TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

BACKGROUND

The functions that involve a combination of basic arithmetic operations, powers, or roots are
called algebraic functions. Most of the functions studied so far are algebraic functions. The
set of transcendental functions includes the trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential,
and logarithmic functions. In this chapter, we turn to exponential and logarithmic functions.
These functions are used to describe phenomena ranging from growth of investments to
decay of radioactive materials, which cannot be described with algebraic functions. Since the
exponential and logarithmic functions transcend what can be described with algebraic
functions, they are called transcendental functions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

❖ Apply the exponential laws and properties to evaluate, manipulate, and simplify
exponential expressions containing exponents.
❖ Solve exponential equations.
❖ Perform calculations with Euler’s number.
❖ Evaluate, manipulate, and simplify logarithmic expressions.
❖ Solve logarithmic equations.
❖ Manipulate and change the subject of formulae containing logarithms and exponents.
❖ Sketch exponential and logarithmic functions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

2. TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................... 0

2.1 EXPONENTS AND THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION............................................ 2

2.1.1 Defining Exponential Functions ........................................................................ 3

2.1.2 Exponential Laws and Properties ..................................................................... 4

2.1.3 Simplifying and Evaluating Exponential Expressions ....................................... 6

2.1.4 The Solution of Exponential Equations........................................................... 12

2.1.5 The Exponential Function with Base e (Euler’s Number) ...................................18

2.2 LOGARITHMIC RULES AND EQUATIONS ......................................................... 22

2.2.2 Defining Logarithmic Functions ...................................................................... 23

2.2.3 Converting Between Logarithmic Form and Exponential Form ....................... 23

2.2.4 Laws and Properties of Logarithms ................................................................ 24

2.2.5 Common and Natural Logarithms .................................................................. 33

2.2.6 Using a Calculator to Evaluate Logarithms .................................................... 35

2.2.7 Logarithmic Equations ................................................................................... 36

2.2.8 Exponential Equations Using Logarithms ....................................................... 39

2.3 MANIPULATION OF EQUATIONS BY CHANGING THE SUBJECT ................... 45

2.3.2 Manipulation of a Formula.............................................................................. 46

2.3.3 Manipulation of Formulae Containing Logarithms and Exponents .................. 48

2.4 GRAPHS OF THE EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS .............. 52

2.4.2 Definition and Graphical Representation of the Exponential Function ............ 53

2.4.3 The Graph of the Logarithmic Function .......................................................... 61

1
2.1 EXPONENTS AND THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

Why it is important to understand: Exponential Functions

“Exponential functions are used in engineering, physics, biology and economics. There are
many quantities that grow exponentially; some examples are population, compound interest
and charge in a capacitor. With exponential growth, the rate of growth increases as time
increases. We also have exponential decay; some examples are radioactive decay,
atmospheric pressure, Newton’s law of cooling and linear expansion. Understanding and
using exponential functions is important in many branches of engineering”. Bird, J., 2017.
Higher engineering mathematics. Routledge.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

❖ Apply the exponential laws and properties to evaluate, manipulate, and simplify
exponential expressions containing exponents.
❖ Use factorisation and exponents to simplify expressions.
❖ Use calculators to do evaluations.
❖ Solve exponential equations.
❖ Perform calculations with Euler’s number.

2
INTRODUCTION

Many of the functions we’ve studied so far included exponents. But in every case, the
exponent was a constant, and the base was often a variable as shown below:

Index or exponent or power

4a 3

coefficient base

The use of powers (also called exponents) provides a convenient form of algebraic
shorthand. Repeated factors of the same base, for example a  a  a can be written as a 3 ,
where the number 3 indicates the number of factors multiplied together. In general, the
product of n such factors a , where a and n are positive integers, is written a n , where a is

called the base and n is called the index or exponent or power. Any number multiplying a n
is called the coefficient.

2.1.1 Defining Exponential Functions

Let’s start by noting that f and g given by

f (x) = 2 x and g(x) = x 2

are not the same function. The function f (x) = 2 x is called an exponential function because
the variable, x , is the exponent. It should not be confused with the power function

g (x) = x 2 , in which the variable is the base. The exponential function f will be discussed in
this section. The domain of this function is the set of real numbers.

In general, the exponential functions are functions of the form

f (x) = a x
where a  0 , a  1 , and x is any real number. The base a = 1 is excluded because it yields

f (x) = 1x = 1 , which is a constant function, not an exponential function.

Exponential functions are useful for modeling many natural phenomena, such as population
growth (if a  1) and radioactive decay (if a  1).

3
2.1.2 Exponential Laws and Properties

❖ Multiplying expressions involving exponents

Consider the product (62 )(63 ). We may write this as

(62 )(63 ) = (6  6)(6  6  6) = 65
This illustrates the first law of exponents which is
❑ a m a n = a m+n

When expressions with the same base are multiplied, the exponents are added.

❖ Dividing expressions involving exponents

45
Consider the expression :
43
45 4  4  4  4  4
=
43 4 4 4
= 4 4
= 42
This serves to illustrate the second law of exponents which is

am
❑
n
= a m−n
a
When expressions with the same base are divided, the exponents are subtracted.

❖ Multiple indices

Consider the expression 4 3 ( ) . This may be written as

2

(43 )
2
= 4 3.4 3 = 4 3+3 = 4 6
This illustrates the third law of exponents which is

❑ (a m )
n
= a mn
Note that the exponents m and n have been multiplied.

These three basic laws lead to a number of important results or properties

am
and also a  a =
m n
❑ a =1
0
because a  a = a m n m−n

an

4
 am
Then if n = m , a m−m
=a 0
and = 1 . So a0 = 1
m
a

a−m =
1 a − m  am a 0 = 1 . So −m 1
❑ because a = −m
= m m
a = m
am a m
a a a
1
With similar reasoning, −m = a
m

a
m
1
 1 m 1
❑ a = a
m m
because  a m  = a m = a1 = a . So a m = m a
 

( a)
n
n
From this, it follows that a = m m
an or m

❑ (ab)m = a m b m e.g. (2x n ) 4

= 2 4 x 4n = 16x 4n

m 3
a  am 2 23 8
= m e.g. = 3 = 3
❑ b  b x  x x
m 2
a 
−m
b bm 1 
−2
 2
=   = am =  =2 =4
2
❑  b  e.g.  2 
a  1 

These laws and properties are used to simplify expressions.

AVOID THE FOLLOWING COMMON ERRORS!

1
1 1  1 
▪ x x
−a a
e.g. 5 = −2
= but 5 −2
  52 = 5
52 25  

▪ (a + b)n  a n + b n (2 + 3)2 = 52 = 25 but (2 + 3)2  (2 2 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13)

▪ (2x )0 = 1 but 2x = 21 = 2
0

4
▪ (4x )−1 =
1
but 4x−1 =
4x x
▪ 3 x x
3

1 1

▪ a + b  a2 + b2 e.g. 4+9  4 + 9

▪ xn + xn  x2n but xn + xn = 2x n

5
▪ (2x 2 )3
= 8x 6 and not equal to 2x 6

2( x +1) 2  (2x + 2) 2
1 1
▪

1
▪  a−1 + b−1
a+b
−1
1 1 ab
▪  −   a−b but
a b a −b

2.1.3 Simplifying and Evaluating Exponential Expressions

We now need to begin simplifying expressions by using all the laws and properties we have
just discussed. As guideline, we’ll categorise the problems you will most likely deal with as:

2.1.3.1 Expressions with () and () signs between bases

When dealing with this kind of problem, the strategy will be to:
• Write the bases in terms of powers of prime factors (if bases are numbers), otherwise
• Apply exponential laws and properties to simplify

Example 2.1 Using Exponential Laws & Properties to Simplify Expressions

1. Use the exponential laws and properties to simplify:

6x−4  2x 3
1.1
8x−3

Solution:

6x −4  2x3 12 x −4+3
= . −3
8x −3 8 x
12 x −1
= . −3
8 x
3 3
= x −1+3 = x 2
2 2

6
  −
3
1 2
 1

1.2 5x y 2 z 4   (4x y z ) 2

2 4 2 −

 

Solution:

 −
3
1 2
 1 1 1
1 − −
 5x y 2 z 4   (4x 4 y 2 z ) 2 = 25x 4 y −3 z 2  4 2 x y z 2
2 − −2 −1

 
1 1 −
1
= 25x 4 y −3 z 2  x −2 y −1 z 2
2
25 2 −4 0 25 2 −4 25x 2
= x y z = x y .1=
2 2 2y4

2 −2 x . (125 −1 )
x

1.3
2 x.8x+2.20−3 x

Solution:

2 −2 x . (125 −1 ) ( )
x
2 −2 x
. 5 −3 x 2−2 x. 5−3x
= = x 3x+6 −6 x −3x
2 x.8x+2. 20−3x 2 x . (2 3 )x+2 . (2 2.5)−3x 2.2 .2 .5
= 2−2 x− x−(3x+6)−(−6 x). 5−3x−(−3x)
1 1
= 2−6. 50 = =
26 64

( )
1
1 4 6 −
1.4 3
ab 
6 3
a b  4 a6b2 2
9

Solution:

( )
1
−

1 4 6 1 1
3
a6b3 a b 6 2
 9 4 ab 2
= a 2b  a 2 b 3 
(4a b )
1
3
3 2

3 1
= a 2b  2 3  3 1
ab
2a 2 b 2
3 1 3 3 3
= 2 3 1 = 3 5 = =
b 3 5
2 a3b5
2a 2 b 2 2a 2 b 2 2 a b

7
 252n−1
1.5
52n+1. 52n−3. 5
Solution:

252n−1
=
(52 )2n−1
52n+1.52n−3.5 52n+1.52n−3.51
= 54n−2−( 2n+1)−( 2n−3)−1
1
= 54n−2−2n−1−2n+3−1 = 5−1 =
5

ACTIVITY 1

1. Simplify as far as possible:

1.1 (5 n−1
) (
 3 n+1  5 n−2  3 n ) 15
1
 − 
11

 (100x3 )
−
1.2 3
125x −10 2
50x 
6

 
2
1
−
1  a8b2 c2 
1.3 (4a b c)  (a
3 −1 −2
b 4 c −2 )2  64(a 6 b 4 c 2 ) 2
 
 4 

( x ) ( x )
2 5

1.4 4 3 3 5 6 12
x 
4
8a −3  a −1b3
1.5 2b
4
(2a b )
5 −2 −1

x −2  y2 
1.6  x2 + y 2 
x + y −2
−2
 

( )
1
−

1 4 7  5 
3
8a b  ab
3 6
a4b6
1.7 25  16 2
2a 2b3 

x −1 − y −1  y−x 
1.8 xy  x2 + y 2 
 

8
2. Use the exponential laws and simplify the following:

2.1
8 x−1  12 x+3  9 x−1
24 x+1
6 
2x

1 1
+ −1
2.2 s −1
t s t + st 
2 2

−1 −1
s t
1 
2.3 (a −1 + b −1 )  (a + b) −1
ab

4n−1n 12n+1
n+2
 2n−2
n−1

2.4
9 8 3 
 

8xy3 6x 2 y 2 8 y 3 
2.5 9x 2 y  18xy3  3x 2 
 

3. Determine the value of the following expression:

2 −2 x  (125 −1 )
x
1
3.1
2 x  8 x+2  20−3 x  64 

2.2x+3 4x+1
3.2  2
(2 )
x x−1
(2 )
x+1 x−1

4 x .15 x−2  1 
3.3 1350 
6x+1.10x

12a+2 10a−2
3.4 324
8a 15a−2

50− n+1. 2n−1. 25−1  25

3.5
9n+2. 225−n−1  9 

4 x+2  36− x−1

3.6 4
45− x+1  5x−1  81−1

9
2.1.3.2 Expressions with (+) and (−) signs between bases

As opposed to the previous examples in which you had to break down bases to Prime
Numbers, this type of problems require you to:
• Remember your factorisation (trinomials; difference of two squares; and sum and
difference of two cubes).
• Remember how to split terms, i.e. 3x+1 = 3x  31 and then take out a common factor.

A reminder of some of the general factorisation rules. These general rules are also going to
be used in the solution of exponential and logarithmic equations.

The rules are as follows:

❑ A2 − B 2 = (A − B )( A + B) Difference between squares

❑ A3 − B3 = (A − B)(A2 + AB + B 2 ) Difference between cubes

❑ A3 + B 3 = ( A + B )(A 2 − AB + B 2 ) Sum between cubes

❑ Ax + Bx = x (A + B) Common factor

Example 2.2 Using Factorisation to Simplify Exponential Expressions

1. Use factorisation, exponential laws and properties to simplify the following:

3x+1 + 3x + 3x−1
1.1
3x+2 + 3x+1 + 3x

Solution:

3x+1 + 3x + 3x−1 3x.31 + 3x + 3x.3−1 3 (3 + 1 + 3 )

x 1 −1
= = x 2 1
3x+2 + 3x+1 + 3x 3x.32 + 3x.31 + 3x 3 (3 + 3 + 1)

1
4+
= 3 = 12 + 1  1 = 1
13 3 13 3

10
 x 2 − 4x − 5
1.2
x−5
Solution:
(x − 5)(x +1) 2 (x − 5)2 (x +1)2
x − 4x − 5
2 1 1 1

= 1 = 1
x −5
( x − 5) 2 ( x − 5) 2
1

= ( x +1) 2 = x +1

x 2n − x n −12
1.3
xn + 3
Solution:
x 2n − x n −12
=
(x n
+ 3)(x n − 4)
(x + 3)


xn + 3 n

= x −4
n

1.4
( x −1)(x −1)
x +1

)( )
Solution:
( x
)
−1 ( x −1) ( x −1 x )(
1
2
−1 x
1
2
+1

(x +1)
=
x +1
1
2

= x − 2 x +1

ACTIVITY 2

Use factorisation, exponential laws and properties to simplify the following:

2  5a+1 + 3  5a+2
1. 5
4  5a+1 − 3  5a

6  2 4 x+1 − 2 4 x+4  1
− 4 
2.
16 x+1
2  3b + 3b−2 1 
3.
5  3b+1 − 7  3b−1 6 

11
 1−k
3k +  1  + 92
k

 3 71−k 
4.
21k  3 

12a 2 − 4a − 5 7a + 3
5.
2a + 1
 1
42a −17a −15
2

a 2x −1  aa x −1
x

6. a + 2a x + 1
2x +1
 

b−a
7. − ( a+ b )
a− b

3x+1 − 3x
8. +3 3
3x−1

2.1.4 The Solution of Exponential Equations

Exponential equations, as the name implies, are equations involving exponents. To solve
these equations, the methods of solution can be divided into three types.

TYPE 1 – One term on each side of the equation and the unknown is part of the exponent.

Strategy: Make sure that the bases are the same on each side of the equation and then
equate the exponents.

If a = a x = y (one on one property)

x y
then

Example 2.3 Solving Type 1 Exponential Equations

1. Solve for x :

1.1 3x+1 = 9

Solution:

3x+1 = 32 Get the common base on both sides

x +1 = 2 One on one property
x =1

12
1.2 4x−3 = 0,125
Solution:
1
4x−3 = Write as a proper fraction
8
(2 )2 x−3
= 2 −3 Express with similar bases

22 x−6 = 2−3
2x − 6 = −3 One on one property
3
x=
2

2
3x  3 x

1.3 =1
35−x
Solution:
2
x+ −5+ x
3 x
= 30 Get the same base on each side. Note that 30 = 1
2
2x + −5 = 0 One on one property
x
2x2 − 5x + 2 = 0
(2x −1)(x − 2) = 0
1
x= or x=2
2

1.4 27 x. 9x−2 = 1

Solution:

(3 ) . (3 )
3 x 2 x−2
= 30 Common base on each side

33x. 32 x−4 = 30
35 x−4 = 30
5x − 4 = 0 One on one property
4
x=
5

13
TYPE 2 – One term on each side of the equation and the unknown is in the base.

Strategy: Remove the exponent by raising both sides of the equation to the reciprocal
of the exponent.

( )xa= = (b )
1 1 1

. Then x = b
a a a a
If , remove so that a

b
Example 2.4 Solving Type 2 Exponential Equations

1. Solve for x :

1
1.1 =8
x3

Solution:

3
−
x 2
= 23 Write the question in exponential form
2
−
 −3 
= (2 3 )
3 2
−
x 2  3 Raise both sides to the reciprocal of the exponent
 
x1 = 2−2
1
x=
4

1.2 (x + 3)−5 = 72

Solution:

((x + 3) )
1
= (72)
− 1
−5 −
5 5 Raise both sides to the reciprocal of the exponent

1
−
x + 3 = 72 5

x = −2,57

14
TYPE 3 – More than one term on both sides of the equation.

Strategy: Collect common powers; look out for common factors and quadratic
trinomials.

Example 2.5 Solving Type 3 Exponential Equations

1. Solve for x :

1.1 23x+1 + 23x = 12

Solution:

23x. 21 + 23x = 12 Split

23x (2 +1) = 12 Take out the common factor

23 x = 22
x=2 One on one property
3

1.2 22x+1 − 6.2x + 4 = 0

Solution:

We will recognize this as a quadratic trinomial by making a substitution 2 = k . We

x

will then realise that the ratio of the exponents of the unknown is 2 : 1 as shown:

2 (2 x ) − 6 (2 x ) + 4 = 0
2

Letting 2 = k gives:
x

2k 2 − 6k + 4 = 0 k 2 − 3k + 2 = 0
(k − 2)(k −1) = 0
k = 2 or k = 1
Now substitute back:

2x = 1 2x = 2
2 x = 20 2 x = 21
x=0 x =1

15
 1

1.3 x − 3x 2 −10 = 0
Solution:
2
 1  1
 x 2  − 3 x 2  −10 = 0
   
1

Let k = x 2
k 2 − 3k −10 = 0
(k + 2)(k − 5) = 0
k = 5 or k = −2
1

But k = x 2
1 1 1

x =5
2
or x  −2 ............ (since x  0 )
2 2

x = 52 = 25

1.4 3x+2 − 2.3x+1 − 19 .3x−2 = 72

Solution:
3x .32 − 2.3x.31 − 19.3x.3−2 = 72 Splitting

3x 32 − 2.3 − 9.3−2 = 72  Common factor = 3
x

3x = 81
3x = 34 Common base
x=4

1.5 52−x = 5x − 24
Solution:
5 2 .5 − x = 5 x − 24
25
= 5x − 24 Eliminate negative power
5x
25 = 5 2x − 24 .5 x Quadratic equation, write in standard form
5 2x − 24 .5 x − 25 = 0
(5 x
− 25)(5 x +1) = 0 Factorise. Can also use k-substitution

5x − 25 = 0 or 5x +1 = 0

5x = 25 or 5x = −1

5x = 52 or 5x  −1 (will be discussed in section 2.2.3)

x=2

16
 ACTIVITY 3

Solve the following equations:

3
1. 3x . 3x−1 = 3 4 
2
− 2
2. 8x = 3
216
9

3. ( 5) 3 x+1
= 125 x−2
13
 3 

33 4 − 4 =0 8
4. x
4 27 27
2
2x
5. =8 3 or −1
4x
6. 22 x+3 + 1 = 3 . 2 x+1 − 2 or −1

7. x −34 x +2 = 0 1 or 16
8. ( ) ( )
125 3x − 27 5x = 0 3
9. 2x+3 + 2x−1 + 2x−2 = 70 3
10. 2.22x − 9.2x + 4 = 0 −1;2
11.  3 +  x+1 =  2x +  x+2 1
− x−3
1
12. 3 x+1
−  = −11 + 3x+2 −1
 3

13. 32−x = 3x − 8 2

 3 5
14. 15x−2 + 31x−1 +14 = 0 − ;−
 2 7 


3.22 x−1 − 22 x+1 1 

15. x
= 2−2 x −1 2 
4

(3 ) .3 = 1
4 x−1 x 2 x+3
 3 ;1
−
81(3 )(3 )
16. x+1 x+1  4 

17
2.1.5 The Exponential Function with Base e (Euler’s Number)

Surprisingly, among the exponential functions, it is not the function g(x) = 2 with base 2 or
x

the function h(x) = 10

x
with base 10 that is used most frequently in mathematics,
engineering science, economics, etc. Instead, the most commonly used base is a number
that you may not be familiar with.

The Number e

The number e is defined as the value that 1 + (1 x )  approaches as x becomes large. (In
x

calculus this idea is made more precise through the concept of a limit.) The table shows the

values of the expression 1 + (1 x )  for increasingly large values of x .

x

 1 x
x 1 + 
 x

1 2
10 2.593 74 …
100 2.704 81 …
1 000 2.716 92 …
10 000 2.718 14 …
100 000 2.718 27 …
1 000 000 2.718 28 …

By calculating the value of 1+ (1 x ) 

x
for larger and larger values of x , it looks like

1+ (1 x ) x approaches a number closer to 2.7183. It can be shown that as x increases

without bound, the value of 1+ (1 x )  approaches an irrational number called e . Just as
x

irrational numbers such as  and 2 have unending, nonrepeating decimal

representations, e also has unending, nonrepeating decimal representation. To 12 decimal
places,
e = 2.718 281828 459
Don’t let the symbol “ e ” intimidate you! It’s just a number known as Euler’s number or the

natural base hence the function given by f (x) = e

x
is called the natural exponential
function.

18
 x 1
The approximate value of e is found by using the e on a calculator and calculate e . The
constant e turns out to be an ideal base for an exponential function because in calculus and
higher mathematics, many operations take on their simplest form using this base and this is
why you will see e used extensively in expressions and formulas that model real world
phenomena (population growth, continuous compounding, data analysis etc.).

Example 2.6 Evaluating Expressions Containing the Euler’s number

1. Evaluate the following, using a calculator:

1.1 e2  7,39
1.2 e−   0,04

2
1.3 e 4,11
1.4 e  1,65
1.5 e2 + e−2  7,52

Note: all the exponential laws and properties are applicable to natural exponents! For
example:
ex
e x+ y
= e .e
x y or = e x− y
ey

Example 2.7 Simplifying Expressions Containing the Euler’s number

1. Simplify the following:

e5 x
1.1  = e 5 x−2 x−1
e 2 x+1
= e3x−1

e 4−3 x
1.2  = e 4−3x−2+5 x
e 2−5 x
= e2(1+ x)

We also use the same strategies as before to solve equations containing exponential with
base e .

19
Example 2.8 Solving Exponential Equations Containing the Euler’s number

1. Solve for x :

1.1 e x + ex+1 = e +1

Solution:

e x + e x . e1 = e +1
e x (1 + e) = e +1 Common factor e x

ex = 1
x=0 Since e = 1
0

1.2 x 2 e x − 5xex = 0

Solution:

e x (x 2 − 5x ) = 0 Common factor

x2 − 5x = 0 or ex  0
x(x − 5 ) = 0
x = 0 or x=5

1.3 e2 x + e x = e x+2 + e2

Solution:

e 2x + e x − (ex+2 + e2 ) = 0 Group the “similar” terms

e x . e x + e x − ( ex . e2 + e 2 ) = 0 Split the exponents

e x (e x +1) − e 2 (e x +1) = 0 Factorise by grouping

(e x
+1)(e x − e 2 ) = 0 Common factor

e x − e2 = 0 or e x  −1
x=2

20
 ACTIVITY 4

1. Using a calculator to evaluate:

4
93 − 3
1.1 0,67
4 3 − 3

1.2 e − e−1 2,35

 360

1.3 21+ 5  5,7210 

54

 12 

1.4 e− 2
0,24

1,83
1 1,80
1.5   +1,2e
e

2. Solve the following equations:

2.1 2xe− x = 0 0

2
ex =1
2.2
ex
0;1
2.3 (x − 3)e x =0 3
2.4 e2 x − e4 = ex+1 − ex+3 1
2.5 3xe−x + x 2 e − x = 0 0;−3
2.6 e2t −2 + et −2 = et +1 2

21
2.2 LOGARITHMIC RULES AND EQUATIONS

Why it is important to understand: Logarithms

“All types of engineers use natural and common logarithms. Chemical engineers use them to
measure radioactive decay and pH solutions, both of which are measured on a logarithmic
scale. The Richter scale, which measures earthquake intensity, is a logarithmic scale.
Biomedical engineers use logarithms to measure cell decay and growth, and also to
measure light intensity for bone mineral density measurements. In electrical engineering, a
dB (decibel) scale is very useful for expressing attenuations in radio propagation and circuit
gains, and logarithms are used for implementing arithmetic operations in digital circuits.
Logarithms are especially useful when dealing with the graphical analysis of non-linear
relationships and logarithmic scales are used to linearize data to make data analysis simpler.
Understanding and using logarithms is clearly important in all branches of engineering”. Bird,
J., 2017. Higher engineering mathematics. Routledge.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

❖ Define a logarithm.
❖ Convert between logarithmic form and exponential form.
❖ Make use of the laws and properties of logarithms to simplify given expressions.
❖ Find the common and natural logarithms of a number.
❖ Use a calculator to evaluate logarithms.
❖ Solve logarithmic equations.
❖ Solve exponential equations using logarithms.

22
INTRODUCTION

Solving an equation like 2 = 8 is easy: we know that 2 = 8 , so x = 3 is the solution. But

x 3

what about an equation like 2 = 5 ? There probably is an exponent x between 2 and 3 for
x

which 2 x is 5, but its exact value is not at all clear. Therefore, to solve this equation, we
need to re-look at the exponential function more closely.

2.2.1 Defining Logarithmic Functions

Since 2 = 8 , the “3 is called the logarithm (or exponent) of 8 to the base 2” because 3 is
3

the exponent to which the base must be raised to obtain the value 8.

Instead of 2 = 8
3
…. Exponential form
It can therefore be written as 3 = log2 8 …. Logarithmic form

In general: If given the exponential function x = a , we can say that “ y is the logarithm of
y

x to the base a ”, and it is written as

y = loga x where x  0 , a  0 , a  1

This therefore means that we can solve our problem 2 = 5 as

x

x = log2 5

2.2.2 Converting Between Logarithmic Form and Exponential Form

Throughout the remainder of this study unit, it will be useful to sometimes convert a
logarithmic expression into the equivalent exponential form. At other times, it will be useful to
do the reverse.

If y = a x …. Exponential form

Then x = loga y …. Logarithmic form

To convert from logarithms to exponents and vice versa, remember:

❑ The base of the exponential form is also the base of the logarithmic form.
❑ The exponent is also the logarithm.

23
 ❑ In x = loga y , y is called the argument of the logarithm.
❑ The argument of any logarithm must always be a positive number since the
log(negative number) and log(0) are both undefined.

The following examples illustrate the relation between exponential and logarithmic forms.

Example 2.1 Conversion Between Exponential and Logarithmic Forms

1. Change each logarithmic form to an equivalent exponential form and vice versa:

1.1 2x = 32  x = log2 32

1.2 log3 x = 4  x = 34
1 1
1.3 4 =2
−2  − 2 = log 2  
4
1.4 pn = z  n = log p z

1.5 loge x = 3  x = e3

1.6 (x + 2)3 =   3 = log(x+2) 

loga 3
1.7 a x . a2 x = 3  x=
3
1.8 log z (x + 3) = r  zr = x + 3

2. Change each logarithmic form to an equivalent exponential form and vice versa:

loga 3
2.1 a x . a2 x = 3  a3x = 3  3x = loga 3  x=
3

2.2 log p (x −1) = t  x −1 = pt  x = pt +1

2.2.3 Laws and Properties of Logarithms

You know from the preceding section that the logarithmic function with base a is the inverse
function of the exponential function with base a . So, it makes sense that the properties of
exponents should have corresponding properties involving logarithms. For instance, the

exponential property a = 1 has the corresponding logarithmic property loga 1 = 0 . Several

0

of these important laws and properties are listed below.

24
Laws of logarithms

Each of the following laws of logarithms can be proved by using the properties of exponential
functions. Let a be a positive number such that a  1, and let n be a real number. If u and
v are positive real numbers, the following laws are true.

1. log a (uv) = log a u + log a v Product law

u 
2. log a   = log a u − loga v Division law
v
3. log a u n = n log a u Power law

4. log u = logb u for all b  0 and b  1 Change of base law

a
log b a

Proof

Let
x = loga u and y = loga v
The corresponding exponential forms of these two equations are

ax = u and ay = v

To prove the product law, multiply u and v to obtain

uv = a x . a y = a x+ y
The corresponding logarithmic form of uv = a is loga (uv) = x + y . So,
x+ y

log a(uv) = log a u + log av .

To prove the quotient law, divide u and v to obtain

u ax
= y = a x− y
v a
The corresponding logarithmic form of u / v = a is log (u / v) = x − y . So,
x− y
a

u 
log a   = log a u − loga v .
v

x n
To prove the power law, substitute a for u in the expression log a u , as follows

log a u n = log a (a x )
n x
Substitute a for u

25
 = log a anx Property of exponents
= nx Property of logarithms (number 2 below)
= n loga u Substitute loga u for x
So, log a u = n log a u
n

To prove the change of base law, let

loga u = y
Then

ay = u

Convert to the equivalent logarithmic form with any base of interest ( b in our case)

log ba y = log bu
y logb a = logb u
logb u
y=
logb a
Therefore log u = logb u
a
log b a

Properties of logarithms

1. loga a = 1
Let loga a = y
ay = a a y = a1
y =1

Therefore loga a = 1
2. loga a n = n
Let loga a = y
n

a y = an
y=n

Therefore log a a = n
n

3. loga 1 = 0
Let loga 1 = y
ay =1 a y = a0

26
 y=0

Therefore loga 1 = 0

4. log1 x = −loga x
a

Let log 1 x = y
a
y
1
  =x
a
1
y log a  = log x
 
log x
y=
log1 − log a
log x log x
y= = = −loga x
0 − log a − log a

Therefore log1 x = −loga x

a

5. alog x = x
a

Let loga x = y
ay = x  y = loga x

Therefore a
log a x
=x

6. If loga x = loga y , then x = y and vice versa

7. (log x ) (log x ) = (log x )2 = log 2 x Note the placement of the power

AVOID THE FOLLOWING TYPICAL MISTAKES!

▪ loga (u + v)  log a u + loga v

▪ loga (u − v)  log a u − loga v
▪ loga u . loga v  loga u + loga v
▪ (log a u )n  n log a u
loga u
▪  log u − log v
a a
loga v

27
Example 2.2 Evaluating Logarithmic Expressions Without a Calculator

1. Evaluate the following without using a calculator:

1.1 log 3 9
Solution:
Let log3 9 = x

Then, 3 = 9
x
From the definition of a logarithm
3x = 32
x=2
Hence, log3 9 = 2

1.2 log 16 8
Solution:
Let log16 8 = x
Then, 16x = 8 From the definition of a logarithm

24 x = 23
4x = 3
3
x=
4
3
Hence, log16 8 =
4

Example 2.3 Using Logarithmic Laws & Properties to Simplify Expressions

1. Write as a single logarithm:

1.1
1
log 2
x + log2 (x +1)− log 2 y
3
Solution:
1
1
log x + log (x +1)− log y = log x(x +1)
 2
y 
2 2 2
3 3
1

= log  x(x + 1) 3

2 
 y 
x(x +1)
= log2 3
y

28
1.2 log 4x − log 4(x + 1)+ log (4 x −1)
Solution:
log4 x − log 4 (x +1 ) + log 4 (x −1) = log 4 x − log 4 (x +1)(x −1)
= log4 x − log4 (x 2 −1)
 x 
= log 4  2 
x −1
 

2. Expand the following as the sum, difference and multiples of single logarithms:

 3x − 5 
2.1 log 
 7 
Solution:
 3x − 5  (3x − 5) 21
log  = log

 7  7

= log(3x − 5) 2 − log 7
1

= log(3x − 5)− log7

1
2

y
2.2 log x 2
z
Solution:
1
 y2
log x2 y = log x + log
2

z z 
1 1
= 2log x + log y − log z
2 2

3. Find the exact value of the logarithmic expression using laws and properties of logs:

3.1  log x + log 28x



Solution:

 log  x + log 2 8 x = x + log 2 (2)3x

= x + 3x
= 4x

29
 1
3.23 2log5 − log81+ log36
. 2
2 Solution:
1 1
log81+ log36 = log5 − log(81)2 + log36
2
2log5 −
2

( log25
)= +
1
2
2 log36− log 9

= log
25 36 

 9 
= log100

= log 10 2 = 2

Note: log 10 = log10 10 . This will be discussed in section 2.2.5

1
log 25 − log125 + log625
3.33 2
. 3log5
3
Solution:
1 1
log 25 − log125 + log625 log52 − log53 + log54
2 = 2
3log5 3log5

4
2 log5 − 3log5 + log5
= 2
3log5

log5(2 − 3 + 2)
=
3log5

1log5 1
= =
3log5 3

30
 ACTIVITY 5

1. Write as a single logarithm:

1.1 log2 x + 2 log2 y log 2 xy 2 

log  3 
1.2 2 log − 3log  − log 
2   
3

 2x −1 
logb (2x −1)− 3logb (x + 1) 2
log b 2 
(x +1)3 
1.3

  x  
x −1 
1.4 log x − log (x − 1) − 2 log (x − 2) log  
a a a

a
( x − 2 )2 
 
2. Expand the following as the sum, difference and multiples of single logarithms:

 x2 + 4   
2log x + log(x 2 + 4) − (x 2 − 5)
1 1
2.1 logx2 
 


 x − 5 
2
2 2
x 1 
2.2 log log x − log 2 − log y
2y 2 
15(3 x )
2.3 log y  log15 + x log3 − y log4
 4 
 x 2 +1 
log(x 2 +1) − x log 2
1
2.4 log 
x
 2  2
 1− x  1 1 
2.5 log   2 log(1− x ) − 2 log(1+ x )
 1+ x 

3. Simplify using the laws and properties of logarithms:

3.1 3log 3 x
 x
3.2 elog e x
x 

31
 3.3 6log 6x
+ log 2 2x 2x
3.43.4 22 log2 x x 2

3.53.5 log x 1 + log x x 1

3.63.6 log ax − log xa 2 − log x
a

3.73.7 log 22x − 2log 2 (2 x )

− x
log2 x  1 log x
3.83.8
log x 2 2  

4. Show that:

1
4.1 log x =
a
log x a

1
4.2 log a = log 1b
b a

4.3 log10 10 = 1

5. If log 2 = a and log 3 = b ; express the following in terms of a and b :

5.1 log5 1− a

5.2 log0,45 2b − a −1
5.3 log  1
90 b+
 2

6. Write the following logarithms in terms of log 2 , log3 and log5 to any base.

6.1 log30 log2 + log3 + log5

6.2 log450 log2 + 2log3 + 2log5
8 4 5   1 
6.3 log 
 3log 2 + log5 − 4log3 
81  4 
 

32
2.2.4 Common and Natural Logarithms

To work with logarithms effectively, we will need to be able to calculate (or at least
approximate) the logarithms of any positive number to a variety of bases. Historically, tables
were used for this purpose, but now calculators are used because they are faster and can
find far more values than any table can possibly include. Of all possible bases, there are two
that are used most often.

COMMON LOGARITHMS:

Logarithms to base 10 were commonly used in conjunction with tables for arithmetic
calculations – they are called common logarithms and are written without indicating the
base. That is, log10 x is normally written simply as log x .

NATURAL LOGARITHMS:

In most scientific applications, the base used for logarithms is the number e . Logarithms to
base e are called natural logarithms and are important for their mathematical properties.
The natural logarithm of x is written as ln x and is pronounced as “ lyn x ”. That means

loge x = ln x .
Note: ln e x is normally written simply as ln x

The rules for manipulating natural logarithms are similar to those of common logarithms and
ln x is not defined when x is negative or zero.

Laws of Natural Logarithms

1. ln(uv) = ln u + ln v Product law

u
2. ln v = ln u − ln v
  Division law
 
3. lnu n = nlnu Power law

Apart from the log laws, there are also several properties that we should take note of. Some
of them are:

33
 Common Logarithm Natural Logarithm

loga a = 1 ln e = 1

loga 1 = 0 ln1 = 0

alog x = x
a
eln x = x
loga a x = x
ln e x = x

Example 2.4 Simplifying Natural Logarithms Without Using a Calculator

1. Simplify each of the following without using a calculator:

1
1.1 ln − ln e
e
Solution:
1
ln − ln e = ln e−1 − ln e
e
= −ln e − ln e
= −1 − 1
= −2
1
3ln e + ln e
1.2  
 
Solution:
1
3ln e + ln  e  = 3ln e + ln e−1
 
= 3ln e − ln e
= 2 ln e
=2
1.3 (
ln xe − ln x )
Solution:
= ln x + ln e−ln x
= ln x − ln x lne
= ln x − ln x
=0

34
2.2.5 Using a Calculator to Evaluate Logarithms

Most calculators have a function key labelled “ log” and a function key labelled “ ln ”. The
former represents the common logarithmic function while the latter represents the natural
logarithmic function. Most calculators also have an extra button that typically looks like
“log⎕ ⎕” which makes some calculations much easier.

Example 2.5 Using a Calculator to Evaluate Logarithmic Expressions

1. Evaluate the following, using a calculator:

1.1 log2 5  2,322

1.2 ln12,52  2,527

1.3 (
ln 51,21 + 1,8 )  2,123

log 4 (3,56) 
1,5
1.4 0,207

1.5 log(ln4)  0,142

1.6 eln 9,3  9,3

log5  log5 
1.7 0,466
ln3  (ln )3

1.8 e3,65 + log3,2 5,46 − ln 45,67  36,113

1.9 log 4 5 − e3 + ln 5  −17,315

1.10 log2 8 − log5 5  1

35
2.2.6 Logarithmic Equations

So far in this chapter, we have discussed the definition, laws and properties of logarithmic
functions. In this section, we will study procedures for solving equations involving logarithmic
functions. When an equation contains one or more logarithmic terms, this is said to be a
logarithmic equation. Two types of logarithmic equations can be identified, each with a
unique strategy to solve.

TYPE 1: A SINGLE LOGARITHMIC TERM

Standard form: logb x = c

Strategy: Convert to exponential form
logb x = c  x = bc

Example 2.6 Solving Type 1 Logarithmic Equations

1. Solve each equation giving answers to three decimal places where applicable:

1
1.1 logx 3 =
2
Solution: Convert to exponential form
1

x2 = 3 Multiply by the reciprocal of the exponent

2
 1
 x 2  = (3) x=9
2

 

1.2 3log5 x − 6 = 0
Solution: Transpose 6 and divide by 3
log5 x = 2
x = 52 x = 25

1.3 log2 16 = x
Solution: Convert to exponential form

2x = 16 Get the common base

2 x = 24
x=4

36
1.4 ln(2x + 3) = 0
Solution: Convert to exponential form

2x + 3 = e0 Remember that e = 1
0

2x = −2
x = −1

1.5 ln(ln x) = 1
Solution: Convert to exponential form

ln x = e1 Convert to exponential form again

x = ee = 15,154

1.6 log(log x) = 1
Solution: Convert to exponential form

log x = 101 Convert to exponential form again

x = 1010 = 11010

Note: the one-on-one property for exponents and logarithms states:

If a = a x= y
x y
❑ then

If a = b a=b
n n
❑ then
❑ If log x = log y then x= y

1.7 log xe2 = 2

Solution: Convert to exponential form

x 2 = e2 One on one property

x=e

TYPE 2: MULTIPLE LOGARITHMIC TERMS

Standard form: loga + logb = logc

Strategy: Combine terms to get one logarithmic term on each side of the
equation; use the four log laws. Then use the one-on-one property:
If log x = log y then x= y

37
Example 2.7 Solving Type 2 Logarithmic Equations

1. Solve the following equations:

1.1 2 log x = log 2x

Solution: Use the power law

log x 2 = log 2x One on one property

x2 = 2x
x2 − 2x = 0 Factorise
x(x − 2 ) = 0
x=0 or x=2

Caution: remember that logarithms are defined only for positive arguments greater
than zero. Hence x = 2 is the only solution.

1.21 log5x + log(x −1) = 2

.
2
Solution: Use the product law
log5x(x −1) = 2 Convert to exponential form
5x(x −1) = 102
5x2 − 5x = 100
x2 − x − 20 = 0
(x − 5)(x + 4) = 0
x = 5 or x = −4
Again, since logarithms are defined only for positive numbers, it follows that x = 5 is the
only solution. Extraneous solutions are common in log equations, so answers should always
be checked in the original equation to see whether any should be discarded; pay special
attention to your negative answers.

1.3 ln(x − 3)− ln(5 − x) = 1,1

Solution: Division law
 x − 3
ln = 1,1 Convert to exponential form
 5 − 3 
x − 3 1,1
=e
5− x
x − 3 = e1,1 (5 − x)
x − 3 = 5e1,1 − e1,1x
x = 4,501
38
Note: remember that ln x = (ln x )
n n

1.4 ln 2 (x + 1) − 2 ln (x + 1) − 3 = 0
Solution: This is a quadratic equation
Let ln(x +1) = k
k 2 − 2k − 3 = 0
(k − 3)(k +1) = 0
k =3 or k = −1 Now substitute back
ln(x +1) = 3 or ln(x +1) = −1
x +1 = e 3
or x +1 = e−1
x = 19,086 or x = −0,632

Once again, check your answers; here both values of x will satisfy the original equation.

2.2.7 Exponential Equations Using Logarithms

We have already considered an exponential equation where a common base could be

obtained on each side of the equation; we then dropped the base and equated the two

exponents. For an example, if 2 x = 23 , it follows that x = 3. Should it not be possible to get

( )
a common base, e.g. 2 = 5 , we will first need to get x out of the exponent. This is where
x

logarithms come in very handy.

TYPE 1: ONE TERM ON EACH SIDE OF THE EQUATION

Strategy: take the common logarithm of both sides

If a = b log a x = logb
x
then

If the equation contains a base e , introduce ln on both sides

If e = b ln e x = ln b
x
then

Example 2.8 Solving Exponential Equations Using Logarithms – Type 1

1. Solve the following equations to three decimals where applicable:

1.1 23x−2 = 5
Solution: Take the common logarithm of both sides

log(2 3 x−2 ) = log5 Use the power law

39
 (3x − 2)log2 = log5 Divide both sides by log 2
log5
3x − 2 = Transpose 2 and divide by 3
log 2
x = 1,441

1.2 e x + 5 = 60
Solution: Subtract 5 from each side

e x = 55 Take natural log of each side

ln e x = ln 55 Apply power law

x ln e = ln 55 Remember that ln e = 1
x = 4,007

1.31 2 x = e1− x
.
3 Solution: Introduce ln on both sides

xln 2 =1− x Collect like terms and factor out x

x(ln 2 +1) = 1
1
x= = 0,591
ln 2 +1

1.41 3x.5x−3 = 4x+1

.
Solution: take the common logarithm of both sides
4

log(3x.5x−3 ) = log(4x+1 ) Apply the product and power law

log3x + log5x−3 = log 4x+1

x log3 + (x − 3)log5 = (x +1)log4
x log3 + x log5 − 3log5 = x log4 + log4
x(log3 + log5 − log4) = log4 + 3log5
log 4 + 3log5
x= = 4,702
log3 + log5 − log 4

TYPE 2: MORE THAN ONE TERM ON EACH SIDE OF THE EQUATION

Strategy: look out for a common factor and quadratic trinomials

40
Example 2.9 Solving Exponential Equations Using Logarithms – Type 2

1. Solve the following equations. Compute the answer to three decimal places:

1.1 e 2x = 3ex − 2
Solution: Write the equation in quadratic from

(e ) − 3e + 2 = 0
x 2 x
Factor
(e − 2)(e −1) = 0
x x

ex = 2 or ex = 1
ln e x = ln 2 or e x = e0
x = ln 2 = 0,693 or x=0

e x + e− x
1.2 = 2,5
2
Solution: Multiply both sides by 2

e x + e− x = 5 Multiply both sides by e

x

e2 x +1 = 5ex x
Subtract 5e from both sides
e2 x − 5ex +1 = 0 This is a quadratic in e
x

Let k = e ; then
x

k 2 − 5k +1 = 0 Use the quadratic formula

5  21
k= x
Replace k with e and solve for x
2
5 + 21 5 − 21
ex = or ex =
2 2
x = 1,567 or x = −1,567

1.3 e 2x − 2ex + 0,579 = 0

Solution: This is a quadratic equation

Let k = e ; then:
x

k 2 − 2k + 0,579 = 0
2  4 − 2,316
k=
2
e x = 1,649 or e x = 0,35
x = 0,5 or x = −1,05

41
 ACTIVITY 6

1. Solve the following equations:

3
1.1 2 loga x − loga (x −1) = log a (x − 2) 2 

1.2 log(x + 3)+ log x = 1 2

1.3 5 + 2 ln x = 4 0,607
1.4 log2 (1 − x ) − log2 (x + 5) = 3 − 4,33
1.5 ln 2x + ln(2x − e) = 2 + ln8 4,58
 − 
x

1.6 16 = 241 − e 2  2,197

 

1.7 e1−x = 2x+1 0,181

1.8 e2 x = ex+1 + 7 1,47

e x − e− x
1.9 =2 1,44
2

1.10 4x+1. 5x−3 = 3x+2 2,973

2. Find the values of x , using a calculator and laws:

2.1 (0,08772)−0,56 = x 3,91

2.2 log(3log x + 4,563) = 1,09 380,1
2.3 log 4(2x + 3) = −
5
2
−1,48
2.4 ln(4x − 0,068) = −1,09 0,101

2.5
3x
log x 2 − log 5 = 2,678 285,86

42
 2.6 (0,97)−0,8 x = 3
56,5
22,97
6275
2.7 ln(12,5) = 0,3
x
0,119
2.8 4.81,2 x =
1
− 2,5
128

3. Write in the equivalent exponential/logarithmic form:

1
= −1 1 
3.1 log 3  3 
3
 
2
1
3.2   = 0,25 log 1 0,25 = 2
2  2 
3  3 
3.3 log9 27 = 9 = 27
2
2  
3.4 log3 243 = x 3x = 243
3.5 p = ln3x e = 3x
p

4. Solve for the unknown in each of the following equations:

4.1 ln x 2 = (ln x )
2
1; e 
2

4.2 e2 x − 3ex + 2 = 0 0 ; 0,69

 1 
4.3 (log x )3 = log x 4 100 ;
 100 
4.4 ex−1 = 2e3x−4 1,153
4.5 log2 2x − 3log 2x − 4 = 0 5000; 0,05
4.6 2x + 3.22−x − 7 = 0
1,59 
1,585; 2
4.7 3,72ln = 2,43 0,827
 
 x 
4.8 − 2ln x2 − 3 = 1 1,84
4.9 2x+1 = 32 x−5 4,113
4.10 (log x − 3)(2 2x
− 4) = 0 1000;1

4.11 ln(x − 2) = ln(x − 2) − ln(x + 3) +1,6

2
2,847
43
5. Simplify without using a calculator:

5.1 3ln(e ln e ) + ln(ln e) 3 

5.2 ln e2 + log 2 2 − 3 − 0,5

5.3 b 3log 4 b
64
5.4 ln (e 2 ) + e − ln e  1
2+
 e
5.5 log  2 
x+3

2  x−1 
4 
2
 
−  −1 
e 
ln e 2
5.6 e
 
5.7 
ln e 2 ln(e ln e )  2 

5.8 6 log 6 x 3
x 
3

6. Solve for b :

1
6.1 log 25 b2 − log 25 (2b − 5) = 5 
2
27
= −3 2
6.2 log b 3 
8
2
6.3 eln (2−b ) = 2b 3 

7. The decibel gain n of an amplifier is given by:

 P2 
n = 10log 
 P1 
P2
where P1 is the power input and P2 is the power output. Find the power gain
P1
when n = 25decibels. 316,23

44
2.3 MANIPULATION OF EQUATIONS BY CHANGING THE SUBJECT

Why it is important to understand: Manipulation of Formulae by Changing the Subject

In mathematics, engineering and science, formulae are used to relate physical quantities to
each other. They provide rules so that if we know the values of certain quantities, we can
calculate the values of others.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

❖ Manipulate formulae by changing the subject of a formula.

❖ Manipulate formulae containing logarithms and exponents.

45
2.3.1 Manipulation of a Formula

A formula is an expression relating two or more variables (or symbols) by means of an

algebraic equation. If the formula is written in such a way that there is only one symbol (or
variable) on one side of the equation, this symbol is known as the subject of the formula.
The process of rearranging the formula so that one of the other symbols becomes the
subject of the formula is called the manipulation (or transposing) of the formula.

Example 2.1 Manipulation of Formulae

1. Change the subject of the formula to the symbol or letter indicated:

1.1 Make p the subject of the formula in: 5x = py − p

Solution:
p ( y −1) = 5x Factorise
p ( y −1) 5x
= Divide by the coefficient of
( y −1) ( y −1)
5x
p=
y −1

1.2 Make r the subject of the formula in: A =  R − r ( 2 2

), a formula for a flat ring.
Solution:
A
R2 − r 2 = Divide both sides by

A
− r2 = − R2 2
Subtract R from both sides

A
r 2 = R2 − Multiply both sides by

A
r= R −
2
Take the square root on both sides


But since r is the radius of a circular structure and always positive, we may disregard
A
the negative square root, hence r = R2 −


46
 x bk
1.3 Make k the subject of the formula in: =
2 3(k − y)
Solution:

x2 bk
= Remove the square root
4 3(k − y)
3x 2 k − 3x2 y = 4bk Cross multiply and then multiply out
3x 2 k − 4bk = 3x2 y Group terms containing k together
k (3x2 − 4b)= 3x2 y Take out k as a common factor
3x 2 y
k= Divide by the coefficient of
3x2 − 4b
1.4 Make R1 the subject of the formula in:

RT (R1 + R2 ) = R1 R2
Solution:
RT R1 + RT R2 = R1 R2 Multiply out
RT R1 − R1 R2 = −RT R2 Collect terms containing R1 on the LHS
R (R − R ) = −R R Take out common factor
1 T 2 T 2

− RT R2
R1 = Divide
RT − R2

ACTIVITY 7

1. Change the subject of formulae to the symbol in brackets:

 15BD2 
WL
1.1 D= ….. (L) L = W 
15B  
P1V1 P2V2 (T )  P2V2T1 
1.2 T = T ….. 2 T2 = PV 
1 2  1 1 

1 1 1 ….. v = fu 
f = +
1.3 (v)

u v  u− f 
E
1.4 e= R ….. (R)  er 
R=
R+r  E − e 

47
 (kD)5  H  Q2 L 
1.51.5 Q= ….. (k )  k = 5 
L  HD5 

m(v − u 2 )
2
 2Fs 
1.61.6 F= ….. (u) u = v −
2

2s  m 
bn E (a − n)  2
a = bn D + n

1.71.7 = ….. (a)  
2A Dn  2 AE 

1.81.8 1− ax b ….. (x) x = a −b 
=

1+ bx a a 2 + b2 
 x +1 = K
2
 k +1
1.91.9 x −1 ….. (x) x = k −1
   
.1 ay − by = a +1
1.101 ….. ( y) y = a 
0
b a b  a − b 

2.3.2 Manipulation of Formulae Containing Logarithms and Exponents

• Even though the problems we are going to look at primarily involve exponents and
logarithms, it is important to note that changing the subject of the formula requires that
you always remember the rules applied earlier.

• If the equation given is in the form a = b , and you want x as the new subject, you
x

need to remember your log laws in order to ‘bring down’ the exponent.

For instance, if a = b
x

log a x = log b
 x log a = log b
log b
x = = log b
a
log a
• If the equation given involves Euler’s number e , this should be enough of a hint for
you to remember the association of the number with natural logs.

Example 2.2 Manipulation of Formulae in Equations Containing e

1. If T = A + (B − A)e−kt , where A , B and k are constants, express t in terms of the

other symbols.

Solution:

48
 (B − A)e−kt =T − A Subtract A on each side

T−A
e−kt = Divide both sides by (B − A) to isolate e
B− A
T − A
ln e−kt = ln B − A
  Take natural logs on both sides
 
T − A
− kt ln e = ln B − A Remember that ln e = 1
 
 
1 T − A
t = − ln Divide both sides by − k
  to isolate t
k B− A


 

2. The electrical potential near a long cylinder due to charges on its surface is given by
2q
V = A− ln r . Make r the subject of the formula.
K
Solution:
2q
ln r = A −V Subtract A and multiply both sides by
K
K ( A −V )
ln r = Cross multiply
2q
K ( A−V )

r =e 2q
Convert to exponential form

102 x +1
3. Make x the subject of =a
102 x −1
Solution:

10 2 x +1 = a (10 2 x −1) Cross multiply

10 +1 = a.10 − a
2x 2x
Multiply out the RHS
102 x − a.102 x = −a −1 Multiply both sides by
a.102 x −102 x = a +1
102x (a −1) = a +1 Common factor
a +1
102 x = Divide both sides by
a −1
 a +1 
2x = log a −1
  Introduce common log on each side

1  a +1  
x = log  Divide by 2
2 
a −1
 

49
 ACTIVITY 8

1. Change the subject of following formulae to the symbol in brackets:

T 
T = T eur ….. ( )  1 ln 1 
 = ur T
1.1
1 2

 2 

  x    −1 
 L 

L = 2K 1 + ln  x = a. e
 2k 
1.2 ….. (x) 
  a   


1.3 w = ( y + z )2 x ….. (x) x= log w 
 2 log(y + z)


 −
t
   q 
1.4 q = q0  1 − e r  ….. (t) t = −r ln1− 
    q0 

 1 − e 2x 
 =
1 + e2 x 
1.5 ln 1− y − ln 1+ y = x ….. ( y) y
 

( ) ( )  10 x + 1
2
2

1.6 log y + 1 = x + log y − 1 ….. ( y) y = x2 

 10 − 1 

V − 
Rt
 c  Ri 
R = 1 − e c  
1.7 ….. (t) t = − ln1−
i    R  V 

 1 − e 2x 
 =
1 + e2 x 
1.8 ln 1− y − ln 1+ y = x ….. ( y) y
 

1.9 ln 1 − x = 2 ….. (x) x = 1 − e 

4

1.10 ln(y +1)− ln(y −1) = 2x + ln x ….. ( y) y = x e 2x + 1 

50
   A 
n
 a 
1.11 A = P1 + 100  ….. (a) a = 100  n P −1  
    
 
T1 
   
1.12 L= 1− e y  ….. ( y)  y =  
T2    LT 
   
ln 1− 2

  T1  

1.13 b = lnt − a ln D ..... (t) t = e D  b a

    U 
 W 
1.14 U = U e PV  ….. (W ) W = PV ln
2

2 1
  U1 

P  R1 
2. If = 10log  , find the value of R1 when P = 160 , Q = 8 and R2 = 5 .
Q  R2 
R 1
= 500

3. The temperature  2 of a winding which is being heated electrically at time t is given

 − 
t

by:  2 = 1 1 − e  where 1 is the temperature (in degree Celsius) at time t = 0



 
and  is a constant. Calculate:
3.1 1 , correct to the nearest degree, when  2 = 50 0C , t is 30s and  is 60s
3.2 The time t , correct to 1 decimal place, for  2 to be half the value of 1
 = 127
1
0
C and t = 41,59 sec

4. The work done in an isothermal expansion of a gas from pressure p1 to p2 is given

by:
 p1 
w = w0 ln 
 p2 
If the initial pressure p1 = 7.0 kPa, calculate the final pressure p2 if w = 3w0 .

p 2
= 348,5 Pa

51
2.4 GRAPHS OF THE EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Why it is important to understand: Exponential and Logarithmic Graphs

As will be seen in this unit, the properties of exponential functions indicate that the graphs of
exponential functions are distinct from the graphs we have already studied. One of the
properties/characteristics guarantees that exponential functions have inverses that are called
logarithmic functions. Transformations of exponential functions are very useful in modeling
real-world phenomena, like population growth and radioactive decay. Some examples of this
phenomenon will be studied in this unit. It is important to understand how the graphs of
those functions are related to the graphs of exponential functions.

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

On completion of this study unit, you will be able to:

❖ Sketch graphs of the exponential function.

❖ Sketch graphs of the logarithmic function.

52
2.4.1 Definition and Graphical Representation of the Exponential Function

An exponential function is one in which the independent variable x appears in the

exponent. For a fixed base a  0 , the equation y = ax defines an exponential function.

All functions of the form y = ax have certain characteristics. To make some general

observation about this function, we examine the graph of y = ax for specific values of the
base a .

CASE 1: a 1

On the same coordinate plane, sketch the graphs of y1 = 2 and y 2 = 4 .

x x

We create a table of values and plot the graphs as follows:

x 2x 4x
-3 18 1 64

-2 14 1 16

-1 12 14
0 1 1
1 2 4
2 4 16
3 8 64

y
4x

2x

1
x

53
 x
Note that both graphs increase as x grows larger, in fact the graph of 4 is increasing more
x
rapidly than the graph of 2 . This rapid increase in the function values is typical of

exponential curves; therefore, the curves of y = 2 x ; y = e x ; y = 5x ; y = 10x etc. all

have the same basic shape as shown below:

1
x

From the table above, we observe that both the graphs intersect with the y-axis at the point

y = 1. That is because when we let x = 0 in y = a x , this results in y = a0 for any a value.

Conclusion: the y-intercept of the exponential curve y = ax with a  1 is always at y = 1.

CASE 2: 0  a 1

x x
1 1
On the same set of axis, sketch the graphs of y1 =  2  and y2 =  4  .
   

We create a table of values and plot the graphs as follows:

x x
1 1
x    
2 4
-2 4 16
-1 2 4
0 1 1
1 12 14

2 14 1 16

3 18 1 64

54
 y
x
1
 
x
4
1
 
2
1

x
1
Note that both graphs decrease as x grows larger, in fact the graph of   is decreasing
4
x x x x x
1  1  1  1  1
more rapidly than the graph of   . The curves of   ;   ;   ;   etc. all
6
2 2 e   10 
have the same basic shape as shown below.

Conclusion: the y-intercept of the exponential curve y = ax with 0  a  1 is always at

y =1

Characteristics of the graph y = a

x

− If a  0 , (case 1) y increases as x increases.

− If 0  a  1, (case 2) y decreases as x increases.

− The graph of y = a always intercept the y-axis at y = 1.

x

− The graph of y = a
x
intersects any horizontal line at most once (that is, f is a
one- to- one).

55
 − Since a  0 for all values of x , these graphs never cross the x-axis.
x

− The graph gets closer and closer to the x-axis but does not touch the x-axis. When
a curve approaches a line in this manner, this line is called an asymptote to the
curve.
− If a  0 , then the negative x-axis is the asymptote.
− If 0  a  1, then the positive x-axis is the asymptote.

General Equation of an Exponential Function

So far, the examples we have looked at are very basic. To be able to draw graphs of

equations like y = 2(3) , we need to look at the general equation of the exponential
x

function which is:

y = k (a n ) ; where k , a and n are integers except zero.

x

Strategy for Plotting Exponential Graphs

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the following are some of the characteristics needed for plotting
graphs:
− General form (shape) of the curve
− The X- and Y-intercepts
− Critical values, such as turning points, if necessary
− Axis or lines forming asymptotes, if necessary

Two of the characteristics needed for plotting exponential graphs are:

1. Shape of the curve – dependent on the value of base a .

2. The X- and Y-intercepts, and this is how we calculate them:

For the Y-intercept, let X = 0

y = k (a n )
0

= k . a0 = k
The exponential function y = k a n ( ) x
will always have Y-intercept given by the value of k .

56
For the X-intercept, substitute Y = 0

0 = k (a n )
x
Divide both sides by k

(a n )
x
=0 Introduce logs on both sides

x log a n = log0
n
Divide both sides by log a

log0
x= = undefined
log a n
The exponential function y = k a n ( ) x
does not have the X-intercept.

Let us consider some more graphs of the exponential functions.

Example 2.1 Sketching Exponential Equations

1. Sketch the graphs of the following exponential functions:

y = 2 (3)
x
1.1
➢ The equation is already in standard form
➢ The y - intercept = k = 2

➢ Shape, read off the value of a : a = 3  1, hence case 1.

y
y = 2 (3)
x

2
x

−x
1.2 y =  1 
e

➢ Write in standard form y = k a n ( ) x

y = (e −1 )
−x
= ex
➢ The y - intercept = k = 1

57
 ➢ Shape, read off the value of a : a = e  1 , hence case 1.
y
y = (e )
x

e
x

1.3 y = 31− x

➢ Write in standard form y = k a n ( ) x

x
1
y = 31. 3− x = 3  
3
➢ The y - intercept = k = 3

➢ Shape, read off the value of a : 0  0,33  1, hence case 2.

−x
1.4 y = −3  1 
4

➢ Write in standard form y = k a n ( ) x

y = −3 (4 −1 ) = −3 (4)
−x x

➢ The y - intercept = k = −3

➢ Shape, read off the value of a : a = 4  1 , hence case 1.

58
 y

x
−3

1 −2 x
1.5 Plot a graph of y = e over the range x = −1,5 to x = 1,5 and determine
3
(a) The value of y when x = −1,2

(b) The value of x when y = 1,4

1
y = e−2 x
3
➢ Write in standard form y = k a n ( ) x

1  1 x
y=
1
(e )
−2 x
=
 
3 3  e2 
1
➢ The y - intercept = k =
3
➢ Shape, read off the value of a : 0  0,14  1, hence case 2.

1
3
x
−1,5 1,5

59
 (a) The value of y when x = −1,2

1
y = e−2(−1,2) = 3,674
3

(b) The value of x when y = 1,4

1
1,4 = e−2 x
3
e−2 x = 4,2 − 2x = ln 4,2 x = −0,718

ACTIVITY 9

1. Sketch the following graphs:

1.1 y = e x−2
2x
1.2 y = 2  1 
4
1.3 y + 3.2−2 x+1 = 0
2
1.4 y + −x = 0
e
1.5 y = ln 3x
1.6 3y − 2x+1 = 0

2. Further problems on exponential graphs:

2.1 Plot a graph of y = 3e0,2 x over a range x = −3 to x = 3 and determine the:

(a) Value of y when x = 1,4 3,97

(b) Value of x when y = 4,5 2,03

2.2 The decay of voltage, v volts, across a capacitor at time t seconds is given
by:
t
−
v = 250e 3

60
 Draw a graph showing the natural decay curve over the first 6 seconds and find the:
(a) Voltage after 3,4 seconds 80,5 V
(b) Time when the voltage is 150 V 1,53 sec

1 −1,5 x
2.3 Plot a graph of y = e over a range x = −1,5 to x = 1,5 and hence
2
determine the:
(a) Value of y when x = −0,8 1,66
(b) Value of x when y = 3,5 −1,30
2.4 In a chemical reaction, the amount of starting material C cm3 left after t

minutes is given by C = 40e

−0,006 t
. Plot a graph of C against t and determine

(a) The concentration C after 1 hour 27,91 cm 

3

(b) The time taken for the concentration to decrease by half 115,52 min

2.5 The rate at which a body cools is given by  = 250e−0,05t where the excess of

temperature of a body above its surroundings at time t minutes is  0C . Plot

a graph showing the natural decay curve for the first hour of cooling and
determine

(a) The temperature after 25 minutes 70 C 

0

(b) The time when the temperature is 195 C

0
5 min

2.4.2 The Graph of the Logarithmic Function

Remember that we had two cases to consider when plotting the exponential graph x = a .
y

Since the logarithmic function y = loga x is the equivalent of the exponential function

x = a y , it is again necessary to examine these two cases for specific values of the base a .

CASE 1: y = loga x with a 1

On the same coordinate plane, sketch the graphs of y1 = log x and y2 = ln x .

We create a table of values and plot the graphs as follows:

61
 x log x ln x
0,01 −2 − 4,605

0,1 −1 − 2,303
1 0 0
2 0,301 0,693
3 0,477 1,099

4 0,602 1,386
5 0,699 1,609

y
ln x
log x
1
x

This shape is typical of all logarithmic curves of the form y = loga x . Therefore, the curves

of y = log2 x ; y = log5 x ; y = log x ; y = ln x etc. all have the same basic shape as

seen below.

1
x

62
CASE 2: y = loga x with 0  a 1

On the same coordinate plane, sketch the graphs of y1 = log 1 x and y2 = log1 x .
10 2

We create a table of values and plot the graphs as follows:

log 1 x log1 x
x 10 2

0,01 2 6,644

0,1 1 3,322
1 0 0
2 − 0,301 −1
3 − 0,477 −1,585

4 − 0,602 −2
5 − 0,699 − 2,322

1
x
log 1 x
10

log1 x
2

This shape is typical of all logarithmic curves of the form y = loga x . Therefore, the curves

of y = log1 x ; y = log1 x ; y = log 1 x ; y = ln1 x etc. all have the same basic shape
2 5 10 e

as seen below.

63
 y

1
x

Characteristics of the graph y = loga x

- loga x increases when x increases if a  1 and decreases when x increases if

0  a  1.
- The point of intersection of the graph with the x − axis is at x = 1 . The logarithmic
function y = loga x therefore has an x − intercept at x = 1 .

- For a  1, the negative y − axis is the asymptote and for 0  a  1, the positive
y − axis is the asymptote.

General Equation of a Logarithmic Function

The examples we have looked at so far are quite easy to draw using a table of values. To be
able to draw graphs of equations like y = log2 3x , we need to look at the general equation

of the logarithmic function which is:

y = k loga nx ; where k , a and n are positive integers.

Strategy for Plotting Logarithmic Graphs

Two of the characteristics needed for plotting exponential graphs are:

1. Shape of the curve – dependent on the value of base a .

2. The X- and Y-intercepts, and this is how we calculate them:

64
For the X-intercept, let Y = 0
0 = k loga (nx)
loga (nx) = 0 Divide both side by k
nx = a0 Write in exponential form
nx = 1
1
x= Solve for x
n
The logarithmic function y = k loga (nx) will always have X-intercept given by the value of

1
n
For the Y-intercept, substitute X = 0
y = k log an (0)
y = k loga 0 = undefined
The logarithmic function y = k loga (nx) does not have the Y-intercept.

3. If k  0 , use the property: − loga x = log1 x (proof in section 2.2.3)

a

Example 2.2 Sketching Logarithmic Equations

1. Make neat sketches of the following graphs. Indicate the intercepts with the axes
clearly.

1.1 y = log2 3x
➢ The equation is already in standard form!
1 1
➢ The x - intercept = =
n 3
➢ Shape, read off the value of a : a = 2  1 , hence case 1.
y

1 x
3

65
 1.2 y = log 1 x
10

➢ The equation is already in standard form!

1
➢ The x - intercept = =1
n
➢ Shape, read off the value of a : 0  0,1  1 , hence case 2.

1
x

1.31.3 y = ln 1 2x
e

➢ The equation is already in standard form y = k loga nx

1 1
➢ The x - intercept = = = 0,5
n 2
➢ Shape, read off the value of a : 0  0,37  1, hence case 2.

0,5
x

66
 x
1.41.4 y = − ln
2
➢ Write the equation in standard form y = k loga nx

x 1
y = ln 1   = ln 1   x use: − log a x = log1 x
2 2
e e a
1 1 =2
➢ The x - intercept = =
n 1
2
➢ Shape, read off the value of a : 0  0,37  1, hence case 2.

2
x

1.51.5 y = −3log1 4x
5

➢ Write the equation in standard form y = k loga nx

y = 3log5 4x use: − loga x = log1 x

a

1 1
➢ The x - intercept = = = 0,25
n 4
➢ Shape, read off the value of a : a = 5  1, hence case 1.

x
0,25

67
 ACTIVITY 10

1. Make neat sketches of the following graphs. Indicate the intercepts with the respective
axes clearly.

1.1 y = −log 3 2x

1.2 y = 2log4x

1.31.3 y = 3x and y = log3 x

x
1.4 y = −5log 1
2
3

x
1.51.5 y = −3ln
4

4
1.61.6 y = −3log
x

1
1.71.7 y − 2ln =0
x

1.8 y + log 1 x3 = 0
e

68