GEED 20083 – GENDER AND SOCIETY

LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND SOCIETY

Unit 1 WHAT IS GENDER, SEX AND SEXUALITY?

WHAT IS GENDER?
● Gender is a socially constructed concept defining characteristics, behaviors, and roles for
women, men, girls, and boys, varying across societies.
● It creates hierarchical inequalities intersecting with factors like ethnicity, socioeconomic
status, disability, age, geographic location, gender identity, and sexual orientation
(intersectionality).
● Different from biological sex, gender relates to but is distinct from gender identity, an
individual's internal experience.
● Scholars view gender as a socially constructed concept shaped by cultural and societal
norms.

WHAT IS TRANSGENDER?
● Those who identify with a role that is different from their biological sex.

WHAT IS SEX?
● The distinguishing property, quality, or assemblage of properties by which organisms are
classified as female, male, or intersex on the basis of their reproductive organs and
functions

WHAT IS SEXUALITY?
● Sexuality encompasses attitudes, values, and experiences influenced by individual, family,
culture, religion, laws, professions, institutions, science, and politics.
● Components include sensuality, intimacy, sexual identity, sexual health and reproduction,
and the use of power and influence in relationships.
● Human sexuality involves interest, attraction, and the capacity for erotic experiences,
impacting and being impacted by cultural, political, legal, moral, ethical, and religious
aspects of life.

DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF SEXUALITY

1. Biological and Physical Aspects
● Human reproductive functions
● Human sexual-response cycle
● The basic biological drive that exists in all species
2. Emotional aspects
● include bonds between individuals that are expressed through profound feelings or physical
manifestations of love, trust and care.
3. Social aspects
● deal with the effects of human society on one's sexuality.
4. Spirituality
● concerns an individual’s spiritual connection with others through sexuality.
GENDER IDENTITY
● It refers to a person’s deeply felt, internal and individual experience of gender, which
may or may not correspond to the person’s physiology or designated sex at birth.
● It talks about how we feel about and identify as our gender (masculine, feminine, gender
non-conforming…)

SEXUAL ORIENTATION
● It talks about who we are sexually attracted to (straight, lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual,
pansexual…)
● It is an emotional and sexual attraction to particular sexes or genders, which often
shapes their sexuality.

CULTURAL VARIATIONS OF GENDER

● "Sex" pertains to biological or physical distinctions, and characteristics remain relatively
consistent across human societies (e.g., menstruation and lactation in females).
● Conversely, "gender" characteristics can vary significantly among societies; for instance,
wearing a dress is considered feminine in American culture, but in many Middle Eastern,
Asian, and African cultures, similar attire can be considered masculine.
● The cultural interpretation of clothing, like a Scottish male wearing a kilt, illustrates how
gender perceptions can differ, with the kilt maintaining a masculine identity in Scottish
culture.

KEY TERMS
• Sex: The distinguishing property, quality, or assemblage of properties by which organisms are
classified as female, male, or intersex on the basis of their reproductive organs and functions.
• Gender: The sociocultural phenomenon of the division of people into various categories according
to their biological sex, with each having associated roles, clothing, stereotypes, etc.; those with
male sex characteristics are perceived as “boys” and “men,” while those with female sex
characteristics are perceived as “girls” and “women.”
• Intersex: A variation in sex characteristics including chromosomes, gonads, or genitals that do not
allow an individual to be distinctly identified as male or female.
• Sexuality: People’s sexual interest in and attraction to others; their capacity to have erotic
experiences and responses.
• Gonad: The sex organs that produce gametes; specifically, the testicles or ovaries
 Unit 2 WHAT IS SOCIETY?

WHAT IS SOCIETY?
● An organization comprises individuals collaborating for mutual benefit.
● It can also refer to a social group engaged in persistent interaction, sharing the same
territory and subject to common political authority and cultural expectations.

Thomas Hobbes
● A philosopher, posited that without society, human life would be "nasty, brutish, and short."
● He argued that in the absence of social structure, individuals would prioritize
self-preservation, resorting to actions like theft, seduction, and violence to meet their needs.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau
● The philosopher introduced the concept of the "social contract."
● The social contract involves a set of rules that govern a society.
● Individuals must actively agree to these rules and participate in choosing leaders for society
to function effectively.
● According to Rousseau, the loss of people's right to engage in the social contract can
undermine the proper functioning of society.

Coach Lombardi's
● A society without an agreed-upon code of conduct is akin to football without rules or a
referee.
● People's cooperation and commitment to a society are contingent on their ability to choose
the mediator and have a voice in determining the rules.

WHAT IS A GENDER-EQUAL SOCIETY?

● A gender-equal society ensures both men and women have equal opportunities to
participate in various social activities, enjoy political, economic, and cultural benefits, and
share responsibilities.
● Human rights are equally respected for both genders, allowing women to engage in activities
of their choice while enabling men to have fulfilling home and community lives.
● In a gender-equal society, men and women work as equal partners to build a community
where both genders contribute to its development.
 LESSON 2 ORDAINED BY NATURE: BIOLOGY CONSTRUCTS THE SEXES

Unit 1 Biological Differences – Then and Now

● The quest to understand the biological origins of gender differences is not new, but in recent
centuries, scientists have taken a central role in exploring these distinctions.

● Prior to the 19th century, theologians dominated explanations of gender differences,

attributing them to divine purposes and reproductive distinctions created by God.

● Theological views, such as those expressed by Rev. John Todd, cautioned against women's
suffrage, arguing that it would defy the laws of God, emphasizing the importance of women
finding happiness in their designated sphere.

BEFORE THE 19TH CENTURY

● Most explanations of gender difference had been the province of theologies.

LATE 19TH CENTURE

● Some argued that women’s normal biological processes made her unfit for the public world
of work and school.

Dr. W. C. Taylor
● In the late 19th century, influenced by Darwin and the rise of evolutionary biology, scientists
joined the gender differences debate, presenting their findings.
● Some scientists contended that women's biological processes rendered them unsuitable for
the public spheres of work and education.
● In his book "A Physician's Counsels to Woman in Health and Disease" (1871), advised
women to stay home and rest for at least five or six days a month based on perceived
biological reasons.
● He cautioned women to stay home and rest for atleast five or six days a month

ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES (1859)

● Law of natural selection
● Species adapt to their changing environments

THE DESCENT MAN

“Woman seems to differ from man in mental disposition, chiefly in her greater tenderness and lesser
selfishness”

SOCIAL DARWINIST
● Shortened the time span necessary for evolution from millenia to one or two generations and
who casually extended his range from ornithology to human beings.
GUSTAVE LE BON
● He became famous for his theory of the collective mind and the irrationality of the crowd,
believing that the differences between women and men could be explained by their different
brain structures.

EDWARD C. CLARKE
● Howard’s eminent professor of education argued that women should be exempted from
higher education because of the tremendous demands made upon.

Unit 2 THE EVOLUTIONARY IMPERATIVE: FROM SOCIAL DARWINISM TO SOCIOBIOLOGY

The Evolutionary Imperative: From Social Darwinism to Sociobiology

● Evolutionary biologists, inspired by Darwin, moved away from the political intentions of
Social Darwinists, but the emergence of sociobiology in the 1970s revived evolutionary
arguments.
● Edward Wilson, a Harvard entomology professor, played a key role in founding sociobiology,
expanding its focus from insects to include human behavior. Wilson asserted that all
creatures follow the "biological principle," and temperamental differences stem from
evolutionary selection pressures, shaping current social and political arrangements.
● Sociobiologists, like Wilson and Richard Dawkins, argue that natural differences result in
observed social structures, dismissing culture's significant role. They emphasize the
importance of evolutionary development in understanding differences in male and female
sexuality, framing them as strategies to pass on genetic code and suggesting that observed
gender disparities result from advantageous evolutionary choices over centuries.

The differences between male and female sexual behavior:

1."He" produces billions of tiny sperm;
● Males aim for reproductive success by fertilizing many eggs, leading to a perceived natural
inclination toward promiscuity.
● Evolutionary perspectives suggest men may be less discriminating, more aggressive, and
prefer variety in partners, while women are thought to have biological tendencies toward
monogamy, activated by chivalric male promises of fealty and fidelity.

2.“She" produces one relatively gigantic ovum.

● Females, needing just one successful mating, are selective about their mates due to the
higher reproductive cost associated with gestation and lactation.
● Evolutionary perspectives suggest females tend to be monogamous, choosing a mate based
on their parenting potential.
● Women are thought to be choosier and more hesitant, linking sexual behavior to emotional
commitment, and often requiring promises of love and devotion from potential mates.
EVOLUTIONARY ARGUMENTS
Anthony Layng. "A woman seeks marriage to monopolize not a man's sexuality, but, rather,
his political and economic resources, to ensure that her children (her genes) will be well
provided for," writes the journalist.

Donald Symons - as psycho-biologist puts it, women and men have different "sexual
psychologies":.

Edward Wilson - “My own guess is that the genetic bias is intense enough to cause a
substantial division of labor in the freest and most egalitarian of future societies."

Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox emphasize the social requirements for the evolutionary transition to a
hunting and gathering society.
● The hunting band requires solidarity and cooperation, necessitating bonding among hunters.
● Evolutionary perspectives suggest that women's biology, particularly their menstrual cycle,
might hinder consistent cooperation and disrupt the needed collaboration among men.
● The idea is that women, due to their "maternal instinct," would stay home to raise children,
while men take on the role of hunting, ensuring better cooperation and reducing potential
competition and aggression.

"Evolutionary psychology," the newest incarnation of sociobiology which declares an ability to

explain psychological differences between women and men through their evolutionary
trajectories.
● Men are understood to be more aggressive, controlling, and managing—skills that were
honed over centuries of evolution as hunters and fighters. After an equal amount of time
raising children and performing domestic tasks.
● Women are said to be more reactive, more emotional, and more passive.

David Barash
● Psycho-biologist David Barash, blending sociobiology with New Age ideas, suggests that
genes act in self-interest, not necessarily being nice to others.
● Barash controversially explains rape as a reproductive adaptation, arguing that some men
resort to it as a strategy to maximize their genetic fitness, especially when conventional
means are perceived as unsuccessful.
● He proposes that, in the context of evolutionary drives, rape is seen as an "adaptive"
reproductive strategy for less successful males aiming to pass on their genetic material.

Richard Alexander and K. M. Noonan

● Assert that blaming men or their genetic imperatives is misguided, attributing rape as a
reproductive tactic to women's evolutionary behavior.
● They argue that as females evolved to resist copulation during ovulation, some men might
resort to rape as an alternative strategy to achieve copulation.
● The suggestion is that if women were more compliant, men wouldn't feel compelled to use
rape as a reproductive tactic.
 Unit 3 “HIS” BRAIN AND “HER” BRAIN

Biologists have also focused on the brain to explain the differences between women and men.
This approach, too, has a long history.

18th Century
● In the 18th century, experts measured women's and men's brains, concluding that women
were inferior due to their smaller and lighter brains.
● Subsequent findings revealed that when considering body size and weight, women's brains
were not actually smaller or lighter, debunking the earlier claims and undermining the basis
for asserting cognitive differences.

Late 19th Century

● In the late 19th century, brain research experienced a surge as researchers sought
differences between various groups, including whites and blacks, Jews and non-Jews,
immigrants and "normal" Americans, as well as criminals and law-abiding citizens.
● Some researchers, driven by political and racist assumptions, made unfounded claims, such
as one arguing that the brain of the average "grown-up Negro" resembled that of a child,
female, or senile white, though none of these assertions had scientific merit.

The "science of craniology” was developed to record and measure the effect of brain
differences among different group.

Contemporary brain research has focused on three areas:

(1) the differences between right and left hemisphere;
(2) the differences in the tissue that connects those hemispheres; and
(3) the ways in which males and females use different parts of their brains for similar functions.

Right-hemisphere dominance
● is associated with visual and spatial abilities, such as the ability to conceive of objects in
space.

Left-hemisphere dominance
● is associated with more practical functions, such as language and reading.

Norman Geschwind and Peter Behan proposed that sex differences emerge in the womb when
male fetuses secrete testosterone, affecting the left hemisphere of the brain.

Ruth Bleie reanalyzed their data, finding no significant sex differences in fetal brains despite the
testosterone exposure.

Buffery and Gray argued that female brains, being more lateralized, interfered with spatial
functioning, making women less capable at spatial tasks.

Jerre Levy found the opposite, stating that less lateralization interferes with spatial functioning, with
no current evidence supporting either position.
Jo Durden-Smith and Diane DeSimone suggest that in females, the left hemisphere emphasizes
language for communication, while in males, it's a tool for visual-spatial tasks. In the right
hemisphere, males allocate more space for visual-spatial tasks, leaving room for females to excel in
nonverbal communication skills like emotional sensitivity and intuition.

Janet Hyde's extensive research found no gender differences in verbal ability, but modest
differences in mathematical ability, with females generally outperforming males, except in studies
designed for the most precocious individuals.

Robert Pool notes that consistent evidence for significant brain differences between women and
men is lacking.

Jonathan Beckwith argues that even if differences were found, connecting them to specific
behaviors or aptitudes is currently impossible.

Marcel Kinsbourne suggests that the study of sex differences, influenced by societal pressures
and feminist movements, may sometimes lead to the invention of differences that do not inherently
exist.

ASSUMPTIONS IN MALE VS. FEMALE BRAIN

THE MALE BRAIN

1. Male brain is "not so easily distracted by superfluous information"; it is a "tidier affair" than the
female brain
2. Men are more intellectual than women, examination papers or no examination papers.
3. When a man is both patient and industrious, he beats a woman any day
4. According to Geschwind, males tend to develop "superior right hemisphere talents, such as
artistic, musical, or mathematical talent."
5. Males were thought to be overwhelmingly more left-brained than right-brained
6. According to Jerre Levy , males may be at a double disadvantage in their emotional life. They
may be emotionally less sophisticated. And because of the difficulty they may have in
communicating between their two hemispheres, they may have restricted verbal access to their
emotional world.
7. Jo Durden-Smith and Diane DeSimone, males it is a tool for more visual-spatial tasks, like
analytical reasoning

THE FEMALE BRAIN

1. Female brain "less able to separate emotion from reason."
2. Female brain is capable of integrating more diverse sources of information and better able to
synthesize feelings and thoughts.
3. Women have better memories and study harder, that's all. In tasks requiring patience and
industry women win out
4. According to Geschwind, women's brains are less lateralized, with both parts interacting more
than in men.
5. According to Jerre Levy, female brains were less lateralized than male brains, and so he argued
that less lateralization interferes with spatial functioning.
6. Jo Durden-Smith and Diane DeSimone suggest that in the female left hemisphere, language
tends to serve as a vehicle for communication
7. According to Buffery and Gray female brains were more lateralized than male brains and made
women less capable at spatial tasks.
8. Robert Pool, "Women have better verbal skills than men on average.”