E
 Electrostatic Stress

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Most Economic Radius
•

S T
Whenever the electric field on surface of conductor is minimum the required

O
dielectric strength of material is minimum and hence cost of insulation is

D
minimized so the radius of core is called as Most Economic Radius.

A M
E X
 Grading of Cables
•

S T
The dielectric strength is generally more than maximum electric field in the

O
insulation.

D
• If electric field is non-uniform then capability of dielectric is wasted.
When we use multiple dielectrics to reduce non-uniformity of Electric Field then

M
•

A
it is called as Grading of Cables.

E X
 Factor of Safety
•

S T
Factor of Safety is defined as ratio of dielectric strength of material to the

O
maximum electric field.

MD
X A
E
 Same Working Stress

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Single Core Cable

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Three Core Cable

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Methods of Computing

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Methods of Computing

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Methods of Computing

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Dielectric Power Loss
•

S T
If a dielectric is placed in the presence of alternating electric field then the

O
electric dipoles reverse their orientation in every half cycle.

MD
The energy lost in the process of reversing the dipoles is called as Dielectric

A
Power Loss.

E X
The other reason for dielectric loss is the flow of leakage current due to finite
resistance of dielectric.
 Dielectric Power Loss

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Sheath Loss
•

S T
Due to flux produced by core there is an emf induced in the sheath which is

O
made of metal and that causes eddy currents to flow and hence cause sheath

D
loss.

A M
E X
 Effect on various losses

S T
O
Parameters Ohmic Loss Dielectric Loss Sheath Loss

D
Current Increases

Frequency Increases

Length Increases

HVDC

A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
If frequency increases the proximity effect increases.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Core to Core Capacitance is more than Core to
Sheath Capacitance.

S T
D O
A M
E X
The dielectric with smallest permittivity is placed

T
nearest to conductor.

O S
MD
X A
E
 Overhead Insulators
• The overhead lines are secured to

S T
O
supporting structures by means of

D
insulating fixtures called as Insulators.

A M
These insulators avoid leakage of current to

X
the earth.

E
Insulators are mounted on tower cross-arm
to provide clearance between conductors
and metal work.
 Properties of Insulators
• The overhead line insulators should have

S T
O
the following properties,

D
• High Insulation Resistance
• High Dielectric Strength
•

•
Non-Hygroscopic

A
Free from impurities
M
•
•

E X
Electrically and Chemically inactive
High Mechanical Strength
Examples: Porcelain, Toughened Glass, Epoxy
Resin, Magnesium Silicate
 Pin Type Insulators
• This is one of the earliest designs.

S T
O
• Can be used for voltages upto 33kV.

D
• Mounted on a pin which is secured on
cross-arm of pole.
•

A M
Conductor placed in groove and tied down

X
with soft Cu or soft Al according to

E
conductor material.
• Bottom shell is protected by top shell.
• Beyond 33kV, pin type insulators become
bulky and uneconomical.
 Suspension Type Insulators
• Replaces pin type insulator at high voltages.

S T
O
• Contains a number of porcelain discs flexibly

D
connected by metal links in the form of a
string.
•

A M
Suspension Insulator hangs from cross-arm

X
of a supporting structure.

E
• Number of discs define the working voltage.
• If one disc is damaged whole unit is not
damaged.
• Each unit is designed for approx 11kV.
 Shackle Type Insulators
• Can be used at voltages less than 11kV

S T
O
• Used on sharp curves, end poles and in

D
section poles
Insulator is coated with an extremely

M
•

A
hard, smooth glaze that reduces

X
accumulation of surface deposits.

E
 Strain Type Insulators
• At dead end or sharp curve the line is

S T
O
subjected to greater tension.

D
• Strain Type are an assembly of
suspension insulators connected
horizontally.

A M
X
• A cable is connected between two

E
transmission lines connected to
different insulator insulators.
 Number of Discs Required

S T
O
Line Voltage Suspension Type Strain Type

66kV 5 6

132kV

220kV

MD 9

13-15
10

14-16

X
400kV

765kV A 20-25

~35
23-26

~36

E
 Flashover and Puncture Voltage
• The voltage at which the air

S T
O
surrounding the insulator breaks down

D
then the arc is formed between
conductor and tower.

A M
X
• The voltage at which conduction starts

E
taking place through the insulator is
called Puncture Voltage.
 Voltage Distribution

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Voltage Distribution

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Voltage Distribution

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Reduce ’m’ value
• The value of ‘m’ can be reduced by reducing Cs

S T
•

D O
This can be done by increasing distance between string and tower.

A M
For that length if cross-arm has to be increased.

E X
Size and cost of tower increases.
 Insulator Grading

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Insulator Grading

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Static Shielding
•

S T
Guard Ring is usually a large metal ring surrounding the bottom unit and

O
connected to metal work at the bottom of this unit.

MD
X A
E
 Static Shielding

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Strain Type Insulators are more efficient than
Suspension Type Insulators.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Insulator gets damaged by Insulator Flashover.

S T
D O
A M
E X
The voltage across the unit nearest to conductor
is maximum.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 Corona

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Critical Disruptive Voltage
• The potential gradient at which a dielectric

S T
O
disrupts fully is called as dielectric

D
strength.
For air,

M
•

A
• g= 30 kV(max)/cm at NTP

X
• g = 21.1 kV(rms)/cm at NTP

E
• The voltage at which maximum electric
field equals the dielectric strength of air
surrounding the conductor is called Critical
Disruptive Voltage.
 Critical Disruptive Voltage

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Critical Disruptive Voltage

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Critical Disruptive Voltage

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Corona Loss
• The power lost in the form of light and

S T
O
sound due to Corona Phenomenon is called

D
as Corona Loss.

A M
E X
 Factors of Corona Loss
• Supply Frequency

S T
Spacing of Conductors
D O
M
•

X A
E
• Atmospheric Conditions

• Dust, Rain and Snow

 Factors of Corona Loss
• Conductor Radius

S T
Surface Conditions
D O
M
•

X A
E
• Profile
 Advantages & Disadvantages
•

S T
It dissipates energy of surges and reduces high voltages and steep frontend

O
waveform

MD
The effective diameter of conductor is increased so capacitance is increased.

X A
Third Harmonic Currents are induced.

E
Interference with Communication Lines and Wireless Signals
 Methods of Reduction
• Large Diameter Conductors

S T
• Hollow Conductors

D O
• Bundled Conductors

A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
The corona loss on a particular system at 50Hz is

T
1kW/km/phase. The corona loss at 60 Hz would be?

S
D O
A M
E X
Increasing diameter of conductor increases
Corona Loss.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Corona Loss is 0 for HVDC System.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Distribution Systems
• It has two components

S T
O
• Feeder

D
• Distributor
A feeder carries current from main substation to secondary substation.

M
•

A
• Main criterion for feeder design is its thermal limit rather than its voltage drop

X
limit.

E
• A distributor has variable loading due to tapping off at intervals by individual
consumers.
• The main criteria is to limit variation at consumer terminals within 5%.
 Types of Distribution Systems
• DC Distribution Systems

S T
O
• Protection of equipment in generating

D
station and substation.
• Maintained using battery source

voltage of 2V.

A M
containing 110 shells each having a

•
E X
AC Distribution Systems
Used for public utility
 Source fed from one end

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Source fed from one end

S T
D O
A M
E X
 AC Distribution

S T
D O
A M
E X
 AC Distribution

S T
D O
A M
E X
 AC Distribution

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Topology

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Radial Distribution
• Distribution Power is supplied from one

S T
O
substation.

D
• Consumers at far end from source
experience low voltages.
•

available

A M
Alternative or reliable power supply is not

E X
Transmission Losses are minimum
 Ring Distribution
• It is a closed loop forming a complete

S T
O
distribution of all loads.

D
• Uniform Voltage is maintained at all loads
• More Reliable than radial distribution
• More Losses

A M
E X
 Source fed from both ends

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Ring Distribution

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Uniform Distribution

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Find the voltage drop from point A to D in a distributor which supplies
concentrated loads as shown in the figure.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Ring Distribution is more reliable than radial
distribution.

S T
D O
A M
E X
The design criteria for feeder is the voltage drop
between its ends.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Edison Vs Tesla

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Problems with AC
• Line charging current limits the use over

S T
O
long distances.

• Increase in

MD
reactance may cause

A
stability problems.

E X
Frequency must be kept same at both
ends.
 Principle of Operation

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Converters
•

S T
HVDC System contains rectifier at sending end and an inverter at receiving end.

O
• Rectifier has firing angle between 0 and 90 and Inverter has firing angle

D
between 90 and 180.
Generally, 12 pulse converters are preferred to reduce ripple.

M
•

X A
E
 Filters
• The order of harmonics in ac current is (np+1)

S T
O
and (np-1) and the order of harmonics on dc side

D
is np.
AC Filter is used to reduce current harmonics on

M
•

A
AC Side.

X
• DC Filter is used to reduce voltage harmonics on

E
DC Side.
• Smoothing reactor flattens current waveform on
DC Side.
 Static VAR Compensator
• DC Side cannot supply reactive power to the

S T
O
converter.

D
• AC Side needs to supply reactive power to the
converter.
•

A M
Reactive Power requirement from ac side reduces

X
the power factor of ac side.

E
• SVC is connected on ac side to supply reactive
power to improve pf on ac side.
 DC Link Current

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Monopolar Link
• Only one conductor is used and the

S T
O
ground is used as return path.

D
• Negative polarity is used for
conductor in order to reduce corona.

A M
E X
 Bipolar Link
• Two conductors are used, one with

S T
O
positive polarity and another with

D
negative polarity.

A M
Neutral Points are grounded.

E X
If one conductor develops a fault then
other conductor can supply the load
at half rated capacity.
 Homopolar Link
• Two conductors are used both having

S T
O
same polarity.

MD
Negative polarity is used to reduce

A
corona loss.

E X
If one conductor develops a fault then
other conductor can supply the load
at half rated capacity.
 Advantages

• There is no distance limitation due to charging current

S T
•

D O
There is no skin effect and hence lesser resistance
No compensation required for voltage control
•

• Less Corona Loss

A M
Less Corona and Radio Interference

E X
No Stability Problem
 Disdvantages

S T
Power Electronics equipment are costly and produce a lot of harmonics

D O
Power Electronic converter requires reactive power which needs to be supplied
externally

A M
•

E X
Useful only for long distance transmission.
 Economic Distance

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
HVDC is more economical at smaller distances.

S T
D O
A M
E X
HVDC System has zero Corona Loss.

S T
D O
A M
E X
HVDC System does not require reactive power
support.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 FACTS
• Flexible AC Transmission System

S T
O
(FACTS)

MD
It uses power electronics based and

A
other static controllers to enhance

X
controllability and increase power

E
transfer capability.

• Best location of VAR compensation is

middle of Transmission Line.
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor
• The current in reactor can be controlled

S T
O
from maximum to zero value by firing

D
angle delay control.

A M
E X
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor
• TSC consists of capacitor, bi-directional

S T
O
Thyristor valve and relatively small surge

D
limiting reactor.

A M
Surge Limiting Reactor limits the surge

X
current.

E
Thyristor Switched Capacitor

S T
D O
A M
E X
Thyristor Switched Capacitor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 FC-TCR
• Fixed Capacitor Thyristor Controlled Reactor

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Static VAR Compensator
• SVC and STATCOM are static VAR Generators

S T
O
whose output is varied so as to maintain or

D
control specific parameters.

A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
In TSR, susceptance can be varied by varying

T
firing angle.

O S
MD
X A
E
FACTS devices offer affordable solution for
voltage control.

S T
D O
A M
E X
FACTS devices produce harmonics.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Single line Diagram

S T
It is simplified symbolic representation of a Balanced Power System Network.

D O
With the help of SLD interconnection of transmission lines and their associated components

M
can be shown.

A
 It is also used to draw per phase equivalent circuit of system without drawing complete 3-

X
phase circuit.

E
 Components of a SLD
• Transmission
BUS BAR
lines
• Sending &

T
Receiving End

O S Measuring
Equipments
• CT &PT
• Meters

D
• Circuit
Protection Breaker
System
• Protective

M
Relays

Incoming Outgoing
Supply

X
voltage

A
Data
Supply
voltage

E
Requiremets
to preapre
a SLD
Fault Level
Load List
of System

7
 Single line Diagram

S T
Generator and transformer connections, star, delta and neutral earthing are indicated

O
by symbols drawn by the side of the representation of these elements.

D
A M
E X
Circuit breakers are represented by rectangular blocks. circuit breaker need not be
shown in the load flow study but are the must for a protection study.
 Impedance Diagram for the Power System

S T
D O
A M
•Synchronous generator at the generating station - voltage source in series with the resistance and reactance
•Transmission Line - Nominal ∏-equivalent circuit
•The load is assumed to be passive and are represented by a resistive and inductive reactance in the series.

E X
• Neutral earthing impedance does not appear in the diagram as the balanced condition is assumed.
•The diagram shown is the balanced 3-phase diagram. It is also called positive sequence diagram.
 Reactance Diagram for the Power System

S T
D O
M
The reactance diagram gives an accurate result for short-circuit studies. The winding resistance,

A
including the line resistance, are quite small in comparison with leakage reactance, hence

X
neglected and shunt path which includes line charging and transformer magnetizing circuit

E
provide a very high parallel impedance with fault, hence open circuited.

It is meant for study of short-circuit study, because current drawn by static load can be
neglected.
 Synchronous Generator in a Power System

T
Generator can be modeled as a constant voltage source behind synchronous impedance which

S
consists of Armature Resistance and Synchronous Reactance.
Usually (Xs >> R), so we neglect the resistance of generator.

D O
A M
E X
SLD Impedance diagram Reactance diagram

Synchronous motor also have same model except load angle becomes negative.
Transmission line in a power system
◇ Usually The Transmission Lines are modeled using Nominal-π Model .

◇
S T
Most of the times, we neglect Shunt Admittances, so the model becomes

D O
“ X A M
E
 Load in a power system

◇ Static Load means Stationary Load which may

consist of Resistors and Inductors.

S T
O
◇ During fault analysis, the static load can be

D
neglected from the circuit.

M
Synchronous
Induction Motors

A
Motors (5-15%)
(55-75%)

E X Lighting and
Heating
(20-30%)

During fault analysis dynamic load especially Synchronous Motor must be considered in fault analysis.
 Transformers in a power system:-

T
◇ Since Magnetizing current is negligible as compared to full load current, so it is removed.

◇ Core loss component resistance is very large, so open circuited.

O S
MD
X A
If the entire circuit is referred to primary side then it looks like as shown in first circuit below or if it is referred to

E
secondary side then it looks like as shown in second circuit below -

Ref. to primary side Ref. to secondary side

 Per Unit System

S T
500MVA,66KV,10KA

D O
Whoa! That’s a big number, aren’t you afraid for calculations?
Jumble 3-Ph Circuits

A M
E X
A key problem in power system is large number of transformers, so it would
be very difficult to continually have to refer impedances to different sides of
transformers.
 Per Unit System

S T
Affects
Magnitude

D O Angles not
affected

A M
Normalization
Per unit
system

X
of all No unit
variables

E
 Advantages of Per Unit System

•Independent of power ratings, terminal voltage.

S T
•No confusion between line voltage and phase voltage value in 3-Ph

O
system.
•Manufacturer rating is also given in per unit value(impedances of
machines).

MD
•Per unit impedances referred to either side are same regardless of

A
connection Δ- Δ,Y-Y, Δ-Y

X
•Computation efforts are also reduced.

E
•Per unit method is independent of voltage changes and phase shift
through transformers.
 Per Unit System

S T
◇ It is customary to select two base quantities to define a given per-unit system.

O
◇ The ones usually selected are: Voltage and Power (Independent Bases)

MD
A
Then compute base values for currents and impedances(Derived Bases):-

X
E
 Three Phase System

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Per-unit System for 1- Transformer:-

S T
D O
Consider the equivalent circuit of transformer referred to LV side and HV side shown below:-

A M
E X
(1) Referred to LV side (2) Referred to HV side
Per-unit System for Transformer

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Per-unit System for Transformer

S T
D O
A M
E X
Per-unit equivalent circuits of transformer referred to LV side and HV side are identical !!
 Transformation Between Bases

Old Base

S
New Base
T
D O
A M
E X
When pieces of equipment with various different Ratings are connected to a system,
It is necessary to convert their impedances to a per unit value expressed on the same base.
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Per unit impedance of primary and secondary

T
windings are equal.

O S
MD
X A
E
Base Impedance of star and delta connection is
same

S T
D O
A M
E X
Representing Circuit Breaker is necessary in SLD

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Balanced System

Magnitude of quantities are equal

S T
Phase difference between them are also equal

1.
D O
• Responses are equal(Voltages, currents)

A M
• No neutral current(No difference between

X
3-Φ,3-wire & 3-Φ,4 wire)
2.

3. E • Decoupled(All 3-Φ are independent of

each other, so possibility of per phase
analysis )
 Balanced System

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Unbalanced System

S T
D O
A M
E X
This is just the beginning of unbalanced system problems
पिक्चर अभी बापि है मे रे दोस्त
 Unbalanced System
What is

T
unbalanced
system?

How it will

O S
D
Happen? Different magnitudes or phase differences of phasor
quantity(V,I) in a system.

A M
E X (1) Unbalance load applied to system.
(2) Due to unsymmetrical fault(L-L fault,
L-L-G fault, L-G fault)
 Fortesque Theorem

unbalanced system?

S T
What if I have to deal with only balanced phasors in

D O
Fortesque theorem states that a unbalanced system can be

M
resolved into ‘n-1’ system of balanced phasors & ‘1’ co-phasor.

A
E.
X
This is applicable for voltages and current only..
 Symmetrical Components

S T
O
Positive Negative Zero
Unbalanced
Sequence Sequence Sequence
Quantity
components Components Components

MD
X A
E
 Positive Sequence

Same phase
Sequence as of
S T
Displaced from
each other by

D O
original phasors 120°

A
Equal inM
X magnitudes 3 Balanced Phasors

E
Only Positive sequence components is present in Balanced 3-Φ system.
 Negative Sequence

Opposite phase
Sequence as of

S T
Displaced from
each other by
original phasors

D O 120°

Equal in

A M 3 Balanced Phasors

E X
magnitudes
 Zero Sequence

Equal in

S T
Zero phase
displacement

O
magnitudes
from each other

“ X MD
A
E 3 Equal Phasors
 α- operator

A operator which

S T
D O
when operates upon
a phasor, rotates it by

M
+120° without

A
changing the

X
magnitude of phasor

E
upon which it
operates.
 Symmetrical Components

S T
D O
A M
E X
Phase Components and Symmetrical Components

S T
D O
A M
E X
Phase Components and Symmetrical Components

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Power Calculations
How will you
calculate when

T
only sequence
Should I components

S
calculate are given in
phase problem?
values from
this data?

D O
A M
E X
 Power Calculations

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Neutral Current

S T
D O
Neutral current.

A M
◇ Sum of line currents in 3-Φ,4 wire system is equal to

X
◇ In 3-Φ,3 wire system neutral is not grounded, so
neutral current is zero.

E
Some Important facts about V ,V I
, line ph , line , I ph

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Some Important facts about V ,V I , line ph , line , I ph

 Zero component of line voltage is always zero.

S T
D O
 In star connected system zero component of line voltage is always
zero, whereas phase component may or may not be zero.

A M
 Sum of line currents in delta connection is always zero.
 In delta connected system zero sequence component of line is

E X
always zero, whereas zero sequence component of phase current
may or may not be zero.
 S T
D O
A M
E X
In a 3- Φ Balanced power system, zero sequence component

T
of current will be?
(a) Equal to positive sequence current

O
(b) Depend upon the load connected S
(c) Zero value

MD
(d) Equal to negative sequence current

X A
E
Unbalanced conditions in power system can be raised

T
due to

O
(b) Occurrence of a L-G fault in power system S
(a) Occurrence of a solid 3-Φ fault in power system

MD
(c) Unbalance load connected to power system
(d) Source being unbalanced

X A
E
Zero Sequence component of line voltage is always 0

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Introduction

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Introduction

S T
D O
A M
1

E X 2 3
 T
Load

O S
Generator

MD
Network Transmission
lines

A
Components

E X Transformer
 Types Of Load Connected

Delta
S T
Star with

D O
Load
Isolated Neutral

A M
E X Star with Neutral
Grounded
 Star Load With Neutral grounded

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Star Load With Neutral grounded

What is
For a Balanced
Decoupling and
when I will do

S T
Star load current of a particular sequence

O
produces
per phasevoltage drop of that sequence only. It means 3
analysis? are independent of each other and hence Balanced

D
components
Star load can be represented as decoupled sequence circuits.

A M
E X
 Positive Sequence Network

S T
D O
A M
System is

X
Balanced, so
per phase

E.
analysis is
sufficient.
 Negative Sequence Network

S T
D O
System is

A M
X
Balanced, so
per phase

E
analysis is
sufficient.
 Zero Sequence Network

S T
D O
A M
X
All 3-phases

E
are identical so
per phase
analysis is
sufficient
 Star load with Neutral not Grounded

Positive Sequence
Neutral and
Ground are
different?

S T
Negative Sequence

O
Network remains Network remains
same same

D
Neutral
grounded or

A M not
grounded?

E X Only Zero
Sequence Network
is affected
 Star load with Neutral not Grounded

S T
D O If neutral is
isolated from

M
ground
Zn ∞

X A
For Solid
Grounding

E
Zn=0
 Delta Connected Load

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Delta Connected Load

S T
No zero sequence current in line of Delta winding but zero

O
sequence current can exist in phase of Delta winding.
•

D
In star grounded network, zero sequence currents can flow in
both phase & line.
•

M
So, no zero sequence current in line of Delta -winding but zero

A
sequence current can exist in phase of Delta - winding.

E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
As rotor rotates in a single direction and windings are displaced in space by 120°
so the emf induced are balanced and always positive sequence, there are no negative or zero
sequence induced emf.
 Alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Different Reactance in Alternator

T
Reactance

O
d-axis and q-
axis
Reactance S
MD
Transient
Reactance
Xd”
Sub-Transient
Reactance
Xd’
Steady State
Reactance Xd

X A
•

•
E
When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the d-axis of field poles then flux Φd per poles
is set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xd.
When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the q-axis of field poles then flux Φq per pole
is set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq.
Positive Sequence Network of Alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
In Star Load neutral grounding affects
(a) Positive sequence network
(b) Negative sequence network
S T
(d) None
D O
(c) Zero sequence network

A M
E X
In Delta connected system zero sequence component of

T
line and phase currents are-
(a) Zero, Zero

O
(b) Zero, May or may not be zero S
(d) Both non-zero
MD
(c) May or may not be zero, zero

X A
E
Why Emf source exists only in positive sequence and not in

T
negative and zero sequence networks of alternator?

S
D O
A M
E X
 Recap

1 2
S T 3
Balanced System
Conditions for a system

D O
Unbalanced System
Problems with
Symmetrical
Components
Unbalanced Phasors in

M
to be balanced Unbalanced System terms of Symmetrical
Components

X
4 A 5 6
E
Star Load
Sequence Networks for
Star Connected Load
Delta Load
Sequence Networks for
Delta Connected Load
Alternator
Positive Sequence
Network
 Negative Sequence Network

• No negative sequence induced emf

S T
•

O
When negative current flows in stator, a magnetic field is

D
set which rotates in opposite direction to rotor.

M
• So it has twice the synchronous speed w.r.t. rotor.

X A
So there is a double frequency induced emf in the rotor
causing for double frequency currents and the rotor will be
over heated.

E
The air gap or reluctance offered by negative sequence
flux is not constant so negative sequence reactance of the
alternator will be changing continuously in between d axis
& q axis reactances
Negative Sequence Network

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Zero Sequence Network

• Zero Sequence currents flowing in stator winding

S T
O
produce mmf in time phase but shifted in space
by 120 degree.

D
The vector sum of mmf becomes 0

M
X A
E
 Delta Connected Alternator

S T
For delta connected alternator we have to convert it to star connection before drawing the

O
sequence networks.

MD
X A
E
 Sequence Networks

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Transformer

• In a Transformer, there is no armature reaction so

S T
O
the reactance is given by leakage reactance.

MD
X A
E
 Zero Sequence Network

• Zero Sequence Network of Transformer is

S T
O
affected by the Transformer connection.

MD
X A
E
 Zero Sequence Network

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Zero Sequence Network

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Zero Sequence Network

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Zero Sequence Network

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Zero Sequence Network

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Transmission Lines

• In a Transmission Line, the voltage drop in any

S T
O
phase depends on the current in that phase as
well as the current in the other two phases.

MD
X A
E
 Transmission Lines

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Transmission Lines

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Transmission Lines

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
In an Alternator the zero sequence impedance has
maximum value

S T
D O
A M
E X
In a star delta transformer with neutral ungrounded
zero sequence current can flow on delta side but not
on star side.
S T
D O
A M
E X
Which sequence has minimum impedance in a
Transmission Line?
(a) Positive Sequence
S T
(b) Negative Sequence

D O
M
(c) Zero Sequence
(d) All are equal

X A
E
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Fault Analysis

• Study of abnormal conditions such as Symmetrical

S T
O
and Unsymmetrical Faults.
• Can be caused by

D
 Insulation Failure of Equipment

M
 Flash-over of lines due to lightning stroke

X A
Fault analysis is needed in order to
 Design the protective relays
 Design Circuit Breaker

E
 Types of Faults

S T
Shunt Type Faults

D O Series Type Faults

•
•
•

A
Line to Line Fault (LL)

M
Line to Ground Fault (LG)

Line to Line to Ground Fault (LLG)

•
•
One Conductor Open
Two Conductor Open

X
• Three Phase Fault
• Three Phase to Ground Fault

E
 Assumptions

• Generator is represented as constant voltage

S T
O
source behind sub-transient reactance.

D
• Currents carried by shunt elements of
Transmission Line are neglected. Transmission

M
Line is modeled as Short Transmission Line.

X A
Current carried by load is also ignored.

Fault Analysis is done under No-Load Condition

E
such that pre-fault voltage is maximum and fault
current is high.
 Assumptions

• Synchronous Motor is not ignored during Fault

S T
O
Analysis

D
• Synchronous Motor acts as Generator during
Fault Analysis.

M
Induction Motor can be ignored during Fault
Analysis.

A
•

X
Variation in speed of alternator is neglected such

E
that frequency remains constant.
 Order of Severity

• Severity of a Fault is determined by the current being fed to the fault.

S T
D O LG
LL
Probability
of
A M LLG
Severity
Increases

X
Occurrence

E
Increases LLL
LLLG
Transients on a Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
Transients on a Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
Transients on a Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
Transients on a Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
Transients on a Transmission Line

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Asymmetrical RMS Fault Current

• The combination of DC Offset and steady state

S T
O
fault current is called as Asymmetrical because
the current waveform is not symmetrical about

D
time axis.

A M
E X
 Maximum Momentary Current

• The peak instantaneous current that occurs in

S T
O
sub-transient region is called as Maximum
Momentary Current.

MD
X A
E
Maximum Momentary Current

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
In which region does the Circuit Breaker open the

T
circuit?
(a) Sub-Transient Region
(b)Transient Region
O S
(c) Steady State
MD
A
(d)None of the above

X
E
Symmetrical Fault is most sever fault.

S T
D O
A M
E X
DC Offset Current during fault decays due to
(a) Resistance
(b) Reactance
S T
(c) Capacitance
(d) All of the above
D O
A M
E X
 Short Circuit Model
• When the fault occurs the pf is lagging in
nature and hence armature reaction is

S T
O
demagnetizing.

D
Due to high armature current armature
reaction tends to reduce the flux but flux
cannot change instantly.

M
•

X A
In order to not let the flux change instantly a
current is induced in field and damper winding

•
E
on rotor which supports the field flux.

Such a condition is called as Sub-Transient

Condition.
 Short Circuit Model

• When fault occurs the real power output of

S T
O
Synchronous Machine becomes 0.

D
Rotor accelerates and the speed of rotor
becomes more than Synchronous Speed.

M
A
• This causes emf to be induced in field and

X
damper winding which causes current flow
and these winding then produce flux to

E
compensate demagnetizing armature reaction.
 Sub-Transient Condition

• Due to relative speed between rotor and stator

S T
O
magnetic field emf is induced in field and
damper winding.

•
D
Due to flux produced by these two windings

M
their reactance comes into picture.

X A
E
 Transient Condition

• The resistance of damper winding is high to

S T
O
produce high starting torque due to which its
time constant is low.

•
D
The transient dies out faster in damper

M
winding as compared to field winding and

A
hence in transient region, transient flux is only

X
produced by field winding.

E
 Steady State Condition

• Once the transient in field winding also dies

S T
O
out the steady state is achieved.

D
In steady state only leakage reactance and
armature reaction remains.

M
X A
E
 Steady State Condition

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Steady State Condition

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Short Circuit Fault Effects

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Three Phase Fault

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Three Phase Fault

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Short Circuit MVA

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
In Transient Region, the flux in field winding is zero.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Short Circuit MVA is given by fault current in pu.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Symmetrical AC Current during fault decays due to
(a) Resistance
(b) Reactance
S T
(c) Capacitance
(d) All of the above
D O
A M
E X
 LLLG Fault
• All the three phases get shorted and then
connected to ground.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Selection of CB

• Circuit Breakers are selected on the basis of

S T
O
most severe fault which is Symmetrical Fault
Analysis.

•
•
Rating of Circuit Breaker
Rated Momentary Current

MD
A
• Symmetrical Breaking Current

E X
Maximum Momentary Current (rms) is
computed by multiplying the current by a
factor of 1.6 to accommodate dc offset
current.
 Selection of CB
•

S T
Symmetrical Breaking Current is computed by using sub-transient reactance for
Synchronous Generator and transient reactance of Synchronous Motor.

•
O
By drawing equivalent circuit we can find symmetrical current. We multiply this current

D
by an empirical factor which depends on speed of Circuit Breaker

Speed

A M Multiplying Factor

X
8 cycles or slower 1.0

E
5 cycles 1.1

3 cycles 1.2

2 cycles 1.4
 Examples

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Examples

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Examples

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Loaded Synchronous Machine

• Obtain Steady State Solution of a loaded system.

S T
•

O
Replace reactance of Synchronous Machines by their sub-transient/transient
value.

D
•

• M
Short Circuit all emf sources and result is a passive Thevenin network.

A
X
Excite passive network by negative of pre-fault voltage at fault point and find
current in different sections of power systems.

•
E
Add current and voltages of Step-1 and Step-4 to obtain post-fault current and
voltages.
 Phasor Diagram

1. Current at bus near to fault is higher than current at

S T
2.
bus farther away from fault.

D O
The voltage at bus farther away from fault is higher

M
than the voltage at bus near to fault.

A
3. The fault current always lags the fault voltage but
current can lead the voltage if current shown in

X
network is opposite to the actual direction of current.

E
 Example

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Fault current in a loaded system is more than
unloaded system.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Rating of Circuit Breaker should be derived under

T
which condition.
(a) Loaded Condition

O
(b)Unloaded Condition S
MD
X A
E
The fault current reduces as the distance of fault
point increases.

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Single Line to Ground Fault (SLG)
• We assume that fault occurs under No-Load
Condition i.e. current before fault occurrence

S T
O
is 0.

D
Due to unbalanced nature of power system in
Unsymmetrical Fault, there is positive,

M
negative and zero sequence currents.

X A
E
Single Line to Ground Fault (SLG)

S T
D O
A M
E X
Single Line to Ground Fault (SLG)

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Line to Line Fault (LL)
• We assume that fault occurs under No-Load
Condition i.e. current before fault occurrence

S T
O
is 0.

D
We assume that phases b and c get short
circuited during Line to Line Fault.

M
X A
E
 Line to Line Fault (LL)

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Line to Line Fault (LL)

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Line to Line to Ground Fault (LLG)
• We assume that fault occurs under No-Load
Condition i.e. current before fault occurrence

S T
O
is 0.

D
We assume that phases b and c get short
circuited and get connected to ground during

M
Line to Line to Ground Fault.

X A
E
Line to Line to Ground Fault (LLG)

S T
D O
A M
E X
Line to Line to Ground Fault (LLG)

S T
D O
A M
E X
Line to Line to Ground Fault (LLG)

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Fault Current in LG Fault is three times the zero
sequence current.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Identify the fault if Ia1 = 3 pu, Ia2 = -3 pu and Ia0 = 0

T
pu.
(a) LG Fault
(b) LL Fault
O S
(c) LLG Fault

MD
A
(d) 3-phase fault

X
E
Three Phase Fault is more severe than LG Fault.

S T
D O
A M
E X
A star 100MVA, 18kV connected alternatorwith isolated neutral
has positive, negative and zero sequence impedance as 0.18, 0.12

under no-load. What are phase voltage of b and c?

S T
and 0.06 respectively. A LG fault occurs on phase ‘a’ of alternator

D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
 Neutral Grounding
• Whenever phase voltage magnitude is
increased to line to line voltage magnitude,
S T
D O
then insulation flashover will take place such
that conductor gets connected to ground.

M
• This is called as Arcing Ground.

A
To avoid arcing ground we must connect

X
neutral to ground.

E
 Neutral Grounding
•
•
Advantages
There is a possibility of maintaining a supply even

S T
O
with fault on one line.
• Interference with Telephone Line is reduced due to

D
absence of zero sequence currents.

M
X A
E
 Neutral Grounding
• During Fault, the voltage of phase c will
become 0 because it is connected to ground.
S T
•

O
Hence, voltage of a and b will become,

D
A M
E X
 Grounding Method
System Grounding
To avoid arcing ground and damage for the system and for the

S T
O
protection purpose.

D
Equipment Grounding or Safety Grounding
For operator safety, the body or outer casing of apparatus is

M
connected to ground.

X A
E
 Types of Grounding
Solid Grounding

S T
D O
Resistance Grounding

A M
X
Generally, resistance grounding is used in alternators to limit
stator fault current. It is used when charging current is small i.e,

E
for low voltage short lines. Helps in improving system stability
during ground faults.
 Types of Grounding
Reactance Grounding
Used for grounding neutrals for synchronous motor, capacitor

S T
O
having large charging current.

Resonance Grounding

MD
X A
E
 Summary of Faults

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Summary of Faults

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Solid Grounding is used when line charging current
is high.

S T
D O
A M
E X
Resistance Grounding improves stability of the
Generator.

S T
D O
A M
E X
A three phase transmission line operating at 50Hz
has L = 5 uH and C = 0.2 uF up to Fault Point. Find

S
the inductance of arc suppressor coil.
T
D O
A M
E X
 Stability

S T
A system is said to be stable if it can
return to its original position after

D O experiencing a disturbance.

A M
E X
 Types of Stability

S T
Voltage
Stability
D O Voltage Regulation should be within 5%

Frequency

A MFrequency of machine should be within 1%

X
Stability of rated frequency.

EAngular
Stability
It refers to stability of rotor angle delta. The
oscillations must be bounded.
 Angular Stability

S T
D O
Steady State
It refers to the
maximum

A M
Transient

It relates to
Dynamic
It refers to

X
small but
power transfer large
continuous

E
capability of a disturbances.
disturbances.
system.
 Steady State Vs Transient Stability

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Dynamics of Synchronous
Machines

S T
Study of Mechanical Part of

D O Synchronous Machines
1

M
Need to represent the mechanical
2
energy in electrical form

XA Moment of Inertia is represented as

E Inertia Constant
3
 Dynamics of Synchronous Machines

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Dynamics of Synchronous Machines

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Swing Equation of Alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Swing Equation of Alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Swing Equation of Alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Swing Equation of Alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
Alternators in Parallel and Swinging Coherently

S T
D O
A M
E X
Alternators in Parallel and Swinging Incoherently

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
D O
A M
E X
Steady State Stability is related to small

T
disturbances and Transient Stability is related to
large disturbances.

O S
MD
X A
E
Developed Torque opposes the rotation of Synchronous
Motor.

S T
D O
A M
E X
The angle δ in the swing equation of a synchronous generator
is the
(a) Angle between stator voltage and current.

S T
(b) Angular displacement of the rotor with respect to the stator
(c) Angular displacement of the stator mmf with respect to a

O
synchronously rotating axis.

D
(d) Angular displacement of an axis fixed to the rotor with
respect to a synchronously rotating axis.

A M
E X
 Recap
1. Kinetic Energy of Synchronous Machine

2. Inertia Constant

3. Swing Equation

4. Equation of Motion
Alternators in Parallel and Swinging Coherently
Alternators in Parallel and Swinging Incoherently
 Steady State Stability

Ability of a Synchronous Machine to

1
maintain synchronism.

Studied in the event of small

2
disturbances.

Machine is assumed to be lossless. 3

 Steady State Stability

Under steady state the speed of machine must be

constant and hence the mechanical input and electrical
output must be equal.
Steady State Stability
Steady State Stability
Steady State Stability
Improving Steady State Stability

Over-excited Reducing
SVC
Alternator Reactance
It increases the It increases the
• Series Capacitor
maximum maximum
• Double Circuit
power transfer power transfer
Line
capability of a capability of a
• Bundled
system. system.
Conductors
• Parallel Line
System
 SVC

Static VAR Compensator is a static device which does

not have any moving parts which is used to control at
any bus by injecting reactive power into the system.
 SVC

SVC can be modelled as a generator which only

supplies reactive power and does not exchange any
active power with Transmission Line

The angle of SVC emf is same as Thevenin Voltage so

that no real power gets exchanged.
SVC
SVC
Inertia Constant of Alternators operating in parallel
increases.
A power station consists of two synchronous
generators A and B of ratings 250MVA and 500MVA
with inertia 1.6p.u. and 1p.u., respectively on their
own base MVA ratings. The equivalent p.u. inertia
constant for the system on 100MVA common base
is:
(a) 2.6 (b) 0.615
(c) 1.625 (d) 9.0
A transmission line has equal voltages at the two ends (V =
1pu), maintained constant by two sources. A third source is
to be provided to maintain constant voltage (equal to 0.98
pu). Find the maximum power capability of the system if
reactance of line is 0.2 pu.
(a) 5 pu (b) 10 pu
(c) 9.8 pu (d) 4.9 pu
 Transient Stability Analysis

• It is the ability of power network or synchronous machine to remain

in synchronous with respect to external connected tie line even after

S T
O
experiencing a large disturbance.

D
• Large disturbance may be due to:

M
1. Due to SC faults
2. Contingencies (removal of any apparatus)

X
The operating time :
A
E
Operating time of the protective circuit breaker is chosen such that after clearing the fault system
should remain in stable mode.

Operating time < Critical Clearing time ( Top < tcr )

7
 T
Assumptions:

S
• Generator will be modeled as constant voltage source behind transient
reactance Xd.

O
• Saturation & saliency in alternator are neglected. Saliency tends to make
machine more stable by increasing maximum power and thus it is neglected.

D
• No damping force as damping force will reduce the oscillations to improve the
stability of the system.

M
• Resistance & shunt elements like Shunt Capacitance are neglected .
• Speed variations & frequency variations are neglected.
•

X
maintained as constant.

A
Speed governing action will be de-activated such that mechanical input will be

AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) will be de-activated such that generated emf

E
E is maintained as constant.

8
 Power Transfer

In Transient Stability Analysis, we generally consider three cases,

I. Before the Fault Occurrence
II. During the Fault

S T
O
III. After the Fault Clearance

MD
We assume that the transfer reactance between the source and load
changes under different conditions which changes the power

A
transfer between source and load or Infinite Bus.

E X
9
 Power Transfer

S T
D O
A M
E X
10
 Equal Area Criterion

only applicable for single machine system.

S
 In case of two machines, we must first convert it to single T
 This is a special case of solution of swing equation which is

D O
machine system and then apply this criteria.
 For multi-machine system, Numerical Solution of swing
equation is computed.

A M
E X
11
 Equal Area Criterion

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Equal Area Criterion

S T
The system will be stable if the amplitude of oscillations of rotor angle remains
constant in an un-damped system. In a practical system such a system will be
stable as due to losses and damping the oscillations will be damped out and rotor

O
angle will settle to a steady state value.

D
A M
E X
13
Increasing steam input of alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
14
Increasing steam input of alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
 First Swing

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Increasing steam input of alternator

Second Swing

S T
D O
A M
E X
17
 Increasing steam input of alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Increasing steam input of alternator

S T
D O
A M
E X
19
Fault occurs on Transmission Line very near to bus

S T
D O
A M
E X
7
Fault occurs on Transmission Line very near to bus

S T
D O
A M
E X
8
Fault occurs on Transmission Line very near
to bus

S T
D O
A M
E X
9
Variation of Speed and Angle with time

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Critical Clearing Angle

It is maximum rotor angle at which CB has to clear the fault to maintain stability.

S T
D O
A M
E X
11
 Critical Clearing Time (tcr)

S T
D O
A M
E X
12
Fault occurs in middle of one of the Parallel Lines

S T
D O
A M
E X
13
Fault occurs in middle of one of the Parallel Lines

S T
D O
A M
E X
14
 After clearing the fault

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Critical Clearing Angle

S T
D O
A M
E X
 Critical Clearing Angle

S T
D O
A M
E X
 S T
DO
Fault occurs on the
Transmission lines

A M
EX
Fault occurs in middle of one of the Parallel Lines

✘ When a fault occurs in the middle of the Transmission line the

S T
O
power transfer during fault does not drop directly to zero.
✘ Thus we consider 3 case :
✗
✗
✗
Power transfer before fault
Power transfer during fault
Power transfer after fault

M D
X A
E
Fault occurs near the Bus

S T
DO
A M
E X
Fault occurs near the Bus

✘ Now for the calculations of critical angle

S T
DO
A M
E X
Fault occurs near the Bus

S T
DO
A M
E X
Removal of one of parallel lines (Contingency
Analysis)

S T
DO
A M
E X
Removal of one of parallel lines (Contingency
Analysis)

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
DO
Faults on Synchronous
Motors

A M
EX
Swing Equation of synchronous motor

S T
DO
A M
E X
Swing Equation of synchronous motor

S T
DO
A M
E X
Change in mechanical load

S T
DO
A M
E X
Change in mechanical load

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
DO
Improving Transient Stability

A M
E X
Methods to improve Transient Stability

Swing Equation for Alternator is,

ⅆ𝛿 2
S T
𝑀
ⅆ𝑡

DO
= 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝛿

By improving Transient Stability we mean to reduce the rotor acceleration.

This can be done by following methods

✘
✘
A M
Design alternator with high capability rating with large inertia (J).
By connecting a flywheel to the shaft of rotor we can reduce the variation

X
in speed and thus improve Transient Stability.

E
Methods to improve Transient Stability

✘ The original swing equation with damping included is

S T
O
ⅆ𝜔
𝑀 + 𝐷𝜔 = 𝑃𝑎
ⅆ𝑡

ⅆ𝜔
ⅆ𝑡
=

M D
Thus, the rotor acceleration is,
𝑃𝑎 − 𝐷𝜔
𝑀

A
Thus, acceleration reduces with introduction of damping term.
This can be introduced by means of damper winding in the
alternator

E X
✘ If steam input is reduced when the fault occurs then the
accelerating power is reduced which reduces the acceleration of
the machine. This can be done by use of Speed Governing
Mechanism.
✘ By using AVR if we increase excitation, then 𝑃𝑒 increases and
accelerating power reduces which reduces the acceleration of the
Methods to improve Transient Stability

✘ Reducing reactance of system by using larger air gap between

S T
O
stator & rotor increases 𝑃𝑒 and reduces acceleration of the
machine.

D
✘ By using Resistance Grounding, Net Electrical Output becomes,
𝑃𝑒 + 𝐼𝑓2 𝑅𝑛

M
This is taken for faults where zero sequence currents exist so
that current

A
flows through the neutral resistance. Thus, electrical

X
output increases and acceleration of machine reduces.

E
Methods to improve Transient Stability

✘ If we use 3-pole CB then all lines are isolated in case of an LG

S T
O
fault on a single line so 𝑃𝑒 = 0 & 𝑃𝑎 is high.

M D
X A
But is we use single pole circuit breaker then supply can be
maintained through other two lines and electrical output increases

E
due to which acceleration of machine decreases and stability is
improved.
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Great things never S T
D O
come from comfort
A M
zones.
E X
 Introduction
◎
S T
O
It is not economically feasible to design and manufacture
electrical equipment that will never fail in service.
◎

◎
D
Equipment will and does fail and the only way to limit further
damage to equipment, and restrict danger to

M
human life, is to provide fast, reliable electrical protection.

X A
E
 Introduction
◎
S T
O
A protective scheme includes circuit breakers and protective
relays to isolate the faulty section of the system from the

D
healthy sections.
◎ Protective Switch is designed on basis of fault analysis.

M
◉ Circuit breaker is designed based on maximum fault
current (generally 3-phase fault)

X A ◉ Relay settings are based on minimum fault current

(generally LG fault)
◉ According to time period of fault existence, two types of

E
faults.
1. Transient fault (time period less)
2. Sustained Fault (time period more)
 S T
DO
A M
Types of protective
switches

EX •
•
•
•
Fuse
Load Interrupter
Line Isolator
Circuit Breaker (CB)
 Fuse

S T
Heat energy (Q) = 2 I rt

O
◎
◉ If heat energy is greater than

D
thermal limit of fuse, then fuse
will melt down & circuit will be
opened.

A M ◉ The length of fuse will be

designed based on operation
voltage such that after the fuse

EX melt down there should not be

any ionization.
◉ Materials: Al, Sn, Cu, Ag etc., else
alloys
 Fuse (Application)

S T
In substation, fuse will be used as a

O
◎
backup protective device which should

D
have high thermal limits so that the
operating time is more which is the
requirement of Back Up Protection.

A M
EX
 Fuse

S T
Minimum fusing current

O
◎ Fusing Factor =
Rated Current of Fuse

M
◎

D Minimum fusing current: Minimum

current carried by the fuse at which fuse
will melt down.

X A
E
 Fuse

S T
DO
A M
EX
 Load Interrupter

S T
Operators only at FL condition

O
◎
◎ Used for Load shredding or load

M
◎
◎D curtailment or energy management.
It will be used to avoid over loads
Braking capacity of load interrupter is full

A
load capacity

EX
 Line Isolator

S T
◎

◎
DO It will be operated only at No-load
operating condition.
Purpose is to provide more clearance

A M between two points in the network or to

increase safety of power system
network.

EX ◎

◎
Line isolator provides more gaps such
that there is a perfect disconnection
between two areas.
Breaking capacity of isolator is zero as it
operates at zero current.
Operation of Line Isolator and Interrupter

S T
DO
First load interrupter
operated

A M
E X Then line isolator opened
 S T
DO
A M
Circuit Breaker

EX
 Circuit Breaker (CB)

S T
CB is a protective switch which can

O
◎
make the circuit and break the circuit

D
during normal and abnormal conditions
respectively by taking trip command or
signal from the relay and operates

A M under all conditions (abnormal, full load,

no-load).

EX
 Operation

S T
When the current in the circuit is high

O
◎
the CT steps down the current and it

D
energizes the relay operating coil. It
pulls the spindle down and thus
energizing the trip coil of Circuit

A M Breaker by connecting a DC source

across it. This causes the plate of Circuit
Breaker to separate from the contacts

EX and open the circuit.

 Operation
◎ Current transformer provides electrical isolation between power network & protective

◎
system.

S T
Measurement CT should have saturation current of 2-3 times full load current & power CT
should have saturation current of 20-30 times of full load current.
◎

O
Protective CT should be operated at ankle point under normal operating condition such
that operating point will be shifted to linear region in B-H curve during abnormal condition.

D
A M
E X
 Operation

S T
DO
A M
EX
 Arc Phenomenon

S T
When a SC occurs, heavy current flows

O
◎
& when contacts separate, contact area

D
decreases & so current density
increases & temperature rises which
ionize the air. The ionized air acts as

A M conductor between the contacts and an

arc is struck between the contacts.

EX
 Arc Resistance

S T
The current between the contacts during the arcing

O
◎
period depends on arc resistance which depends

D
on:

M
◉ The resistance increases with decreases in
number of ionized particles.

X A ◉

◉
Arc resistance increases with increase in
length of arc
Resistance of arc decreases with increases in

E
area of cross-section of arc.
 Arc Phenomenon

S T
The emission of e- is caused by thermal emission as

O
◎
well as due to field emission.

M D
X A
E ◎ When e- collide with other gas molecules, more e-
are generated & so the arc is sustained.
 Arc Phenomenon

S T
DO
A M
EX ◎ Fault clearing time = Trelay + TCB + Tarc + Intentional time delay
 Properties of Arc

S T
◎

DO Conductance of arc. ∝ no. of e- generated during

ionization process.
∝ area of cross-section of arc
also increases.

A M
◎ Conductance of arc ∝
1

X
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑐

E ◎ Rarc will have negative temperature co-efficient because

as the temperature increases the number of ionized
charged particles increase which reduce the arc
resistance.
 Arc Interruption
Method

S T
◎

DO High Resistance Method

◉ Arc lengthening process
◉ Reducing area of cross area of

A M arc
◉ Cooling the arc

EX
 Arc Lengthening
Process

S T
DO
A M
EX
Reducing area of cross section of
arc

S T
DO
A M
E X
Combination of three high resistance
method of arc interruption.

S T
DO
A M
E X
Work hard in silence, let your
Lamborghini make the noise…

S T
DO
A M
E X
 Current Zero arc
interruption method

S T
At i = 0 point, cool air or coolant will be

O
◎
sent into the space of CB contacts such

D
that contact spacing has to be
completely deionized or current should

M
be zero form this point.
At i ≠ 0 point arc interruption, the

A
◎
amount of coolant required is more, a

X
very high voltage appears across CB
contact which may re-strike the arc.

E
Current Zero arc interruption
method

S T
DO
A M
EX
Current Zero arc interruption
method

S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Arc Interruption Theories

✗ Recovery Rate

S T
O
theory

M D
X A
E
Arc Interruption Theories

S T
O
✗ Energy Balance Theory

M D
X A
E
Arc Phenomenon (Important
terms)

S T
O
✗ Recovery Voltage

M D
X A
E
Arc Phenomenon (Important
terms)

S T
O
✗ Active Recovery Voltage (ARV)

M D
X A
E
Arc Phenomenon (Important terms)

✗ First Pole to clear factor

S T
DO
A M
E X
Arc Phenomenon (Important terms)

✗ Restriking Voltage (Vr)

S T
DO
A M
E X
Arc Phenomenon (Important terms)

✗ Restriking Voltage (Vr)

S T
DO
A M
E X
Resistance Switching

S T
DO
A M
E X
Resistance Switching

S T
DO
A M
E X
The inductance and capacitance of a power system network up to a
circuit breaker location are 1H and 0.01 𝜇F respectively, the value
of the shunt resistor across the circuit breaker, required for critical

S T
O
damping of the restriking voltage is?

M D
X A
E
If the rate of generation of charge carriers is more than rate of
recombination then arc restrikes.

S T
DO
A M
E X
Three sections of a feeder are provided with circuit breakers CB1,
CB2, CB3, CB4, CB5 and CB6. For a fault F as indicated in figure.
Which CB operate first for the fault F?

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX The secret to getting ahead is getting started.
Current Chopping

S T
DO
A M
E X
Current Chopping

S T
DO
A M
E X
Ratings of CB

S T
DO
A M
E X
Ratings of CB

S T
O
✗ Rated Voltage

M D
X A
E
Ratings of CB

S T
O
✗ Rated Current

M D
X A
E
Ratings of CB

S T
O
✗ Number of unit operations

M D
X A
E
Ratings of CB

S T
O
✗ Breaking Capacity of CB
✗ Symmetrical breaking current

D
✗ Asymmetrical breaking current.

A M
E X
Ratings of CB

S T
O
✗ Symmetrical Breaking Current

M D
X A
E
Ratings of CB

S T
O
✗ Asymmetrical breaking current

M D
X A
E
Ratings of CB

S T
O
✗ Making Capacity

M D
X A
E
Ratings of CB

S T
O
✗ Short Time Current Rating

M D
X A
E
Ratings of CB

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Classification of Circuit Breakers

S T
O
✗ The different types of high voltage circuit
breakers include the following

D
✗ Air Circuit Breaker
✗ SF6 Circuit Breaker

M
✗ Vacuum Circuit Breaker
✗ Oil Circuit Breaker

X A
E
Air Circuit Breaker

S T
O
✗ This circuit breaker will operate in the air;
the quenching medium is an Arc at

D
atmospheric pressure. ACB is still a
preferable choice to use an Air circuit

M
breaker up to 15KV.

✗
✗
✗
A
The two types of air circuit breakers are

X
Plain air circuit breaker
Air blast Circuit Breaker

E
Plain Air Circuit Breaker

S T
O
✗ The arc chute will have many small
compartments and has many divisions

D
which are metallic separated plates. Here
each of the small compartments behaves as

M
a mini-arc chute and the metallic separation
plate act like arc splitters. All arc voltages

X A
will be higher than the system voltage when
the arc will split into a series of arcs. It is
only preferable for low voltage applications.

E
Air Blast Circuit Breaker

S T
O
✗ Airblast circuit breakers are used for a
system voltage of 245 kV, 420 kV, and also

D
even more. Airblast circuit breakers are of
two types:

M
• Axial blast breaker
• Axial blast with sliding moving contact.

X A
E
 T
SF6 Circuit Breaker
✗ In the SF6 circuit breaker, the current-
carrying contacts operate in sulfur

O
hexafluoride gas is known as an SF6 circuit S
D
breaker. It is an excellent insulating property
and high electro-negativity. It can be

M
understood that the high affinity of
absorbing free electrons. The negative ion is

X A
formed when a free electron collides with
the SF6 gas molecule; it is absorbed by that
gas molecule.

E
SF6 is 100 times more effective in arc
quenching media than an air circuit breaker.
It is used for both medium and high voltage
electrical power system from 33KV to
800KV.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker

S T
O
✗ A Vacuum circuit breaker is a circuit in
which a vacuum is used to extinct the arc. It

D
has dielectric recovery character, excellent
interruption, and can interrupt the high-

M
frequency current which results from arc
instability, superimposed on the line

A
frequency current.

X
E
Vacuum Circuit Breaker

S T
O
✗ The moment contacts of the breaker are
opened in a vacuum, i.e. 10-7 to 10-5 Torr an

D
arc is produced between the contacts by the
ionization of metal vapors of contacts. Here

M
the arc quickly gets extinguished, this
happens because the electrons, metallic

X A
vapors, and ions produced during the arc,
condense quickly on the surface of the CB
contacts, resulting in quick recovery of

E
dielectric strength.
Oil Circuit Breaker

✗ In this type of circuit, breaker oil is used, but

mineral oil is preferable. It acts better insulating

S T
DO
property than air. The moving contact and fixed
contact are immersed inside the insulating oil.
When the separation of current takes place, then

M
carrier contacts in the oil, the arc in the circuit
breaker is initialized at the moment of separation

A
of contacts, and because of this arc in the oil is
vaporized and decomposed in hydrogen gas and

E X
finally creates a hydrogen bubble around the arc.

This highly compressed gas bubble around and

arc prevents re-striking of the arc after the
current reaches zero crossings of the cycle. The
OCB is the oldest type of circuit breaker.
Different Types of Circuit
Breakers in Oil Type

✗
✗
Bulk oil circuit breaker
Minimum oil circuit breaker

S T
DO
A M
E X
 Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker (BOCB)

✗ In the BOCB, oil is used to arc the quenching media

and also for insulating media in between earth parts of

S T
✗
same transformer insulating oil is used.

O
circuit breaker and current-carrying contacts. The

D
The working principle of the BOCB says when the

A M
current-carrying contacts in the oil are separated, then
an arc is generated between the separated contacts.
The arc which is established will produce a rapidly

X
growing gas bubble around the arc. The moving

E
contacts will move away from the fixed contact of the
arc and this results in the resistance of the arc get
increased. Here the increased resistance will cause
lowering the temperature. Hence the reduced
formations of gasses surround the arc.
 Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker

✗ It is a circuit breaker that utilizes oil as the interrupting

media. The minimum oil circuit breaker will place the

S T
DO
interrupting unit in an insulating chamber at the live
potential. But insulating material is available in the
interrupting chamber. It requires less amount of oil so it

M
is called a minimum oil circuit breaker.

X A
E
In Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker, Oil is used for
(a) Insulating medium
(b) Arc Quenching medium

S T
O
(c) Both of the above
(d) None of the above

M D
X A
E
Current Chopping Phenomenon is most severe in Air Blast Circuit
Breakers.

S T
DO
A M
E X
In Vacuum Circuit Breaker, arc is formed without any medium.

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 Don’t Limit Your
Challenges
S T
Challenge Your Limits.

DO
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Protective Relays

S T
Relay is a sensing device which senses abnormal

O
conditions in power system and sends signal to
circuit breaker to remove faulty part from rest of the

M D
system. The basic electrical quantities which are
likely to change during abnormal conditions are
current, voltage, phase angle (direction) and

A
frequency. Relays utilize one or more of these
quantities to detect abnormal conditions on a power

X
system.

E
Protective Zones

T
A part of power system protected by a certain
protective scheme is called protective zone or zone
of protection.

O S
The entire power system is covered by several
protective zones and no part of system is left

D
unprotected.

A M
E X
Primary & Back-up Protection

S T
Primary protection (Main Protection) is the

O
essential protection for protecting a machine.
• As a precautionary measure, an additional

M D •
protection is generally provided & is called Back-
up protection.
If primary protection fails, the back-up protection

A
comes into action and removes the faulty part
from healthy system.

X
• Back-up protection acts as main protection when
primary protection is under maintenance.

E •

•
Back-up relays should not have anything
common with primary relays
Back-up relaying is provided only for most
several type of fault i.e. short circuits.
Important Terms

Energizing Quantity

S T
It is an electrical quantity i.e.
current and voltage either
alone or in combination with

DO
M
electrical quantities required
for the operation of the relay. Pick Up

X A A relay is said to pick up when

it moves from off position to

E the on position. It is called as

Relay pick-up.
Important Terms

S T
DO
A M Fault Clearing Time

Time elapsed between the

E X instant of occurrence of fault

and instant of final arc
extinction in circuit breaker is
called the Fault Clearing
Time.
Time grading principle

S T
The current is measured at various locations e.g.

O
Source intermediate locations & consumer end,
the tripping time is graded in such a way that

M
•
D breaker/fuse nearest to faulty part operates first,
giving primary protection.
The breaker/fuse at previous station operates

A
only as back-up.

E X
Desirable qualities of protective relaying

Selectivity & Discrimination Sensitivity

S T
•
the faulty part of the system and

DO
The protective relaying should select

should isolate as far as possible only

• It refers to smallest value of
actuating quantity at which the
protection starts operating in

M
faulty part from remaining healthy relation with the minimum value of
system. fault current in protected zone.
•

X A
Protective relay should be able to
discriminate between normal &
abnormal conditions. Also it should

E
be able to discriminate against fault
beyond its protective zone.
Desirable qualities of protective relaying

Reliability

S T
The protective relay should
not fail to operate under faulty
conditions & there should not

DO
M
be any fault in any
component of protective Speed
system.

X A • Relay should not be too slow or too

fast.

E • If it is too slow, fault may damage

the system. if it is too fast, it has to
handle higher power.
 Types of relay units
S T
1.

DO
Attracted Armature Relay (Electromagnetic

M
Attraction)

A
2. Balanced Beam Relay
3. Induction disc relay (Electromagnetic)
4.
5.

E X
Watt hour meter type induction relay
Induction-cup relay
Attracted Armature Relay
(Electromagnetic Attraction)

S T
These relays have coil or an electromagnet

O
energized by coil. The coil is energized by the
operating quantity which may be proportional to

M D voltage/current.
These relays respond to both AC & DC
These are fast relays

X A
E
Attracted Armature Relay
(Electromagnetic Attraction)
Operating Principle

S T
DO
A M
E X
Attracted Armature Relay
(Electromagnetic Attraction)

S T
There are various constructions possible for these type of relays and two of them have been

O
shown in the figure below. The basic principle of operation is that when operation quantity is

D
applied to operating coil then magnetic field is produced which attracts the armature and
closes the contacts to the trip circuit breaker. So, it operates on the principle of
electromagnetic attraction.

A M
E X
 The function of a relay is to:

Q1 A. Detect fault

T
B. Interrupt circuit
C. Detect and interrupt

S
D. Both of these

DO
A M
EX
 Protective relays are the devices that detect abnormal conditions in electrical circuits by
measuring
Q2

T
A. Voltage
B. Current

S
C. Constantly the electrical quantities which differ during normal and abnormal conditions
D. Note the above

DO
A M
EX
 Backup protection is provided so as to:

Q3 A. Increase sensitivity

T
B. Increase speed of protection system
C. To act in case of failure of primary protection

S
D. None of these

DO
A M
EX
 S T
Tough timesM D O
don’t last,
X A
tough people do….
E
 S T
Types ofDO
Relay
A M
E X
Balanced Beam Relay
S T
✘

O
Balanced beam relay is a variant of attraction type relay, but

D
still these are treated different types of relay as they are

M
employed in different field of application.

X A
E
Balanced Beam Relay
S T
✘ Operation

DO
A M
E X
Induction disc relay (Electromagnetic)
S T
✘

✘
electromagnetic

DO
In this type of relays, a metal disc is allowed to rotate between two

The fields provided by two magnets are displaced in space & time
✘

M
Torque is produced by interaction of flux of one of the magnets and eddy current

A
induced in disc by other magnet.

E X
 T
Induction disc relay (Electromagnetic)
S
✘ Operation

DO
A M
E X
Watt hour meter type induction relay
S T
✘

DO
Torque is produced by interaction between flux & eddy current in the disc
(produced by , due to E-shaped & U-shaped electromagnetic) 1 2 &
The current setting is selected by inserting a knob to take desired number of turns
in the coil.

A M
E X
 T
Induction disc relay (Electromagnetic)
S
✘ Time current characteristics

DO
A M
E X
 T
Induction disc relay (Electromagnetic)
S
✘ Torque equation

DO
A M
E X
Induction disc relay (Electromagnetic)
S T
✘

O
Plug-setting & time-setting in induction disc relay

D
A M
E X
Induction disc relay (Electromagnetic)
S T
✘

O
Plug-setting & time-setting in induction disc relay

D
A M
E X
Induction-cup relay
S T
✘

DO
The eddy currents are produced in the metallic cup and it interacts with flux
produced by other electromagnet & torque is produced.
It produces more torque than induction disc relay & so it is more sensitive & used
in high speed applications.

A M
E X
Induction-cup relay
S T
✘

DO
The rotor is a hollow metallic cylindrical cup which is free to rotate in the gap
between the electromagnets and the stationery iron core.
Rotating Field is produced by two pairs of coil on four poles as shown.
✘

A M
The rotating field links the rotor causing the rotor to rotate in the same direction
as the rotating magnetic field. Thus, these relays operate on Induction Motor
principle.

E X
Over current protection
S T
✘

✘
called an over-current relay.

DO
A protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a pre-set value is

The value of pre-set current above which relay operates is called as its pick-up

✘
value.

A M
These are used for protection of distribution lines, large motors, power
equipment’s, industrial systems etc.

E X
 Time-current
Characteristics Of
Relays S T
DO
A M
Is there a Fault among us…?

EX
Definite time over-current relay
S T
✘

O
It operates after a pre-determined time when current exceeds

D
its pick-up value. In these type of relays the core is made to

M
saturate at a very early stage so the time of operation
remains almost same. These relays are used as back-up

A
protection for other type of relays.

X
E
Instantaneous over current relay
S T
✘

O
The relay contacts close immediately once the current in the

D
relay coil exceed the preset value. There is a short time delay

M
between the instant of pick-up and closing of relay contacts
though there is no intentional time delay.

X A
E
Inverse time over current relay
S T
✘

O
For above 2 cases operating time does not depend on

D
magnitude of over current but in this case it varies inversely

M
with current through the relay.

A
✘ At values less than pick-up current the relay never operates.
At higher values of current the operating time varies inversely

E X
with the current.

1 = Definite time over-current relay

3 = Inverse time over current relay
Inverse definite minimum time over
current relay (IDMT)
S T
✘

O
It exhibits inverse time characteristics at lower value of fault

D
current & definite time characteristics at higher value of fault

M
current
✗ If PSM<10, inverse characteristic

A
✗ PSM<20, goes toward definite characteristic

X
E
Very inverse time over current relay
S T
✘

O
It gives more inverse characteristics than inverse time over

D
current relay or IDMT relay. It gives better selectivity then

M
IDMT characteristic

X A
E
 Extremely inverse time over current
relay
S T
✘

DO
Gives more inverse characteristic than very inverse time over current
relay and is used where very inverse time over current relay fails in
selectivity


A M
It can be used for protection against overheating of magnitudes
Thus these are used for protection of alternators, power transformers,


X
earthing transformers, expensive cable, railway trolleys etc.

E
A relay must not operate on momentary overload but on sustained
short circuit, hence extremely inverse over current relay comes in use
for such a case.
 An IDMT relay cannot distinguish between rapidly decaying inrush
current or fault current but extremely inverse over current relay can
Comparison

S T
DO
A M
E X
Relay setting or current setting
S T
✘ R.S. =

DO
Pickup current (operating current or plug setting) of over cuurent relay
relay ROC current

A M
E X
Plug setting multiplier (PSM)
S T
DO
A M
E X
Time multiplier setting (TMS)
S T
TMS. =

DO
Required operating time of relay
operating time when TMS=1

A M
The TMS can be varied by varying the separation between

X
the contacts of the relay or varying the arc length through
which the disc travels in case of Induction Disc Relay.

E
 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay operates in
Q1 fixed time due to:-

A.Saturation
S T
DO
B.Fixed Separation
C.Linear Magnetization
D.All of these

A M
EX
 Drag Cup Rotor in Induction Cup Relay has:-
Q2
A. Less Inertia
B. More inertia
C. Less Time of Operation
S T
O
D. Note the above

D
A M
EX
 TMS can be reduced by:-
Q3
A. Reducing separation of contact
B. Increase in PSM
C. Reducing PSM
S T
O
D. Increasing separation of contact

D
A M
EX
 Time-current
Characteristics Of
Relays S T
DO
A M
Is there a Fault among us…?

EX
Definite time over-current relay
S T
DO
A M
E X
 T
Instantaneous over current relay
S
DO
A M
E X
Inverse time over current relay
S T
DO
A M
E X 1 = Definite time over-current relay
3 = Inverse time over current relay
Inverse definite minimum time over
current relay (IDMT)
S T
DO
A M
E X
 T
Very inverse time over current relay
S
DO
A M
E X
 Extremely inverse time over current
relay
S T
✘

DO
Gives more inverse characteristic than very inverse time over current
relay and is used where very inverse time over current relay fails in
selectivity


A M
It can be used for protection against overheating of magnitudes
Thus these are used for protection of alternators, power transformers,


X
earthing transformers, expensive cable, railway trolleys etc.

E
A relay must not operate on momentary overload but on sustained
short circuit, hence extremely inverse over current relay comes in use
for such a case.
 An IDMT relay cannot distinguish between rapidly decaying inrush
current or fault current but extremely inverse over current relay can
Comparison

S T
DO
A M
E X
Relay setting or current setting
S T
✘ R.S. =

DO
Pickup current (operating current or plug setting) of over cuurent relay
relay ROC current

A M
E X
Plug setting multiplier (PSM)
S T
DO
A M
E X
Time multiplier setting (TMS)
S T
TMS. =

DO
Required operating time of relay
operating time when TMS=1

A M
The TMS can be varied by varying the separation between

X
the contacts of the relay or varying the arc length through
which the disc travels in case of Induction Disc Relay.

E
 S
Universal Relay torque equation
T
DO
A M
E X
Over current relay
S T
DO
A M
E X
Directional relays
S T
DO
A M
E X
Distance relay
S T
✘ Impedance relays

DO
There are three types of Distance Relay,

✘ Reactance relays

A M
X
✘ Mho relays

E
Impedance Relay (Distance relay)

S T
DO
A M
E X
Reactance relay (Distance relay)

S T
DO
A M
E X
Mho Relay (Distance relay)

S T
DO
A M
E X
 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay operates in
Q1 fixed time due to:-

A.Saturation
S T
DO
B.Fixed Separation
C.Linear Magnetization
D.All of these

A M
EX
 Drag Cup Rotor in Induction Cup Relay has:-
Q2
A. Less Inertia
B. More inertia
C. Less Time of Operation
S T
O
D. Note the above

D
A M
EX
 TMS can be reduced by:-
Q3
A. Reducing separation of contact
B. Increase in PSM
C. Reducing PSM
S T
O
D. Increasing separation of contact

D
A M
EX
 If the fault current is 150 A, the relay setting is 50% and
Q4 CT ratio is 400:5, the plug setting multiplier will be

S T
DO
A M
EX
 The plug setting of a negative sequence relay is 0.2 A.
Q5 The current transformer ratio is 5:1. The minimum value

relay is?

S T
of line to line fault current for the operation of the

DO
A M
EX
Don’t let yesterday take
too much of today
S T
DO
A M
E X
Differential Relay
✘ A differential relay is suitably connected over current relay

S T
O
operating on difference of two current at two ends of a protected
element

D
✘ For faults outside the protected element the current in at one end
equal the current out at the other end.

M
X A
E
Percentage differential protection.
✘ This is essentially same as current balance overcurrent relay

S T
O
connected in differential configuration.
✘ The circuit contains an additional restraining coil connected in
below.

M D
pilot wires which prevents the closing of contacts as shown

X A
E
Protection of Transmission Line/feeders

S
The probability of fault occurrence on overhead lines is more due to
T
O
their large length and their exposure to atmosphere. The main
requirements of line protection are:

D
✘ In the event of Short Circuit, the CB nearest to the fault should
open and all other CB should remain closed.

M
✘ If the breaker nearest to the fault fails to open, back up protection

A
should be provided by the adjacent circuit breaker.

X
E
Protection of Transmission Line/feeders
There are three methods for feeder protection

S T
O
✘ Over current protection
✘ Distance protection
✘ Pilot-wire protection

M D
X A
E
Type of over current protection
✘ Time graded system

S T
O
✘ Current graded system

M D
X A
E
Non-Directional Time graded system

S T
DO
A M
✘ The arrows marked on both sides indicate relays operate for fault

X
on either side

E
✘ For a fault beyond C, the circuit breaker at C operates first with a
relay time of 0.3sec. Meanwhile, relay at A & B start operating but
after fault is cleared at 0.3s, they are reset. For a fault between B
& C, relay at B operates so unnecessary tripping is avoided.
✘ If relay at B fails to operate, relay at A provides back-up
Current graded system
✘ Current graded systems normally employ high set over current

S T
O
relays. They operate at pre-determined setting without a time lag.

M D
X A
E
Time current grading
✘ In case where power can flow to the fault from both directions, the

S T
O
circuit breakers on both the sides should trip, so as to disconnect
the faulty line.

interconnected line.

M D
✘ Such a case occurs in parallel feeders, ring mains, T-feeders,

✘ Here the directional relays can operate for fault current flowing in
relays.

X A
a particular direction. It is achieved with inverse time over current

E
Protection of parallel feeders
✘ Figure shown 2 parallel feeders feeding the load & we have to select

S T
where we need to place the directional relay and where to place non-

O
directional relay
✘ Direction of current near load reverses in event of a fault, so we place
directional relay at load end.

D
✘ Directional relay on feeder 2 only will operate as direction of current is
reversed only in feeder 2

M
X A
✘ First directional relay near load end will operate and then non-directional
relay at source end to isolate faulty feeder.

E
Protection of ring mains
✘ We connect directional relay at load end and non-directional relay

S T
O
at source end.

M D
X A
✘

E
For time setting of different relay, we will first open the ring at point A
Protection of ring mains
✘ Then we open ring at B & set tie for different relays.

S T
DO
✘ If we combine both we get

A M
E X
Unit Protection Scheme
✘ Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the system i.e. a

S T
O
transformer, transmission line, generator or bus bar. The unit
protection schemes are based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law – the

D
sum of the currents entering an area of the system must be zero.
✘ Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path.

A M
✘ In other words, it is possible to design protection systems that
respond only to fault conditions occurring within a clearly defined

X
zone. This type of protection system is known as unit protection.
Certain types of unit protection are known by specific names,

E
E.g. Restricted Earth Fault and Differential Protection.
Non-unit Protection Scheme
✘ The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific

S T
O
areas, have no fixed boundaries. As well as protecting their own
designated areas, the protective zones can overlap into other

D
areas. While this can be very beneficial for backup purposes,
there can be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a

M
fault is detected by different non unit schemes.
✘ The most simple of these schemes measures current and

A
incorporates an inverse time characteristic into the protection

X
operation to allow protection nearer to the fault to operate first.

E
Non-unit Protection Scheme
The non unit type protection system includes following schemes:

S T
DO
✘ a) Time graded over-current protection

✘ b) Current graded over-current protection

A M
✘ c) Distance or Impedance Protection

E X
Distance protection

S T
✘ Distance relaying is considered for protection of transmission lines where

O
time lag control cannot be permitted and selectivity cannot be obtained by
over current relaying

D
✘ Distance protection is used for main lines & secondary lines.
✘ A distance relay measures 𝑉𝐼 at relay location which gives the measure of

M
A
distance between the relay & fault location. The impedance of fault loop is
proportional to distance between relay location & fault point. For a given

E X
setting, the distance relay picks up when impedance measured by it is
less than set value.
3-zone distance protection

S T
DO
A M
E X
✘ Note : Any type of distance relay (Impedance relay, reactance relay, mho
relay) can be used for protection but circuit conditions must be kept in
mind while choosing.
 S T
O
A)

D
B)

M
C)

D)

X A
E Q1
A

S T
C

DO
A M
EX
Q2
A)

S T
O
B)

D
C)

M
D)

X A
E Q3
 S T
O
A)

D
B)

M
C)

A
D)

EX
Q4
 S T
DO
A M
E X
Half of the knowledge is Ability to say
”I Don’t Know”
Pilot relaying scheme

S T
✗ In these schemes, some electrical quantity at the two ends of

O
transmission line are compared and hence they require some sort of
inter connecting channel over which information can be transmitted

✗
from one end to another

D
Such an interconnecting channel is called a pilot.

M
X A
E
 Translay Scheme
✗ This scheme is a balanced voltage scheme with the addition of a directional feature.

S T
✗ Figure shows the schematic arrangement of the scheme. An induction disc type relay is used at each end of protected line

O
section
✗ The secondary windings of the relays are interconnected in opposition as a balanced voltage system by pilot wires
✗
✗
✗ D
The upper magnet of the relay carries a summation winding to receive the output of current transformers.
Under normal conditions or external faults, no current circulates through pilot wires and hence through the lower magnets of

M
the relay. In those conditions no operating torque is produced.
In case of internal faults, current flows through pilot wires and hence through the lower electromagnets of the relay. So relay

✗
✗ A
torque is produced by interaction of two fluxes.
The current through lower electromagnet may be relatively small & so this scheme is suitable for fairly long pilots having loop
resistance up to 1000

X
E
If the current at two ends of the line is unequal then the induction disc relay operates and disconnect the faulty line at both ends.
Translay Scheme

S T
DO
A M
E X
Carrier Current Protection

S T
✗ On long lines carrier pilot relaying is cheaper & more reliable than pilot wire
relaying (2 wires are used to carry information from one end of protected

O
element to other), even though the terminal equipment is more expensive
& more complicated than that required for use with pilot relays.

D
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
Protection of
M
Alternators
A
E X
 S T
O
Rotor protection
D
A M
EX
 Field-ground fault
protection
✗

S T
As the field circuit is operated
ungrounded, a single ground fault does
not affect the operation of generator or

O
cause any damage.
✗

D
However, a single rotor to earth fault
increases stress to ground in field and
thus can cause insulation. Thus,

A M ✗
probability of occurrence of second
ground fault is increased.

X
In case a second ground fault a part of
field winding is bypassed, thereby

E
increasing current through the
remaining part of field winding. This
causes an unbalance in air gap fluxes,
thus creating an in balance in the force
on opposite sides of rotor. This causes
vibrations.
 Field-ground fault
protection
✗

S T
A relay with resistance to limit the
current is connected in the circuit. A
fault at any point in the field winding

O
will pass a current through the relay.
This will cause operation of earth-fault

D
relay. This relay will send a signal to
alarm circuit. Because first ground fault

M
will not causes any damage. Alarm call
is sufficient.

X A
E
 Unbalanced
Loading
✗

S T
Negative Sequence component of
Stator current produces rotating
magnetic field in a direction opposite to

O
rotor.

D
✗ This causes double frequency currents
to be induced in rotor causing rotor

M
overheating.

X A
E
 Loss of Excitation
✗

S T
When excitation of generator is lost the
generator speeds up slightly and
operates as Induction Generator.

DO Round Rotor Generators do not have

damper windings so they are not
suitable for such an operation as rotor

M
gets overheated quickly.

A
✗ The stator of both type of machine gets
overheated due to magnetizing current

EX being drawn by the machine.

 Overload
Protection

S T
DO
A M
EX
 Overspeed
Protection
✗

S T
Sudden Loss of load results in over-
speeding of generator because the
steam continues to flow into the

O
machine and it cannot be stopped
suddenly due to mechanical and

D
hydraulic inertia.
✗ The increase in speed can be detected

M
using a wattmeteric relay and a second
relay monitors steam input to the

A
turbine.

EX
 Overvoltage
Protection

S T
DO
A M
EX
 Failure of Prime
Mover

S T
DO
A M
EX
 T
Carrier Current Scheme compares __________ to detect the fault.
a) Magnitude of Current

S
b) Phase of Current
c) Current Phasor

O
d) None of the above

M D
X A
E Q1
 T
Rotor Earth Fault can damage rotor of the machine.

O S
M D
X A
E Q2
 T
When prime mover fails the Synchronous Generator starts to act as
Synchronous Motor.

O S
M D
X A
E Q3
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
O
Stator protection
D
A M
EX
 Stator protection
✗

S T
In case of external faults, current in
both CTs are same current & hence
OC carries no current & relay does not

O
operate but in case of internal faults
OC carries currents & hence relay

D
operates.
✗ Due to difference in magnetizing

M
currents, relay can operate so
restraining coils are used to present

A
maloperation.

EX
 Inter-turn faults
✗

S T
Inter-turn fault mean fault between two
winding of same phase
Differential protection cannot be

O
applied as current at both ends of
winding will be same

D
✗ The method used is split-phase
relaying.
✗

M
During inter-turn fault, current in both
winding will not be same so there is

A
current in relay winding & thus relay
operates.

EX
 Inter-turn faults

S T
DO
A M
EX
 Stator winding
protection
✗

S T
Differential relay will not operate for
over loads in the system unbalanced
loading in alternator & stator inter turn

O
fault.

M D
✗ After the operating of CB the fault was
not isolated from alternator in this case

A
the differential relay will excite some
auxiliary relays in the alternator such

EX that the excitation will be removed from

the rotor winding and then steam
supply will be disconnected from the
rotor body.
 Stator winding
protection

S T
DO
A M
EX
 S
Protection of T
O
transformer
D
A M
EX
 Differential protection

S T
✗ It is used for protection of large power transformers of rating 5MVA or above. It is applied for
protection against internal short circuits.
✗

O
The figure shown shows schematic diagram of percentage differential protection for a 𝑌 − Δ
transformer.

D
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 Buchholz relay
✗

S T
The Buchholz relay protects the
transformer from internal faults. It is
the gas actuated relay. The Buchholz

O
relay is placed between the main tank
and the conservator. Such type of

D
relay is used in the transformer having
the rating higher than 500KVA. It is not

M
used in small transformer because of
economic consideration.

X A
E
 Buchholz relay

T
✗ When the fault occurs inside the
transformer, the temperature of the oil

O S
increases. The oil evaporates in the
form of the gas. The generation of the
gas depends on the magnitude of the
fault occurs inside the transformer. The

M D internal failure occurs in

transformer either because of the
insulation breakdown between the
the

A
winding or the winding have the weak
initial contact.

EX ✗ The fault induces the arc which

increases the temperature of the gas.
The oil becomes evaporated and
moves upwards. The Buchholz relay
detects the failure and gives the alarm
to the personnel. The transformer is
disconnected from the main supply for
maintenance.
Harmonic Restraint Differential Relay

S T
✗ Biased differential relay mal operates during inrush current at it will be 6 to 10

O
times Ifl and remains in 5 cycles.
✗ This can be overcome by using IDMT relay having a minimum delay of 6 & 8
cycles.

D
✗ But, the probability of insulation failure just after switching on is quite high and

M
hence should be detected immediately

X A
E
Harmonic Restraint Differential Relay

S T
DO
A M
E X
 T
Which harmonic is most dominant in Inrush Current?
a) Third Harmonic

S
b) Fundamental Current
c) Second Harmonic

O
d) None of the above

M D
X A
E Q1
 T
Buccholz Relay protects against internal as well as external fault.

O S
M D
X A
E Q2
 T
Inter-turn Fault can be detected by means of Differential Relay.

O S
M D
X A
E Q3
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q1
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q2
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q3
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q4
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q5
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q6
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q7
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q8
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q9
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q10
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Q11
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
Introduction
DO
Load Flow Study in a Power System

A
System Network. The main
M
is the steady state solution of Power

information derived from this study

X
involves determining the voltage

E
magnitudes, phase angles and real
and reactive power
flow at different buses.
 Power System Matrices
Bus Admittance
S T
Bus Impedance
Matrix YBUS

DO Matrix ZBUS

A M
E X
 S
Bus
T
DO
Admittance
A MMatrix YBUS
EX
 YBUS Matrix
● In simple terms YBUS can be represented as

S T
○ 𝐼= 𝑌𝑉

DO
A M
E X
 YBUS Matrix

S T
DO
A M
EX
 YBUS Matrix Elements
● The elements of bus admittance matrix can be expressed as,

S T
DO It is the driving point
admittance of Bus1 under
Short Circuit.

A M It is the transfer admittance

between Bus1 and Bus2
under Short Circuit.
● Observations

○
E X
Diagonal elements are driving point admittance measured at the buses by making
remaining bus voltages are zero.

Off diagonal elements are transfer impedances between two parts or buses by making
remaining bus voltages as zero.
 YBUS Matrix
●

S T
Bus Admittance Matrix is a sparse matrix i.e. most of the elements are zero so the memory
requirement for storage of Bus Admittance Matrix is less. So, it is more preferred for Load Flow
Analysis.

○ Sparsity =

DO
Total number of zero elements
Total number of elements
× 100%

A M
E X
Construction of YBUS S T
DO
There are two methods for construction, of
YBUS

A M
Direct inspection method

X
•

E
• Singular transformation method
 Direct inspection method
●

S T
Just by looking at a Power System, we can formulate YBUS matrix by observing,
Diagonal elements = sum of all admittance of all branches connected to node.

DO
Lower case letters represent actual admittances connected to the bus whereas Upper Case letters
represent the elements of Bus Admittance Matrix.

A M
Yio represents the admittance connected between Bus-i and ground.

Yij represents the admittance connected between Bus-i and Bus-j.

X
●

E
● Off Diagonal Elements is equal to negative of admittance connected between 2 nodes
Yik = yik

● If there is no connection between ith and kth bus, then Yik = 0

 T
Q4 A Power System has 15 buses and 35 Transmission Lines. Determine
the %sparsity of the YBUS matrix.

O S
M D
X A
E
 T
Q3 A 3 bus power system network has the following transmission line
data as follows. Use Nominal π Model for Transmission Line and

S
determine Bus Admittance Matrix.

DO
A M
E X
 Singular transformation method
● In this method, we first need to draw a directed
power system network graph. An example is
●
●

S T
The elements of Bus Incidence Matrix are,
aij = 1 if ith branch is directed away from jth node.
given

DO ●
●

●
aij = -1 if ith branch is directed into jth node.
aij = 0 if ith branch is not connected to jth node.

The Bus Incidence Matrix for above network is,

A M
●

E X
Then, we form the Bus Incidence Matrix which
has the order b x n where b is the number of
branches and n is the number of buses
excluding the reference bus. It is represented by
A.
 Singular transformation method
• Each Branch in a Power System can be
represented as shown below,

S T
DO
●

A M
KCL for the above circuit can be written as,

X
● I + J = Vy

E
Singular transformation method

S T
DO
A M
E X
 T
Q2 Construct YBUS for 3 bus power system shown below,
• Z1=j0.2
• Z2=j0.5
• Z12=j0.1

O S
M D
X A
E
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S
Bus
T
DO
Impedance
A MMatrix ZBUS
EX
 Bus Impedance Matrix ZBUS
●
●
In simple terms ZBUS can be represented as
𝑉= 𝑍𝐼

S T
Z12

O
Z1

D
Z2

A M
E X Z3
 ZBUS Matrix Elements
● The elements of bus admittance matrix can be expressed as,

S T
DO It is the driving point
admittance of Bus1 under
Short Circuit.

A M It is the transfer admittance

between Bus1 and Bus2
under Short Circuit.
● Observations

○
E X
Diagonal elements are driving point impedance measured at the buses by making
remaining bus currents are zero.

Off diagonal elements are transfer impedances between two parts or buses by making
remaining bus currents as zero.
 ZBUS Matrix Elements
●

S T
Driving point open circuit impedance ≠ inverse of driving point short circuit admittance.

O
The diagonal elements of ZBUS represent Thevenin impedance so ZBUS will be used for fault
analysis whereas YBUS cannot be used in fault analysis as inverse of YBUS elements won’t yield
Thevenin impedance.

D
M
Note : Both Bus Impedance and Bus Admittance Matrices are symmetric Matrices.

A
E X
 Construction of
S T
ZBUS
The most common method
DO
for construction of Bus

A
Impedance Matrix would be
Inversion of Bus Admittance
M
Matrix.

E X
 ZBUS building algorithm

S T
Modification of Bus Impedance Matrix for every small change in power system would be difficult as we would have
to convert to Bus Admittance Matrix and modify it and then convert back to Bus Impedance Matrix.

O
So, we resort to another algorithm which makes it easier to modify Bus Impedance Matrix.

M D
X A
E
 ZBUS building algorithm

T
Case 1: Addition of a new bus to reference bus

S
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm

T
Case 1: Addition of a new bus to reference bus

S
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case 2: Addition of new bus to existing bus through
impedance

S T
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case 2: Addition of new bus to existing bus through
impedance

S T
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case-3: Adding an impedance to reference bus from
existing bus

S T
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case-3: Adding an impedance to reference bus from
existing bus

S T
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm
Case-3: Adding an impedance to reference bus from
existing bus

S T
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm

T
Case 4 : Adding an impedance between existing bus

S
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm

T
Case 4 : Adding an impedance between existing bus

S
DO
A M
E X
 ZBUS building algorithm

T
Case 4 : Adding an impedance between existing bus

S
DO
A M
E X
 T
Q1 For the positive sequence network data shown in table
below, obtain ZBUS by building procedure

Sr . No p – q (nodes)

O
Pos. Sequence
in pu
S
D
1 0–1 0.25
2 0–3 0.20
3
4

A
1–2
2–3
M 0.08
0.06

E X
 T
Q1

OS
M D
X A
E
 S T
O
ZBUS based
D
A M
Fault Analysis
EX
 T
Q1 For the positive sequence network data shown in table
below, obtain ZBUS by building procedure

Sr . No p – q (nodes)

O
Pos. Sequence
in pu
S
D
1 0–1 0.25
2 0–3 0.20
3
4

A
1–2
2–3
M 0.08
0.06

E X
 T
Q1

OS
M D
X A
E
Symmetrical Fault or Three Phase Fault

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 Change in System Bus Voltages
●
●

S T
Assuming fault occurs at bus k. Before the fault the current injected into bus k is I K and due to fault the current
that is delivered by bus to fault is If .

O
● Post-fault current is IK & If since both currents are opposite.
● Thus, change in current is∆ IK = -If

D
● Before fault, the voltage at bus k is Vk and due to grounding it is reduced to 0.
● Thus, change in voltage is ∆ Vk = - Vk

A M
E X Substituting the values
of ∆ IK & ∆ Vk
 Change in System Bus Voltages

S T
• If the initial Bus voltage was Vj , new bus
voltage is given by,

● Change in voltage of Bus j is

DO
A M
E X
 Fault Current
●

S T
Due to fault the terminal voltage changes but we assume emf as constant due to constant
excitation. Then, the current delivered by generator is,

DO
A M
E X
 T
Q1

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q2

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q3

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q1

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q2

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q3

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q4

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q5

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q6

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q7

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q8

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q9

OS
M D
X A
E
 T
Q10

OS
M D
X A
E
Load Flow Analysis
✗ It is a steady state analysis of an interconnected power system
during normal operation. Single line diagram of power system

S T
✗
O
contains hundreds of buses and branches with impedances

D
specified in per-unit on a common MVA base.
Power flow studies, commonly referred to as load flow, are

M
essential of power system analysis and design.

X A
E
Assumptions
✗ Generator modeled as complex power injection

S T
O
✗ Load will be modeled as constant P, Q loads.

D
✗ Transmission line represented as -modeled or series
impedance.

A M
Load flow analysis is done by taking a snapshot of a power
system network at a particular instant such that loads at buses
should not change.
✗

✗
X
Harmonies in supply are neglected.

E
Frequency of supply is maintained as constant.
No HVDC links are considered
Always the network is lumped parameter model.
Basic load flow equation

S T
DO
A M
E X
 Basic load flow equation

S T
DO
✗

A M
At each bus, 4 parameters are there |V|, δ, P, Q
Total quantities to be found are 4n (n= number of

✗
2n.

E X
buses) but the number of equation known are only

So at each bus 2 quantities will be specified or

assumed as constant, So number of quantities to
be calculated are reduced to 2n which can be
calculated by solving 2n equations
 S T
DO
Bus classification

A M(P, Q, |V|, δ)

EX
Bus classification

S T
Four quantities are associated with each bus. There are voltage |V|, phase

O
angle δ, real power P and reactive power Q.
✗

D
In a load flow study, two out of four quantities are specified and the remaining
two quantities are to be obtained through the solutions of equations.

A M Types of
Buses

E X Slack Bus/
Swing Bus
Generator
Bus (or) PV
Bus
Load
Bus/PQ Bus
Voltage
controlled
buses
Slack Bus/ Swing Bus/ Reference bus
It is taken as reference bus where the magnitude and phase angle of
the voltage are specified. This bus provide the additional real and

S T
O
reactive power to supply the transmission losses, since these are

D
unknown until the final solution is obtained.
✗
✗
|V|, δ - known quantities

M
P, Q - unknown quantities
Slack bus- generator having power capacity compared to all

A
generators in the system.

E X
During load flow solution, the real power generated by all generators
will be kept as constant, such that if there is
any real power change in the system, it will be taken care by slack
bus. No practical existence for slack bus.
Generator Bus (or) PV Bus (voltage controlled
Bus)
✗ In these buses, the real power and voltage magnitude are
specified. The phase angles of the voltages and the reactive

S T
✗
O
power are unknown until the final solution is obtained.

D
The limits on the value of reactive power are also specified.
✗ P,| V | - known quantities

M
✗ Q, δ - unknown quantities

X A
E
Load Bus/PQ Bus
✗ In these buses, the real and reactive powers are specified. The
magnitude and phase angle of the bus voltage are unknown until

S T
✗
the final solution is obtained.
✗
✗
P, Q - known quantities
|V|, δ - unknown quantities

DO
M
Generally reactive power limits will be specified at PV bus such
that if reactive power generated is violating that limit, then PV bus

A
is converted to PQ bus.
✗ If Qg >= Qgmax

E
✗

X
Then Qg is set to Qg max and bus is converted to PQ bus.
If Qg <= Qgmax
✗ Then Qg is set to Qg min and bus is converted to PQ bus.
Voltage controlled buses
✗
✗
Equivalent to PV bus (but no generator)
SVC bus or shunt capacitor bus

S T
✗
✗
✗

DO
Reactive power compensator will be placed
P=0 , |V|= constant; Q, S are variables
SVC rating will be designed by keeping |V| as constant to the

M
required level. The reactive power at end of load flow will be rating
of SVC.

X A
E
Load Flow Solution

S T
O
✗ To solve nonlinear algebraic equations,
numerical or iterative methods are

D
preferable because one step solution is not
possible for nonlinear algebraic equations.

A M
E X
Gauss-Seidel Method
✗ The Gauss-Seidel Method (GS) is an iterative algorithm for
solving a set of non-linear algebraic equations. To start with, a

S T
O
solution vector is assumed, based on guidance from practical
experience in a physical situation.
✗

M D
One of the equations is then used to obtain the revised value of a
particular variable by substituting in it the present values of the
remaining variables. The solution vector is immediately updated in

A
respect of this variable. The process is then repeated for all the
variables thereby completing one iteration.
✗

X
The iterative process is then repeated till the solution vector

E
converges within prescribed accuracy. The convergence is quite
sensitive to the starting values assumed. Fortunately, in a load
flow study, a starting vector close to the final solution can be
easily identified with previous experience.
 Gauss Method

S T
DO
A M
EX
Gauss Method
✗ Algorithm without PV buses

S T
✗ Step 1

DO
✗ Step 2

A M
E X
 Gauss Method
✗ Step 3

S T
✗ Step 4

DO
A M
EX ✗ Step 5
 Gauss Method
✗ Step 1 ✗

S T
Algorithm with PV buses

DO
M
✗ Step 2

X A
E
Gauss Method
✗ Step 3

S T
✗ Step 4
DO
A M
Update both |V|, δ for all PQ buses but update δ for PV buses but not |V|,
as |V| must be same for all PV buses.

Step 5

X
✗

E
Gauss Method
✗ Step-6:

S T
DO
A
✗

M
Step 7

E X
Gauss Seidel Method

S T
DO
A M
E X
 Gauss Method
Example :

S T
Find voltage at second bus at the end of second iteration using gauss method of power flow Line data

From
1
To
2
Impedance
j0.2
DO
2
3
3
1

A
j0.4
j0.25
M
E X
Gauss Method

S T
DO
A M
E X
Gauss Method

S T
DO
A M
E X
Gauss Method

S T
DO
A M
E X
 T
Newton- Raphson Method
� The Newton-Raphson Method is a powerful method of

O S
solving non-linear algebraic equations. It works faster and is

D
sure to converge in most cases as compared to the GS
method. It is indeed the practical method of load flow

M
solution of large power networks.

A
X
� Its only drawback is the large requirement of computer

E
memory which has been overcome through a compact
storage scheme. Convergence can be considerably speeded
up by performing the first iteration through the GS method
and using the values so obtained for starting the NR
iterations.
 T
Newton- Raphson Method

O S
M D
X A
E
 T
Newton- Raphson Method

O S
M D
X A
E
N-R Method in General Form

S T
DO
A M
E X
N-R Method in General Form :

S T
DO
A M
E X
N-R Method in General Form :

S T
DO
A M
E X
N-R Method in General Form :

S T
DO
A M
E X
Newton Raphson Method for Load Flow

S T
DO
A M
E X
Newton Raphson Method for Load Flow

S T
DO
A M
E X
Newton Raphson Method for Load Flow

S T
DO
A M
E X
Newton Raphson Method for Load Flow

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
Elements of Jacobian Matrix

S T
DO
A M
E X
Elements of Jacobian Matrix

S T
DO
A M
E X
Elements of Jacobian Matrix

S T
DO
A M
E X
Elements of Jacobian Matrix

S T
DO
A M
E X
Elements of Jacobian Matrix

S T
DO
A M
E X
Newton Raphson Algorithm

S T
DO
A M
E X
Newton Raphson Algorithm

S T
DO
A M
E X
Newton Raphson Algorithm

S T
DO
A M
E X
Newton Raphson Algorithm

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
Fast Decoupled
DO
Method
A M
E X
Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method

S T
DO
A M
E X
Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method

S T
DO
A M
E X
Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method

S T
DO
A M
E X
Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method

S T
DO
A M
E X
Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method

S T
DO
A M
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Comparison of Load flow methods

� In GS method, convergence depends on choice of slack bus whereas it

does not depends in case of N-R and FDLF.

S T
O
� The increment in number of iteration with system size is less in case of
N-R & FDLF but not in case of GS.

M D
X A
E
 statement

S T
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EX
 S T
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A M
EX
 S T
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A M
EX
 S T
Economic Load Dispatch
DO
A
You’ll Learn:
M
• Various operating costs of a Power System.

E X
• Determine the load sharing between different generators for
minimum cost dispatch.
Generator Operating Cost

S T
DO
A M
E X
Generator Operating Cost

S T
DO
A M
E X
Unit Commitment Decision

S T
The main objective of UCD is to minimize the fuel cost of thermal generating
unit & to decide the commitment schedule of all the plants the main

• Minimum on time constraints

• Minimum off time constraints
DO
constraints which are affecting the UCD are
• Reserve constraints

A M
E X
Reserve Constraint

S T
DO
A M
E X
Minimum on time constraints

S T
If the generator is ON it should be continuously on for certain minimum
time on decided by the minimum on time of the unit
• T1 minimum ON = 5 hr

DO
A M
E X
Minimum off time constraints

• If a generator is OFF it should be continuous off for certain minimum

time as decided by the minimum off time of the unit.
S T
DO
A M
E X
Economic Dispatch Decision (E.D.D)

• The main objective of E.D.D. is to minimize the fuel cost of thermal

generating unit and to decide the power generated by all the units
S T
Optimization problem:-

Objective
DO
A M
E X
Economic Dispatch Decision (E.D.D)

S T
Valid solution vector

DO
A solution vector satisfied all the constraint of the optimization problem then

M
it is called valid solution vector
Invalid solution vector

X A
If a solution vector which is not satisfied even one constrain of an optimization
problem is called Invalid solution vector

E
Final solution vector
It should be valid solution vector & it should give minimum positive value for
an objective function for a minimization problem & maximum possible value
for objective function for maximization problem.
 S T
DO
Economic dispatch
problem

A M • Economic dispatch with power

X
loss
•

E
Economic dispatch without
power loss
Economic dispatch without power loss

S T
DO
A M
E X
Lagrangian method for solving economic without power loss

S T
DO
A M
E X
Lagrangian method for solving economic without power loss

S T
DO
A M
E X
Algorithm

S T
DO
•

A M
To get minimum fuel cost for an economic dispatch problem the
generator should be coordinated such that the incremental fuel cost

•
X
should be equal.

E
The system λ always decided by unit or group of unit which are
participate in the economic dispatch.
Algorithm

S
G2 is the minimum cost generator when compare to G1 throughout the
region of operating mode. T
DO
A M
•
E X
When the incremental cost is equal the powers of two machine should
add to the total load power.
Algorithm
• Only one point exist corresponding to equal incremental cost of

S T
production. To get the equal incremental cost G2 always operate at Px but
G1 can operate anywhere in between possible minimum and maximum
power generation

DO
A M
•
E X
There is no common incremental cost between the two units because
maximum incremental cost of G1 is less then min incremental cost of G2 .
Scheduling should be done by loading the G1 according to its maximum
power ( G2 should not violates minimum limit)
Power Losses

✘ Technical power loss

S T
✗
✗
✗

DO
General power loss  No generator power loss
Transformer power loss  efficiency is very high
Transmission line power loss  Consider

✘ Commercial power loss

A M
E X
Transmission Line Loss Formula

S T
DO
A M
E X
Transmission Line Loss Formula

S T
DO
A M
E X
Transmission Line Loss Formula

S T
DO
A M
E X
Economic Dispatch with Power Loss

Objective:-To minimize the total cost of thermal generator units

S T
DO
A M
E X
Lagrangian method for solving of economic dispatch
with power loss

S T
DO
A M
E X
Lagrangian method for solving of economic dispatch
with power loss

S T
DO
A MIci = Incremental cost of received power or
Total incremental cost of the system.

E X 𝜆 = Lagrangian coefficient or Lagrangien

multiplier
Lagrangian method for solving of economic dispatch
with power loss

S T
DO
A M
E X
Lagrangian method for solving of economic dispatch
with power loss

✘ To get minimum fuel cost decision for economic dispatch problem the
product of penalty factor & incremental cost of all the power plants
S T
✘
should be same.

DO
The penalty factor of generator is increases, the incremental cost should
decreases to maintain the constant product between L & IC hence the

M
generator will supply less power into the system.
✘ If the distance between load center & generator station increases penalty

✘
factor increases

X A
Penalty factor is physical parameter within depend on distance between
generating station & load center.
✘

✘
✘
E
Lmin , It is possible if the load center connected directly across the
generator terminal.
L=1 represents there no penalty on the corresponding generator
Incremental Transmission line loss increases penalty factor increases.
Case1: The load center is directly connected to G1 terminal

S T
DO
A M
E X
Case2: The load center is directly connected to G2 terminal

S T
DO
A M
E X
Case-3: The load center is connected at a same distance
from both plants

S T
DO
A M
E X
Method for Economic dispatch with losses

S T
Solve for economic dispatch of losses are include (Pg = PD + PL ) & co-ordinate
Same as economic dispatch with power loss .
•
•
DO
Solve for economic dispatch if losses are include (Pg = PD + PL ) but not co-ordinate
Second method gives less simulation time & more fuel cost solution (Max power loss).
Solve for economic dispatch if losses are not include (Pg = PD) but co-ordinate.
•

M
Solve for economic dispatch if losses are not include (Pg = PD) & not co-ordinate.

A
E X
Example :
A power system consisting of 2 generating plants G1 & G2 has minimum cost
dispatch with PG1 =150Mw & PG2 =275Mw & loss coefficients are

S T
Find

DO
A M
a) The penalty factor of plant G1 is

b) To increase the total load on the system by 1MW will cost an additional
Rs 200/MWhr. The additional cost in Rs/MWhr to increase o/p of

E X
generator G1 by 1MW
 S T
DO
A M
EX
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EX
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EX
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EX
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EX
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EX
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DO
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EX
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DO
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EX
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EX
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 PowerO S T
M D
Generation
A
X
E
Types of Power
plants

S T
O
✗ Base Load Plants

D
Nuclear power plant

✗ Coal power plant

A
Peak Load plants

✗ Gas plant
M
✗
✗
✗
E X
Solar power plants

Wind turbines

Diesel generators
 Load
S T
O
Characteristics
D
A M
EX
Load Characteristics

✗ Connected Load

S T
DO
A M
E X
Load Characteristics

✗ Maximum

S T
O
demand:

M D
X A
E
Load Characteristics

✗ Minimum

S T
O
Demand

M D
X A
E
Load Characteristics

✗ Demand Factor

S T
O
Maximum demand
Demand Factor =
Total connected load

M D
X A
E
Load Characteristics

✗ Average Load / Demand

S T
Daily Avg. Load =
24 hours

DO
Gen. Units(kWh) per Day

M
Gen. Units(kWh) per Month
Monthly Avg. Load =
30 x 24 hours

X A
Yearly Avg. Load =
Gen. Units(kWh) per Year
365 x 24 hours

E
Load Characteristics

✗ Load Factor

S T
O
Actual Load
Load Factor =
Full Load

M D
X A
E
Load Characteristics

✗ Plant Utilization Factor(PUF)

S T
PUF =
Maximum Demand
Plant Capacity

DO
A M
E X
Load Characteristics

✗ Diversity Factor

S T
O
Actual Load
Diversity Factor =
Maximum Demand

M D
X A
E
Load Characteristics

✗ Plant Use Factor(PUF)

S T
PUF =
Station output(kWh)
Plant capacity x hours of use
DO
A M
E X
Load Characteristics

✗ Reserve Capacity

S T
Reserve capacity= Plant Capacity
– Max. Demand

DO
A M
E X
Load Characteristics

✗ Plant Capacity Factor

S T
Capacity Factor=

DO
Energy Produced
Max. Enerrgy that can be produced

A M
E X
 S T
DO
A M
EX Q1
 S T
DO
A M
EX Q2
 S T
DO
A M
EX Q3
 S T
DO
A M
EX Q4
 S T
DO
A M
EX Q5
 S T
DO
A M
EX Q6
Thermal Power
Plants
S T
DO
A M
E X
 Thermal Power Plant

S T
▧ In Steam power plants, heat of combustion of fossil fuels is utilized by

DO
boilers to raise steam at high temperature & pressure.
▧ The steam produced drives the turbine or sometimes steam engines
coupled to generators.

A M
E X
 Thermal Power Plant

S T
▧ Overall, efficiency of power plant, defined as the ratio of heat equivalent of

DO
electrical output to heat of combustor, is about 29%.
▧ The thermal efficiency of plant depends on:
○ Pressure

M
○ Temperature of steam entering turbine
○ Pressure in condenser.

X A
E
 Working of thermal power plant

▧ It operates Rankine Cycle.

S T
▧

▧
converts water to steam.
This steam is expanded in a

DO
Coal is burnt in a boiler which

turbine which produces

A
mechanical power to drive
alternator.
M
▧

E X
The steam is then condensed
to be fed into boiler again.
 Fuel and Ash Circuit

▧ Coal is delivered by rail, road or water.

S T
▧
▧

DO
Transportation by road is most common.
The coal is then taken to bucket boilers
by means of bucket conveyers.

M
▧ Then, coal stored in bunkers falls into
hoppers by gravity.
▧

X A
Combustion is controlled by controlling
the great speed, quantity of coal
entering grate, the damper openings.

E
▧ Ash after completion of combustion is
collected at back of boiler.
 Air & Fuel Gas circuit

▧ Air is drawn from atmosphere

S T
O
by a forced draught fan or
induced draught fan through air

▧
preheater.

M D
Air is heated in preheater by
flue gases.
▧

X A
The flue gases are finally
discharged through chimney.

E
 Feed water and steam circuit

▧ The steam coming out of turbine is

S T
O
condensed and condensate is
extracted from condenser.
▧ This condensate is forced to low

D
pressure feed water heater where its

M
temperature is raised by heat from
bled steam.
▧

X A
In boiler water is converted to high
pressure steam which is wet.
This wet steam is superheated and

▧
E
then supplied to main valve to the
turbine.
After coming out of turbine, steam is
condensed into feed water.
 Cooling water circuit

▧ Cooling water is supplied from

S T
O
a natural source such as river,
canal, sea or take or cooling
tower through screens to
remove matter that might
choke condenser tubes.

M D
X A
E
 Components of
S T
DO
steam Power Plant

A M
EX
 Boilers

▧ Fire tube boilers, the tubes

S T
O
containing hot gases of
combustion inside are surrounded

D
with water.
▧ Water tube boilers, the water is

▧
outside.

M
inside the tube while gases are

A
Water tube boilers are used where

▧
E
pressure.
X
large amounts of steam are to be
produced at high temperature &

Also weight and space occupied

are less for water tube boilers.
 Boiler Furnace

▧ A boiler furnace is a chamber in

S T
O
which fuel is burnt to liberate the
heat energy.
▧ The boiler furnace walls are made

D
of refractory materials, such as fire
day, silica, kaolin etc.

M
A
▧ These materials resist change in
shape, physical properties.

E X
 Super heaters and repeaters

▧ A super heater is a device which removes

S T
O
the last traces of moisture from the steam
leaving the boiler tubes and also increases

D
the temperature above saturation
temperature.

M
▧ Steam is superheated to highest
economical temperature for following

A
advantages.
○ Reduction in requirement of steam

E X
quantity for given output energy.
○ Superheated steam being dry,
turbine blades remain dry so high
efficiency.
○ No corrosion at turbine blades.
 Economizer and Air Preheaters

▧ When combustion gases leave the ▧

S T
The temperature of feed water

O
boiler after giving most of their heat entering the economizer should be
to water tubes, super heater tubes high enough so that moisture does

D
and reheated tubes they still have a not condense on economizer tube.
lot of heat which if unrecovered ▧ Air preheaters are employed to

M
would go waste. recover the heat from the flue
▧ Economizer and air preheater are gases leaving the economizer &

A
such devices which recover the heat heat the incoming air for
from flue gases on their way to combustion.

▧
E X
chimney and raise the temperature
of feed water and are supplied for
combustion.
Economizer raises boiler efficiency,
causes saving in fuel consumption.
 Economizer and Air Preheaters

S T
DO
A M
EX
 Condensers

▧ Steam after expansion through the

S T
O
prime mover goes through the
condensers which condenses the

D
exhaust steam & also removes air and
other non-condensable gases form

M
steam while passing through them.

X A
E
 Evaporators

▧ In an evaporator, raw water is

S T
O
evaporated by using extracted
steam and the vapors so produced

D
may be condensed to give supply
of pure distilled water.

A M
E X
 Feed water heaters

▧ These heaters are used to heat the

S T
O
feed water by means of bled steam
before it is supplied to boiler.

M D
X A
E
 Spray Ponds

▧ It consists of water tank in which

S T
O
hot water is distributed by pipes
throughout & is sprayed in air.

D
Through nozzles at suitable
pressure.
▧ Mostly the water is cooled by

A
evaporation as the heat for
evaporation is withdrawn from
M
X
water itself.

E
 Cooling Towers

▧ The hot water is taken to tower top

S T
O
and falls through tower and is broken
into small particles while passing over

D
baffling devices.
▧ Air enters tower from bottom and

A M
flows upward. The air vaporizes small
amount of water and thereby cooling
the remaining water.
▧

E X
The air gets heated and leaves tower
at top and cooled water collects at
bottom in a tank from where it is fed
to condenser and cycle is repeated.
 Control Room

▧ The control room consists of

S T
O
the main control desk and
auxiliary panels, is the point in

D
a thermal power plant where all
of the information required for
its efficient control and

M
A
management converges.

E X
 Switchyard

▧ Switchyard is the point in the

S T
O
power network where transmission
lines and distribution feeders or

D
generating units are connected
through circuit breakers and other

M
switchgears via bus bars and
transformers. Switchyard acts as

X A
interface between the power plant
electrical system and electrical
grid.

E
 Steam Turbine

▧ A steam turbine is a device that

S T
O
extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam and uses it to

D
do mechanical work on a rotating
output shaft.
▧
○ Impulse turbine,

A
○ Reaction turbine
M
Classification of steam Turbine

E X
 Electrostatic Precipitator

▧ It has two set of electrodes which are ▧

S T
The dust practices become

O
completely insulated from each other negatively charged and are
and high voltage electrostatic field is attracted to positive electrode.

D
maintained across them.
▧ The first electrode is called as

M
emitting or discharge electrode and
other is called as collecting

A
electrode.

X
▧ High electrostatic field is created
between both which creates corer

E
discharge and ionizes the gas
molecules as flue gases flows
through the tube.
 S T
DO
A M
EX Fuels used
 Fuels used in Steam Power Plant

S T
▧ Fuels may be classified as solid, liquid and gases and as
natural or prepared.

DO
▧ The fuels used generally are coal, oil and gas.

A M
E X
 Classification of coal

▧ Peat:

S T
▧
○
○
Lignite
O
Enthalpy of combustion: 3000 KJ/kg
High moisture content: 60-90 %

D
○ 30-50 % moisture and 40 % carbon

▧ Sub-bituminous coal
○ Volatile matter: 35-45% M
○ Enthalpy: 13, 800 – 17,600 KJ/kg

A
▧

E X
○ Enthalpy 18,000 – 23,000 KJ/kg
Bituminous Coal
○ Enthalpy : 23000-34000 KJ/kg
○ Low moisture content
 Classification of coal

▧ Semi-Bituminous Coal

S T
▧ Semi-anthracite Coal

DO
○ Volatile matter between 14% – 22%
○ Enthalpy: 27,000-35,000 J/kg

○ Enthalpy : 33,500 – 34,750 kJ/kg

▧ Super-anthracite Coal
M
○ Highest carbon content and highest calorific value.

A
○ Very hard with a shiny black surface.

E X
 Selection of Coal

▧ Calorific value

S T
▧

▧
crumbling.

DO
Weatherability: ability of coal to withstand exposure to environment without

Sulphur: most combustible element of coal but produces SiO2 which is a health

M
hazard.
▧

A
Ash: Impurity but produces no heat and is to be removed from furnace to be
disposed.

E X
 Liquid Fuels

▧ Oil can be used in a boiler furnace for generating steam.

S T
DO
▧ The fuel oil has a much higher percentage of hydrogen as compared to coal,
therefore high moisture loss in flue gases resulting in low overall 𝜂.

A M
E X
 Gaseous Fuels

▧ Natural Gas can be used for Power Generation.

S T
DO
▧ Major limitation for using natural gas as fuel for power generation is location
of power plant near natural gas fields.

A M
E X
Hydro Electric
Power Plants S T
DO
A M
E X
Hydroelectric Power Plants
•

S T
Hydroelectric Power is power obtained by converting potential energy in height of water
which is further converted to kinetic energy of turbine and then synchronous machines are
used to convert this energy to electrical energy.

DO
A M
E X
Factors before constructing a plant
•
•
•
Capital cost of plant
Capital cost of erecting and maintaining TL
Energy generation cost comparison.

S T
DO
A M
E X
 S T
Elements of
DO
plants A M
hydroelectric

E X
Elements of hydroelectric plants
Storage Reservoir :
Stores water during excess
Dam :

S T
The function of dam is not

O
flow periods (i.e. rainy season) only to create artificial head by
and supply same during lean raising water surface of
flow periods and thus it helps
in supplying water to turbines.

M D
stream but also to provide
pondage, storage or facility of
diversion into conduits.

X A
E
Elements of hydroelectric plants
Fore bay :
It serves as regulator reservoir
storing water temporality
Spillway :

S T
It acts as safety valve. It
discharges overflow water in
during light load period and
providing the same for initial
increase on account of
O
down stream side when

D
reservoir is full during flood
period.

M
increasing load during which
water in canal is being

A
accelerated.

E X
Elements of hydroelectric plants
Intake :
The intake includes the head
works which are structures at
Valves and gates:

S T
In low head plants, gates at
entrance of turbine caring can
the intake of conduits, tunnels
and fumes.
These structures includes
O
shut off flow and provide

D
unwatering of turbine for
inspection.

M
booms, screens or trash racks,
sluices to prevent entry of

A
debris & ice into the turbines.

E X
Elements of hydroelectric plants
Trash racks :
They prevent ingress of
Tail race:
•

S T
The water after doing

O
floating and other material to useful work in turbine is
the turbine. discharged to tailrace which

D
may lead it to same stream
or to another one.

A M
E X
Elements of hydroelectric plants
Draft tubes:
An airtight pipe of suitable diameter

S T
O
attached to runner outlet and
conducting water down from the wheel
and discharging it under the surface of
water in tail race is known as draft
tube.

M D
X A
E
Elements of hydroelectric plants

Prime Mover or Water

S T
O
Turbines:
In hydroelectric power plants

D
water turbines are used as
prime movers and their

M
function is to convert kinetic
energy of water into

A
mechanical energy which
alternator converts to electrical
energy.

E X
Surge Tank:

A reduction in load on generator causes the Governor to close

the turbine gates and thus creates increased pressure in

S T
O
penstock. This results in water hammer phenomenon which will
require pipe of extraordinary strength to withstand otherwise

D
penstock may burst.
This can be avoided by providing a small storage reservoir or
tank for receiving the rejected flow and thus relieving the conduit

M
pipe of excessive water hammer pressure.
This storage reservoir called as surge tank.

A
• It is located as close to plant as possible
Decrease in load demand causes water level in surge tank to

X
rise. This produces retarding head and reduces velocity of water
in penstock to bring it to desired level.

E
• Increase in load demand causes Governor to open turbine
gates to allow more water flow through penstock to supply
increased load.

This creates a vacuum or negative pressure in penstock and it

provides necessary accelerating force.
Penstock

It is a closed conduit which connects forebay or surge

tank to the scroll case of turbine.

S T
O
• In medium head plants, each unit is provided with its
own penstock.

D
• In high head plants, a single penstock is used.
• The thickness of penstock must be adequate to with

M
stand both the normal hydrostatic pressure and
sudden surges due to fluctuations in load.

X A
E
Classification
according to
extent of water S T
flow regulation.
DO
A M
E X
 Run – off river plants
without pondage

S T
O
Some hydro plants are so located that
water is taken from river directly and no

D
pondage or storage is possible.
• Such plants are called run off river

M
plants without pondage.
• They cannot be used as & when

X A •
desired but only when water is
available.
At such places the water is mainly

E
used for irrigation & power
generation is only incidental.
 Run – off river plants
with pondage

S T
O
• Pondage refers to storage at the
plant which makes it possible to

D
cope, hour to hour with fluctuations
of load through a week or some

M
longer period depending on size of
pondage.

X A • They can serve as base load or

peak load plant depending on flow of
stream.

E
 Reservoir Power plants

S T
O
• When water is stored in a big
reservoir behind a dam, it is possible

D
to control flow of water.
• It can be used as base load or peak

M
load plant as per requirement.

X A
E
Classification
according to water
head S T
DO
A M
E X
Low head hydro power plants
• It consists of a dam across the
stream to back up the river and

S T
O
create a fall, the water flowing
through.

D
• It is created near the dam so no
surge tank is required.

M
• In low head plants, Francis,
Propeller or Kaplan turbines are

•
employed.

X A
Since for given output, large
quantity of water is required and

E
head is low so pipes of larger
diameter and short length are
used.
Medium head hydro power plant
• River is usually tapped off to a
forebay on one bank of the river

S T
O
as in low head plant.
• Form Forebay water is led to

D
turbines via penstock.
• Forebay also acts as water

M
reservoir and surge tank.
• Horizontal shaft Francis, Propeller

A
or Kaplan turbines are used.

X
E
High head hydro electric power plants
• If high head is available, a steep
lateral valley can be dammed and a
reservoir for storage of water is
S T
•
formed.
Surge tank is built just before valve
house so that severity of water
hammer effect can be reduced.
DO
• Surge tank can also act as

A
temporary reservoir to meet
sudden increase in demand.
M
E X
Classification
according to type
of load S T
DO
A M
E X
 Base load plants
•

T
The plants that can take load on the base

S
portion of load curve of power system.
Such plants are of usually large capacity.

O
•
• Since, these plants work on nearly constant
load so they operate at high load factor.

M D
•

•
Run – off river plants without pondage and
reservoir, are used as base load plants.
The unit cost of energy generated by plant

A
should be low.

EX
 Peak load plants
•

T
Plants used to supply the peak load of the

S
system corresponding to top portion of
load curve are called as peak load plants.
•

D
•
O Run-off river plants with pondage can be
employed as peak load plants.
Reservoir plants can be used as peak load
plants.

A M • Load factor of such plants is low.

EX
Classification
S T
of Water
DO
Turbines
A M
E X
Water Turbines
(Based on type of flow)

Axial flow turbines

S T
Tangential or peripheral flow

O
turbines
01 Water flow along the shaft
03 Water flow is along the

D
axis. tangential directions.

02 A M 04
Inward radial flow turbines Mixed flow
Radial inlet and axial outlet

X
Water flows along the
radius.

E
Water Turbines
(Based on action of water )

Impulse Type

S T
Reaction Type

01 is converted into kinetic

energy in a nozzle and
the jet thus formed O
If entire pressure of water

D
02 When water pressure
combined with its velocity
work on running the
turbine.
drives the wheel.

A M
E X
 Pelton wheel
•
low flow.

S T
Impulse turbine suitable for high head and

O
• It has a rotor equipped with elliptical
buckets along periphery of turbine.

D
• Majority of the Pelton Turbines are
Horizontal Shaft Type.

M
• Impulse Turbines have long penstocks due
to high heads.

A
• This turbine is not suitable for water head
below 200 m.

EX
 Francis Turbine
•

S T
It is an inward mixed flow type of reaction
turbine and is suitable for medium head &

O
medium flow plants.
• They develop power partly due to velocity

D
of water and partly due to difference in
pressure acting on front and back of

M
runner buckets.
• Full load efficiency of this type of turbine is

A
about 92%.
• Francis type turbines can be constructed

X
in horizontal and vertical forms.
• The alternator is mounted above turbine &

E •
thus is free from flooding.
This can be designed for higher speed
than Pelton wheel.
 Kaplan Turbine
•

S T
It is also a reaction type turbine and has
gate and governing mechanism similar to

O
that of Francis Turbine.
• In Kaplan turbine water strikes the turbine

D
axially.
• Due to high specific speeds, it is suitable

M
for low head & large flow plants.
• Kaplan Turbine gives high speed than

A
ordinary Francis turbine resulting in lower
cost of runner and alternator.

X
• Its efficiency is about 90% at all loads.
• Its runner is capable of reverse operation

E as a pump.
 Propeller Turbine
•

S T
It is an axial flow reaction type turbine &
has got no provision for changing runner

O
blade while turbine is in motion.
• Its efficiency is 92% at full load.

M D
X A
E
Selection of site for Hydroelectric plants

1. Availability of water
Water storage

S T
O
2.
3. Water head

a.

b.
Depends on topography of area

M D
High head reduces storage requirement

4.
5.

X A
Distance from load center
Accessibility of site

6.
7.
8.
a.

E
Effective transportation

Water pollution can cause corrosion of plant

Large catchment area: large reservoir area
Land availability
Merits of Hydro Power Plant
1.
2.
No Fuel is required
High reliability and cheapest in
operation

S T
O
3. Plant can be run up and
synchronized faster
4. The load can be varied quickly
and rapidly, changing load
demand can be met.

M D
A
5. Accurate governing, f = constant
6. No stand-by losses

X
7. Plants are robust & have longer
life.

E
8. Efficiency is not a function of
age.
9. Neat and clean (no smoke or
ash)
10. Such plants also serve irrigation.
Demerits of Hydro Power Plant
1.
2.
3.
Larger area
Construction cost is high
Long TL are required as plants

S T
O
are required in hilly areas.
4. Long dry season may affect

5.
power supply
Firm capacity is low.

M D
X A
E
Q1

S T
DO
A M
EX
MN1

Q2

S T
DO
A M
EX
MN2

Q3

T
The power output from a hydro-electric power plant depends on three parameters........

S
A. Head, type and dam of discharge
B. Head, discharge and efficiency of the system

DO
C. Efficiency of the system, type of draft tube and type of turbine used
D. Type of dam, discharge and type of catchment area

A M
E X
MN3

Q4

S T
DO
A M
EX
MN4

Q5
A hydro-electric power plant with 150-meter head and 8*109 kg of water will
generate how much energy if overall efficiency is 82%

A. 3.82 * 1013 kWh

S T
B. 4.98 * 1013

C. 9.65 * 1013 kWh

kWh

DO
M
D. 9.98 * 1013 kWh

X A
E
 Nuclear PowerS T
D
Plants
O
A M
E X
 Overview of Nuclear Power

S T
●

●
the world.

DO
Nuclear Power is the only alternative which can meet the future power demand of

Main advantage is the huge amount of energy that can be released by small amount

M
of active material.
The areas most suitable for nuclear power plants are western UP, Northern and

A
●

Western Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.

X
● Nuclear Power is cheapest non-hydroelectric power in India.
● Capital Investment of Nuclear Power Plant include cost of land, cost of nuclear

E
reactor, heat exchanger, steam turbines and alternators etc.
The efficiency of Nuclear Plant is high at high load factors and hence it is used as
Base load plant.
 S T
DO
Elements of a
Nuclear Power

A M Plant

EX
Nuclear Reactor

S T
Reactor is a part of nuclear plant where nuclear fission takes

O
place and energy released is used to heat coolant water which
turns into steam and can run steam turbine.

M D
The main function is to control the emission and absorption of
neutrons.

X A
E
 Reactor Core

S T
●

DO
It contains a number of fuel rods made
of fissile material. They may be diluted
for better control of reaction.

M
● As uranium gets oxidized easily;
Uranium rods are clad with Aluminum,

A
Stainless Steel or Zirconium.

X
It is desirable to use core as cubical or
cylindrical than spherical.

E
 Moderator

S T
● Neutrons produced by fission

D
process are ejected from nucleus at
high speed of about 1.5 × 107 m/s O
M
and are termed as fast neutrons.
These fast neutrons may be

A
●

absorbed by U-238 so chain

X
reaction may not be sustained.
● These neutron must be slowed

E
down to speed of gas molecules so
that chain reaction may be
sustained.
 Control Rods

S T
●

235. These are made of Boron,

Cadmium or Haffnium that absorb

DO
Controlling the rate of fission of U-

M
some of the slowed neutrons.
Chain reaction can be controlled by

A
●

removing fuel rods or by introducing

X
neutron absorbing material.

E
 Coolant

S T
It is a medium through which the heat generated in the reactor is transferred to heat

O
exchanger for further utilization in power generation.
● Sometimes it takes up heat and gets converted to steam to drive steam turbines.
●

M D
It keeps the interior temperature of reactor controlled.
Air, He, H2, CO2 among gases, light and heavy water among liquids.
Molten Na and Li among metals are used as coolants.

A
● Liquid metals are used as coolants in fast reactors which have large heat release from
small core.

E X
 Coolant

S T
DO
A M
EX
 Reflector

S T
●

DO
A neutron reflector is placed around core
which prevents leakage of neutrons from
core.

M
● Reflected neutrons help in continuing the
chain reaction.

X A
E
 Thermal shielding

S T
● Protects against deadly
𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 radiations.

DO
A M
E X
 Multiplication factor

S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
Types of
DO
M
Reactors Used
A
E X
Boiling water Reactor (BWR)
• Fuel: enriched uranium oxide.
• Ordinary water is used both as moderator
and coolant.
S T
DO
• Feed water enter vessel at the bottom and
takes the heat produced by fission and
converted into steam.

A M
• This steam leaves reactor at top and after
passing through condenser returns to
reactor.

E X
Pressurized water Reactor (PWR)
• It is a thermal reactor, using enriched uranium
oxide, clad in zircalloy as fuel.
• Water under pressure is used as coolant &
S T
moderator.

DO
• The hot water from reactor flows to heat
exchanger where its heat is transferred to feed
water to generate steam.

M
• The secondary cooling operates at low pressure.

A
The primary coolant then flows from the heat

E X
exchanger to primary circulating pump which
pumps it back to reactor.
• The steam is condensed in a condenser &
condensate steam returns to heat exchanger
forming a closed circuit.
• In case pressure of primary circuit is too high
then water is sprayed into steam in pressurizer.
Gas cooled Reactor
• This reactor employs gas as
coolant instead of water and
graphite as moderator.
S T
• Gas is circulated through
heat exchanger by means of
blower or gas compressor.

DO
A M
E X
Heavy water cooled and moderated (CANDU) Type
• CANDU stands for Canadian Deuterium
Uranium
• These reactors make use of heavy water
S T
moderator to have maximum neutron
economy & coolant also.

DO
composed of heavy hydrogen isotope as

A M
• Control rods are not required as reaction is
controlled by controlling the level of
moderation

E X
• Heavy water has very low absorption
cross-section and it can be used as
moderator in natural uranium thermal
reactor so fuel need not be enriched.
1.Fuel bundle
2.Calandria (reactor
core)
3.Adjuster rods
6.Light-water pump
7.Heavy-water pump
8.Fueling machines
9.Heavy-water
steam turbine
12.Cold water
returning from turbine
13.Containment
4.Heavy-water moderator building made of
pressure reservoir 10.Pressure tube reinforced concrete
5.Steam generator 11.Steam going to
 Liquid metal cooled reactors
• Metals in liquid state have good thermal
conductivity and high temperature can be
attained easily.
S T
DO
• Sodium is circulated through the reactor
core & an intermediate heat exchanger
where the heat from Sodium

A M
• (Na) is transferred to Nak which gives up
heat in heat exchanger to generate steam.
• Because of violent reaction of Sodium with

X
air the reactor should be leak tight.

E
 Fast Breeder Reactor
• Small reactor in which required
quantity of enriched uranium or
plutonium is kept without a
S T
moderator.
• The reactor is cooled by liquid metal
(Na or k).

DO
• In fast breeder reactor, neutron

A
shielding is provided by using
Boron, light water, out or graphite.
M
by lead, concrete
X
• Gamma shielding is accomplished

E
• The efficiency obtained by liquid
sodium is about 42% whereas with
other coolant it is 28%.
 Nuclear Fuels

Uranium
Enriched uranium Plutonium
S T
U – 233

O
(U-235)

M D
X A
E
 Selection of plant site

S T
●

●
Availability of water supply
Distance from populated areas.
Transpiration facilities

DO
M
● Nearness to load center
Availability of space for disposal of waste

A
●

● Accessibility

X
● Type of land

E
 Advantages

S T
●

●
transportation, storage etc.

DO
Amount of fuel required is quite small, therefore there is no problem of

These plants need less area as compared to any other plant of same size.

M
● Because of negligible cost of transportation, these plants can be constructed near
load centers.
●

X A
Most economical for large MVA rating.
Large deposits of nuclear fuels available across the world.
Operating cost is very low.

E
 Disadvantages

S T
●

DO
Initial cost of plants is very high.
Fission materials produce radioactive waste which causes radioactive pollution.
Not suitable for varying loads.

M
● Fuel used is expensive and difficult to recover.
Maintenance charges are high.

A
●

● Cooling water requirement of a nuclear power plant are very heavy so cooling

X
towers are larger and costlier.

E
MN4

Operating cost of nuclear power plant is less than thermal power plant.

T
A. True

S
B. False

DO
A M
Q E X
1
MN3

The land area required for installation of nuclear power plant is ________

T
A. more than thermal power plant

S
B. less than thermal power plant

O
C. equal to thermal power plant

D
D. depends on type of construction

A M
Q E X
2
MN2

What is the overall efficiency of nuclear power plant?

T
A. 20 to 25%

S
B. 25 to 30%

O
C. 30 to 40 %

D
D. 50 to 70 %

A M
Q E X
3
MN1

S T
DO
A M
Q EX
4
 S T
D
Gas turbine O
Plants
A M
E X
Overview

S T
O
✗ It is power plant where a gas turbine is used as
prime mover for electrical energy generation

D
✗ In thermal power plants, products of combustion
are used to generate steam which is expanded

M
in prime
✗ mover but in Gas Turbine Power Plant Gas is

A
directly expanded in Prime Mover.

X
In turbine blading, working gas expands & heat
energy is first converted to kinetic energy & then

E
to work of turbine shaft rotation.
✗ Gas Turbines in simple mode have an efficiency
of 32% to 38%.
Schematic

S T
DO
A M
E X
Working
✗ Compressor used in Gas Turbine Power Plant is of rotary
type.

S T
✗
✗

DO
Filter removes the dust from air intake from atmosphere.
Combustion chamber has a chamber in which air is injected at
high pressure, fuel is injected & burnt in stream of air supplied.

M
✗ Gases of combustion pass over turbine blades & expand &
result in rotation
✗

X A
Alternator coupled to turbine converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy.
Electric motor for starting the compressor & it is mounted on

E
some shaft as that of turbine.
Fuels Used
✗ Products of combustion should have minimum matter which can
be disposed easily.

S T
✗
✗

✗
higher costs.

DO
Coal of Peat can be used but they have ash handing problems.
Kerosene, Diesel Oil, Residual Oil can be used but they have

M
Natural Gas (Methane) is generally used which has high calorific
value.

X A
E
Selection of Site

S T
O
✗ Distance from load center
✗ Availability of land

D
✗ Availability of fuel
✗ Availability of transportation facilities.

M
✗ Distance from populated areas
✗ Type of land

X A
E
Merits

S T
O
✗ Simplicity of design & installation
✗ High reliability

D
✗ Simple liberation system
✗ Clean exhaust requiring no stack.

M
✗ Compactness
✗ Low initial cost
✗

A
No stand by losses.

X
E
Demerits

S T
O
✗ Low net output
✗ Low 𝜂

D
✗ Noisy operation

A M
E X
 S T
D O
Solar Plants
A M
E X
Overview

S T
O
✗ Sun radiates energy of about 3.5 × 1023 kW
into space and 2 × 1014 kW energy reaches

D
earth.
✗ Even if 90% of energy is lost in refection,

M
refraction & absorption in outer layers of
atmosphere then energy that can be

X A
harnessed is 2 × 1013 kW. This is equivalent
to burning 17 million tons of coal.

E
Schematic and Working
✗ Large parabolic collectors are employed as solar collector.

S T
O
✗ Solar energy collected is used to heat a fluid. This heat is transferred to feed water
which is converted to steam.
✗

D
The steam is used to run a turbine which is coupled to a generator which
generates electric power

M
X A
E
Solar Collector

S T
O
✗ A solar collector absorbs the incident solar
radiation & converts it into useful heat

D
energy which is used to heat fluid such as
water, oil or air.

M
✗ Surface of solar collector is designed for
high absorption & low emission.

X A
E
Flat plate collectors

S T
O
✗ Used where temperature below 100°C are
required.

D
✗ They can be liquid heating type which are
used for heating water.

M
✗ The structure is placed at proper inclination
to absorb solar radiations.
✗

X A
It is mainly used for water heating, space
heating & space cooling.
The collection efficiency varies from 40-

E
60%.
Focusing or Concentrating
Collectors

S T
O
✗ To achieve temperatures higher than
achievable by flat plate collectors , focusing

D
collector are used
✗ It can give temperature in range of 100-200° C

M
✗ It can be used for steam engines & turbines.
✗ These collectors have to be rotated with

✗
motion of sun.

X A
High operating temperatures such as 1000° C
can be achieved with point focus collectors

E
Drawbacks

S T
O
✗ Energy density per unit area is very low
✗ Available only for parts of a day

D
✗ Cloudy & hazy atmospheric conditions
largely reduce the energy received.

M
✗ A means to store energy is required.

X A
E
 S T
O
Wind Power
D
M
Generators
A
E X
Overview

S T
O
✗ Winds are caused by solar heating of
atmosphere They carry enormous energy.

D
✗ This source of power is non-steady &
unreliable. There are wide variations in

M
speed & direction of winds.

X A
E
Wind turbine

S T
O
✗ Blowing wind spins the blades on a wind
turbine when blows a pocket of low pressure

D
is formed on down side of blade & pull the
blade towards it, causing rotor to turn.

M
✗ The shaft goes through a gear transmission
box where the rotating speed is increased.
✗

A
The rotating shaft turns a generator which

X
produces electrical energy.

E
✗ Types of Wind turbines :
✗ Horizontal axis wind Turbine.
✗ Vertical Axis Wind Turbines.
Horizontal axis wind Turbine (HAWT)

S T
O
✗ Main rotor shaft and electrical generator are
kept at top of tower & must be pointed to

D
wind.
✗ Turbine blades are made stiff so they are not

M
pushed into tower.
✗ Turbines used in wind forms for commercial

X A
production of electrical energy are there
bladed & pointed to wind by computer
controlled motors.

E
✗ The blades rotate at 10.22 rpm & at 22 rpm
the tip speed reaches 90 m/s..
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

S T
O
✗ Main rotor shaft is vertical.
✗ The turbine does not require to be pointed

D
into wind to be effective.
✗ This is an advantage when wind direction is

M
variable.
✗ It is difficult to mount vertical turbine at

X A
height so they are mounted near base like
roof tops but in that case they collect less
power.

E
 S T
O
Diesel Power
D
A M
Plants
E X
Uses of Diesel Electric Station:
✗
✗
Standby Plant
Peak Load Plant

S T
✗
✗
✗
Emergency Plant
Mobile Plant

DO
Supply Units for Cinemas, Hospitals etc.

A M
E X
Components of Diesel Electric
Power Plant:

S T
O
The essential components of a diesel electric
power plant are as follow:

D
✗ Diesel Engine
✗ Engine Fuel Supply System

M
✗ Engine Air Intake System
✗ Engine Exhaust System
✗
✗
✗
A
Engine Cooling System

X
Engine Lubrication System.
Engine Starting System.

E
✗ AC or DC Generators
Schematic :

S T
DO
A M
E X
Diesel Engine:

S T
O
✗ It is the main components used in diesel
electric power plant for developing

D
mechanical power. This mechanical power
we use to run the generator & produce

M
electrical energy. For producing the
electrical energy the diesel engine is

A
mechanically coupled to generator.

X
E
Selection of site

S T
O
✗ Near to Load Center
✗ Availability of Land

D
✗ Availability of Water
✗ Foundations

M
✗ Fuel Transportation
✗ Local Conditions
✗

A
Noise Pollution

X
E
Advantages of Diesel Power Station :
✗
✗
This is simple in design point of view.
It can also be designed for portable use.

S T
✗

✗
started within few seconds.

DO
It has quick starting facility; the small diesel generator set can be

As these machines can easily be started and stopped as when

M
required, there may not be any standby loss in the system.
✗ Cooling is easy and required smaller quantity of water in this type

A
power station.
✗ Initial cost is less than other types of power station.
✗
✗
✗
X
Thermal efficiency of diesel is quite higher than of coal.

E
It requires less operating staff.
The overall cost is much less than that of steam power station of
same capacity.
Disadvantages of Diesel Power Station
✗ The cost of diesel is very high compared to coal. This is the main
reason for which a diesel power plant is not getting popularity over

S T
✗
✗
✗
other means of generating power.

DO
The plant generally used to produce small power requirement.
Cost of lubricants is high.

M
Maintenance is quite complex and costs high.
✗ The plant doesn’t work satisfactorily under overload conditions for

A
a longer period.
✗ The cost of lubrication is generally high.
✗

X
The maintenances charges are generally high

E
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX
 S T
DO
A M
EX