0% found this document useful (0 votes)

43 views37 pages

Chapter 2 Motores

This document provides an overview of hand tools, precision measuring tools, and shop tools used by truck technicians. It discusses common hand tools like combination wrenches and open-end wrenches used for fasteners. Precision measuring tools such as micrometers and dial indicators are described. Shop tools including hoists, jacks, and adhesives are also outlined. The purpose is to guide novice technicians on essential tools and measurements in both standard and metric systems for working on diesel engines.

Uploaded by

Walter Gonzalez

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

43 views37 pages

Chapter 2 Motores

Uploaded by

Walter Gonzalez

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 37

2

Hand and Shop Tools,

Precision Tools, and
Units of Measurement
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
•• Identify the hand tools typically used by truck •• Read a dial indicator.
technicians and select appropriate tools for common •• Define TIR and explain how it is determined.
shop applications.
•• Explain how a dial bore gauge operates.
•• Categorize the various types of wrenches used in
shop practice. •• Perform accurate measurements using a dial bore
gauge.
•• Identify different types of torque wrenches.
•• List the shop tools generally provided by an
•• Calculate torque specification compensation when a employer.
linear extension is used.
•• Identify typical shop hoisting and lifting equipment
•• Identify the precision measuring tools used by the and select the correct equipment for common shop
engine and fuel system technician. applications.
•• Outline the operating principles of a standard •• Identify common fasteners and select the correct
micrometer and name its components. fasteners for the job being worked on.
•• Read a standard micrometer. •• Describe the nature and use of chemical adhesives
•• Outline the operating principles of a metric and sealants.
micrometer and name its components. •• Perform accurate conversions of English and metric
•• Read a metric micrometer. measurements.

Key Terms
bar electronic digital caliper outside diameter (od) torque multiplier
boom hoist (EDC) outside micrometer torque-to-yield
calipers Industrial Fastener Institute scissor jack total indicated runout
chain hoist (IFI) spreader bar (TIR)
dial bore gauge inside diameter (id) stiction units of atmosphere
inside micrometer (atms)
dial indicator telescoping gauge
dividers micrometer tensile strength

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
26 Section 1 Diesel Engine Fundamentals

WHY READ THIS? Combination Wrenches

Most technicians usually own a couple of sets of combi-
This chapter is intended to provide a guide to tools for nov- nation wrenches, including the common sizes. A com-
ice truck technicians. The tools are loosely divided into the bination wrench is manufactured with a box end and an
categories of hand tools, precision measuring tools, and open end, both of the same nominal size (Figure 2–2A).
shop tools (Figure 2–1). There is also a guide to the con- Most truck diesel technicians should only consider
tents of a truck technician’s toolbox; however, the rookie better-quality combination wrenches that are guar-
technician should invest in only a minimum number of anteed for life. A wide range of prices exists between
tools before obtaining employment, and then develop a lower-quality wrenches, which tend to be heavy and
tool collection with the job requirements in mind. clumsy (but often are as strong as the best quality)
Some guidance in standard-to-metric conversion and the best quality, which are light and smooth to
units is also provided. The modern truck technician is handle. It is useful to own a set of top-quality combina-
usually expected to work on engines engineered on met- tion wrenches in sizes up to 3 4 0 (19 mm) because these
ric systems using specifications generally presented in are able to access fasteners on engines that heavier,
standard or English values, so it helps to be familiar with clumsier wrenches cannot access. Less expensive but
both systems. fully warranted wrenches can be considered for use on
sizes larger than 3 4 0 (19 mm). There are many cheaper,
Hand Tools poor-quality wrenches on the market, many of them
imported. These are seldom guaranteed. Poor-quality
wrenches are dangerous and should be used by no
The technician will need to possess a basic set of hand
technician.
tools. Although some basic guidelines are provided later
in this chapter, the tools selected and their quality will
largely be determined by the nature of the work. Hand
tools vary considerably in price, so before spending Open-End Wrenches
large sums of money, the technician should determine Open-end wrenches have open jaws on either side
whether the expenditure is justified by the amount of of the wrench, usually with different sizes at either
use the tools will get. Most better-quality hand tools end and slightly offset (Figure 2–2B). The wrench
carry lifetime warranties; however, this may not cover a should be of sufficient quality that the jaws do not
tool that wears out, so it is good to question the extent spread when force is applied, and the jaws should not
of the warranty offered. Diesel technicians seldom wear be so bulky as to restrict access to difficult-to-get-at
out tools; the main problem is usually loss. Because fasteners. Such wrenches may damage softer fasten-
of the high price of hand tools, most technicians learn ers (such as brass pipe nuts) because their design
to check the contents of their toolboxes carefully after permits them to impart force to only two of the six
completing each job. Most loss of tools is usually the flats of a hex nut.
result of carelessness on the part of the technician.
Thousands of wrenches are lost every week because
they are left on a truck, bus, or car chassis. Figure 2–2 Wrenches: A. Combination; B. Open-end;
C. Box-end; D. Line wrench.
Figure 2–1 A technician’s tool cabinet.
A.

Box-End Wrenches a nut and is probably mostly used for final torquing of a
difficult-to-access nut. A line socket is the socket coun-
A box-end wrench surrounds the fastener and may be terpart to the line wrench. It grips four of the six flats of
of hexagonal or double-hexagonal design (Figure 2–2C). a nut; its main use is to deliver final torque to a pipe nut.
As most bolts and nuts are of a hexagonal design, the
hex box-end wrench will grip more securely; however,
it will be less versatile where access is restricted, as it Ratchets and Breaker/Flex Bars
can only fit on the fastener in 6 radial positions through Reversible ratchets used in conjunction with sockets
a rotation rather than the 12 radial positions of the are tools much used by any technician. They are used
double-hex, box-end wrench. to rapidly turn fasteners by hand and should be of good
quality because the consequence of failure is personal
Line Wrenches injury. However, they are not designed to accommodate
high torque loads. The ratchet spur wheel is locked
The appropriate wrench to work on the pipe nuts used to one direction of rotation by a single or double cog.
in hydraulic and fuel injection components is a line The spur and cog cannot be observed because they are
wrench, shown in Figure 2–2D. It has the appearance of enclosed in the ratchet head, but this determines the
a box-end wrench with a small section removed so that ultimate strength of the tool.
it fits through the pipe to enclose the pipe nut. The line A breaker bar (also known as a flex bar, power bar,
wrench should be used in place of the open-end wrench and Johnson bar) has a grip bar and pivoting drive square
to avoid damaging pipe nuts. A line wrench can also be to engage with a socket in the same way a ratchet does;
known as a flare nut wrench or crowsfoot wrench. they are available in 1 4 0, 3 8 0, 12 0, 3 4 0, and 10 sizes. A
breaker/flex bar can be used to release fasteners that
Adjustable Wrenches require considerably more force than could be safely
applied to a ratchet; however, the use of “helpers” such
The adjustable wrench consists of a rigid jaw integral
as a pipe over the handle should be avoided.
with the handle and an adjustable jaw moved by a worm
adjuster screw. The truck technician should probably
own a couple of these and then resolve to use them Torque Wrenches
as little as possible. Their advantage is versatility and
Torque wrenches measure resistance to turning effort
their ability to (sometimes) grip a worn fastener. Their
(Figure 2–3). The objective of torquing fasteners is to
disadvantage is that they cause wear because the adjust-
ensure that a specified clamping force between two
able jaw never fits tightly to the flats on a hex fastener
components is achieved. However, an estimated 90%
and it tends to round them out. Never apply excessive
of the force applied to a torque wrench is required to
force to an adjustable wrench.
overcome the friction of the fastener thread surface
area, with about 10% contributing to clamping force
Socket Wrenches (Figure 2–4).
Most technicians possess at least one torque
Diesel technicians will require complete socket sets in
wrench—and probably do not use it as much as
4 0, 8 0, and 2 0 drive sizes and may consider a 4 0 drive.
1 3 1 3
they should. In assembling engine and fuel system
What constitutes a complete set of sockets varies a little
by manufacturer, but typically 1 4 0 drive sets are provided
with sockets up to 12 0 (12 mm), 3 8 0 drives up to 3 4 0 Figure 2–3 A. Flex beam torque wrench B. Dial
(19 mm), and 12 0 drives up to 1 1 4 0 (30 mm). Sockets gauge torque wrench C. Sensory (click-type) torque
may be of the hex or double-hex design and enclose the wrench.
fastener. The socket may be hand-rotated by a ratchet or
flex bar and power-rotated by a pneumatically powered
wrench or impact wrench.
Impact sockets are manufactured of softer alloys A.
than those designed to be driven manually, to prevent
fracture. Technicians should purchase good-quality
sockets because the consequence of a failed socket is
personal injury. Deep sockets permit access to a nut in
B.
which a greater length of the bolt or stud is exposed. A
crowsfoot socket is essentially an open-end wrench that
can be turned by a ratchet; it grips two of the six flats of C.

Figure 2–4 Torque to overcome friction. calibration should be routinely checked. Dial-type
torque wrenches have circular dial scales with a nee-
dle that indicates the applied torque value. These
tend to be more useful when torquing sequences of

Courtesy of Navistar International Corp.

fasteners at different torque values; dial-type torque
Clamping force 10% wrenches are usually more expensive than click-type
Underhead of bolt torque wrenches. Beam-type torque wrenches use a
90% Thread friction and/or washer 90% lb-ft.
10% Clamping force Bolt and friction flexible, medium alloy steel shaft (beam) that deflects
100% Torque bore threads when torque is applied; a needle pointer indicates
the applied torque effort. These tend to be the most
expensive, but have good accuracy and s eldom require
calibration if properly stored and cared for. However, it
components, every fastener should be torqued to speci- should be noted that the needle pointer is vulnerable
fication. Studies indicate that when technicians fail to to abuse.
use torque wrenches, they overtorque fasteners to values Technicians should probably own a 3 8 0 and 12 0
50% to 100% over the specification. This action can drive torque wrench of the click or electronic type. The
damage fasteners and distort components, including torque wrench calibration should be checked annually
cylinder blocks and heads. with a torque wrench tester. Torque specifications are
Four general types of torque wrench are used: provided by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs)
in order to obtain reasonably consistent clamping pres-
●● Flex beam sures between mated components. Torque values for fuel
●● Dial gauge injection and engine component fasteners are usually
●● Click or sensory factored for lubricated threads.
●● Electronic (with audible beep)
The torque wrenches commonly used today in
engine repair facilities are the sensory or click type and
the electronic type: In both, when the selected torque
value is attained, the wrench produces an audible click
Tech Tip
or beep. Diesel technicians are often required to torque Sensory or click-type torque wrenches are set by inter-
large numbers of fasteners to the same specification, nal spring tension to a specified torque value, either by
such as when torquing cylinder heads to a cylinder rotating the handle or by a dial and latch. On torque
block; it makes sense to use a click- or electronic-type wrenches that use spring tension to define torque, the
spring tension should be relieved after use, as shown in
torque wrench when performing this type of procedure.
Figure 2–5. In other words, store the torque wrench with
the torque specification set at zero or the tool will have
Stiction to be recalibrated more often.
Stiction is stationary friction. Referencing Figure 2–4,
the student can see that starting to turn a bolt requires
a lot more force than keeping it turning. The tighter
the bolt is torqued, the greater the stiction, and this Figure 2–5 Torque setting scale on a typical click-
can affect torque readings. Lubricating bolts can help, type torque wrench.
but the type of lubricant (lube) used is important. This
means that the lube suggested by the service literature
should always be used. This can range from nothing at
all to engine lube to locking adhesives. Failure to observe
these recommendations can result in either high or low
clamping pressures.

Care of Torque Wrenches

Click-type torque wrenches should always be backed
off to a zero reading after use, and their calibra-
tion should be routinely checked. Electronic torque
wrenches should be switched off after use, and

Torque Wrench Extensions on a repair procedure indicates that a bolt should be

Torque wrenches are mainly used with sockets, line sock- discarded and replaced with a new one, usually a torque-
ets, or crowsfoot jaw wrenches. Torque readings are a prod- to-yield fastener is used.
uct of the length of the handle measured in feet or inches
and the force applied to the handle. For example, a 2-foot
(ft.)-long torque wrench when applied with 10 pounds (lb)
of force would produce 20 lb-ft. of torque. To express any
Tech Tip
torque value specified in lb-ft. in lb-in., simply multiply by Reusing old torque-to-yield bolts can result in costly
12. So, 20 lb-ft. is equivalent to 240 lb-in. When a stan- engine failures. Observe the service literature procedure
dard extension (one that is at right angles to the plane of and replace them.
the wrench) is used with a torque wrench, no torque read-
ing adjustment is required. If a linear extension (one on the
same linear plane as the wrench) is used, the mechanical
Tightening Torque-to-Yield Fasteners
advantage is increased, and the torque reading should be
adjusted using the following formula: Tightening of torque-to-yield fasteners is usually per-
formed progressively using a combination of torque and
T 3 L1 turning angle. The first step is to torque the fastener or
TS 5
(L1 1 L2 ) set of fasteners to a low specification so that an even
clamping load is applied to the mating components. This
where is usually followed by a second pass at an incrementally
higher torque value. After this, each fastener is turned
T 5 torque in lb-ft. a specified number of degrees measured with a protrac-
TS 5 torque scale in lb tor or template placed over the fastener hex; this may
L1 5 torque wrench frame length in inches occur in two or three additional steps. For example, each
fastener might be turned 90 degrees, followed by an
L2 5 torque wrench extension length in inches additional 45 degrees. Torque-to-yield ensures a more
accurate and even clamping force. The tools used for
So, if a torque specification is 50 lb-ft. and an 180 torque-to-yield fasteners are:
torque wrench is to be used in conjunction with a 120
linear extension, the following calculation should be ●● Angle gauge protractor with a pointer
used to determine what the correct reading on the torque ●● Electronic (measures the turn angle with more
wrench scale should be: precision)

T 3 L1 50 3 18
TS 5 1 2
5 Torque Multiplier
(L 1 L ) (18 1 12)
A torque multiplier is a wrench used to provide mechani-
900
TS 5 cal advantage in order to turn bolts and nuts. It is pre-
30 ferred to using extended handles such as pipes when
T 5 30 lb-ft high torque loads are applied to fasteners. A torque mul-
Torque wrenches may be calibrated in the standard tiplier uses planetary gearing to achieve the mechani-
or metric systems: pound-feet or Newton-meters. cal advantage. Input torque is applied to the sun gear.
Planetary gears surround the sun gear so that they rotate
1 lb-ft. 5 1.356 Newton-meters the planet carrier which connects to the reaction arm.
1 Newton-meter 5 0.7375 lb-ft. As the planet gears walk around the sun gear, the carrier
and the output shaft rotate together: The reaction arm
prevents rotation of the outer casing provided it is held
Torque-to-Yield Bolts stationary. This results in a decrease in rotational speed
Torque-to-yield bolts are designed to stretch to their and an increase in torque.
yield point as they are tightened. They are often used A typical shop torque multiplier has a multiplier
where more precise clamping load forces are required, ratio of 4:1. The decrease in speed is inversely propor-
so they are typically seen on cylinder heads, connecting tional to the increase in torque. This must be factored
rods, and crankshaft main bearings. As a torque-to-yield when using a torque wrench as the torque multiplier
bolt is tightened, it is stretched to its elastic limit, so input to ensure precision. Figure 2–6 shows a typical
it is designed for one-off use. When service literature torque multiplier.

Figure 2–6 Torque multiplier. Figure 2–7 Types of hammers: A. Brass soft face;
B. Ball peen; C. Cross peen or blacksmith.

Hammers
Figure 2–8 Soft-face mallets.
Mechanical technicians mostly use ball peen hammers
in various different weights. The specified weight of a
hammer is the head weight, which starts at 12 lb and
should go up to about 4 lb in weight. While there is no
place for the carpenter’s claw hammer in the techni-
cian’s toolbox, a 4-lb (2-kg) cross peen hammer can be
a useful addition, and the engine specialist should also
own a 5-lb (2.5-kg) rubber mallet and a couple of soft-
faced or fiberglass hammers.
Safety glasses should be worn whenever using any
striking tool. The impact faces of hammers should
be inspected regularly and discarded when the face
becomes damaged. Properly heat-treated hammers
should possess highest hardness at the contact face and
be relatively soft behind it to buffer the shock loads.
Hammer handles are also important—a hammer should
Figure 2–9 Lineman pliers.
not be used if its handle is damaged. The handle may
be made of hickory or fiberglass, in which case it is sus-
ceptible to damage; or of steel and integral with the head
with a rubber-cushioned grip. Examples of hammers and
mallets are shown in Figures 2-7 and 2-8.

CAUTION
Never strike a hammer with another hammer. The hard-
ened impact surfaces can shatter and cause serious injury.
are needle nose, slip joint, lineman, and sidecutter.
Figure 2–9 shows a typical pair of lineman pliers.
Pliers
Most technicians will require a large selection of pli-
Screw Extractors
ers, which are used for gripping and cutting. Pliers used Fasteners occasionally fail when the fastener head
for working on electrical circuits should have insulated shears. When methods such as welding a nut onto a fas-
handles. Each type of pliers is named; some examples tener that has had its hex head sheared off have failed,

Figure 2–10 A screw extractor set. to repair damaged threads. In fact, most toolbox-quality
taps and dies should not be used to cut virgin threads
in hardened steels, especially if the fastener is critical.

Thread Chasers
A thread chaser is a die designed for the sole purpose of
repairing minor damage to an existing thread. It cuts in
much the same way a die does, but it is not designed to
cut new threads.

Thread Pitch Gauges

Thread pitch gauges are designed to measure the thread
pitch (angle) and number of threads per inch (tpi) of
any thread pattern. They are used to determine which
tap, die, or fastener is appropriate. Figure 2–11 shows a
typical pack of screw pitch gauges.

a screw extractor must be used. First, the fastener must Reamers

be drilled as centrally as possible to 75% of its depth
and half its diameter; then the appropriately sized screw Reamers are rotary cutting tools that enlarge an exist-
extractor must be inserted. Two types exist. The taper ing hole to an exact dimension. They are used where
square screw extractor is designed to bite into and grab a greater degree of accuracy is required than a drill is
the bore of the drilled hole; it can be progressively driven capable of delivering. Reamers are available in several
into the hole if the edges round out. The left-hand twist types: Adjustable reamers can be set to cut holes through
screw extractor works by tapping its way into the drilled a range of dimensions, and spiral-fluted taper reamers
hole in the fastener as it is turned counterclockwise. are designed to be driven by air or electric power tools
Figure 2–10 shows a typical set of screw extractors. and enlarge a hole accurately to a specific size.

Stud Extractors Drill Bits

Stud extractors may be used to extract a fastener only Drill bits are driven by an electric or pneumatic power
when the fastener is not sheared flush. Two types are tool. Twist drills must be machined to the correct
used. The collet type fits over the exposed length of cutting pitch (angle); normally this is done by grind-
the stud and locks to the stud as it is rotated counter- ing on a fine abrasive wheel. The point angle of a drill
clockwise. The wedge type consists of a splined circular bit is the combined angle of the dressed cutting edges,
wedge that locks to the stud as it is rotated. Wedge-type usually about 120 degrees for drilling most steels and
stud extractors should only be used with hand tools, as cast irons. This will produce a cutting pitch of about
they are driven eccentrically. 30 degrees. The point angle is increased when harder
steels must be drilled. The two cutting edges of the twist

Taps and Dies

Figure 2–11 Screw pitch gauge set.
Taps and dies are designed to cut threads in both stan-
dard and metric specifications. Taps cut internal threads
in bores; quite often the technician will use a tap to
repair damaged threads. Three types are used:
1. Taper tap: used to cut threads to a virgin bore
2. Plug tap: used to finish-cut or repair threads
3. Bottom tap: used to cut the final threads in a blind hole
Dies cut external threads. Most are designed with
graduated teeth and a taper, enabling them to cut threads
to a shaft. It is important to use an appropriate cutting
medium. Again, technicians are more likely to use these

Table 2–1 Recommended Cutting Fluid Processes

Metal Drilling Reaming Tapping
Mild steel Soluble oil/water Lard Lard
Middle alloy Soluble oil/water Lard Lard
Cast iron Dry Dry Lard
Brass Dry Water Dry
Copper Soluble oil/water Soluble oil/water Soluble oil/water
Aluminum Kerosene Kerosene Soluble oil/water

drill must be angled identically from the center point of They are sometimes provided by employers, but techni-
the drill and have the same radial dimension; a slight cians who frequently use a specific tool may wish to
difference will result in a larger hole than the drill shank purchase their own.
specification. Drills sharpened by hand seldom produce
exactly sized holes. Drill speeds should be adjusted for
the material being cut and the size of the hole. Electronic Digital Calipers
Electronic digital calipers (EDCs) are a great addition
Hacksaws to the toolbox. EDCs are an invaluable tool for the die-
sel technician who works extensively in the engine and
Most technicians will be required to use a hacksaw from
fuel areas. These dimensional measuring tools will per-
time to time. A hacksaw is designed specifically to cut
form inside, outside, and depth measurements to half
metals. A hacksaw should have a rigid frame, and the
a thousandth or 0.0005-inch accuracy. EDCs perform
blade selected should have the appropriate number of
with good accuracy and have the advantage of being
teeth per inch (tpi) for the metal to be cut; generally, the
easier to read than micrometers. Additionally, they will
harder the metal, the more tpi required. Metal thickness
perform metric to standard linear conversions at the
is also a factor and a rule of thumb is that at least two
push of a button. Figure 2–12 shows some of the uses
teeth must be in contact with the material to be cut.
of an EDC.
Better-quality hacksaw blades tend to be cost-effective,
as they last until they wear out, whereas cheaper blades
tend to break. Inspect the blades and replace them when Micrometers
dulled or missing teeth are evident.
A hacksaw should be used with a light but firm grip. Some truck servicing operations require precise mea-
An even horizontal stroke with no rocking will produce surements of both outside and inside diameters, such
the fastest cutting rates. A relaxed, calm approach to the as the diameter of a shaft and the bore of a hole. The
cutting task has a way of producing fast results, whereas micrometer is the common instrument for taking these
those who attempt to power their way through often end measurements. Both outside and inside micrometers are
up breaking blades and losing their tempers. calibrated and read in the same manner and are both
operated so that the measuring points exactly contact
the surfaces being measured.
Cutting Fluids The components of a micrometer include the frame,
Soluble oil is machinist’s oil mixed with water accord- anvil, spindle, locknut, sleeve, sleeve numbers, sleeve long
ing to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Remember line, thimble marks, thimble, and ratchet (Figure 2–13).
that engine oil is not soluble and cannot be used as a Micrometers are calibrated in either inch or metric
substitute. See Table 2–1. graduations. On both outside and inside micrometers,
the thimble is revolved between the thumb and the
forefinger. Only very light pressure is required when
Precision Measuring Tools bringing the measuring points into contact with the
surfaces being measured. It is important to remember
Following are some examples of precision measur- that the micrometer is a delicate instrument and that
ing instruments used in a typical truck service garage. even slight excessive pressure will result in an incorrect
Precision measuring tools tend to be high-cost items. reading.

Figure 2–12 Various uses of a set of digital calipers. Figure 2–13 Nomenclature and components of
(A) an outside and (B) an inside micrometer.

Anvil Locknut Sleeve

2.222 IN

Thimble
Spindle Ratchet
Lock screw Thimble Anvil
Outside for rod
measurement
A. B.
Frame Rod point
Insert rod here.
Short handle Body

increments. Each of the thimble graduations represents

0.001 in. (one thousandth of an inch). In one com-
IN
1.800

plete turn, the spindle moves through 25 graduations

or 0.025 in. (twenty-five thousandths of an inch). Inch-
graduated micrometers come in a range of sizes: 0 to
IN
1.250

1 inch, 1 inch to 2, 2 inches to 3, 3 inches to 4, and so

on. The most commonly used micrometers are calibrated
in increments of one-thousandth of an inch.
Inside To read a micrometer, first read the last whole
measurement sleeve number visible on the sleeve index line. Next,
count the number of full sleeve graduations past the
number. Finally, count the number of thimble gradua-
tions past the sleeve graduations. Add these together for
the measurement. These three readings indicate tenths,
Step hundredths, and thousandths of an inch, respectively.
measurement
For example, a 2- to 3-in. micrometer that has taken a
measurement is described in Figure 2–14.
1. The largest sleeve number visible is 4, indicating
Depth 0.400 in. (four-tenths of an inch).
measurement 2. The thimble is three full sleeve graduations past the
sleeve number. Each sleeve graduation indicates
0.025 in., so this indicates 0.075 in. (seventy-five
thousandths of an inch).
Reading an Inch-Graduated Outside Micrometer 3. The number 12 thimble graduation is lined up
Standard micrometers are made so that each full turn with the sleeve index line. This indicates 0.012 in.
of the thimble moves the spindle 0.025 in. (twenty-five (twelve thousandths of an inch).
thousandths of an inch). This is accomplished by using 4. Add the readings from steps 1, 2, and 3. The total
40 threads per inch on the thimble. The sleeve index of the three is the correct reading. In our example:
line is marked with sleeve numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on
Sleeve 0.400 in.
up to 10. Each sleeve number represents 0.100 inch,
0.200 inch, 0.300 inch, and so on. The sleeve on the Sleeve graduations 0.075 in.
micrometer contains sleeve graduations that represent Thimble graduations 0.012 in.
1 inch in 0.025-in. (twenty-five thousandths of an inch) Total 0.487 in.

Figure 2–14 The three steps in reading a micrometer. Figure 2–15 Measuring ten-thousandths of an inch
using a micrometer with a Vernier scale.
Last visible
Sleeve sleeve number Only one Vernier scale
numbers = 0.400 inch. number will line up with Thimble
a thimble mark. mark

Each sleeve
number
equals
0.100 inch. Vernier
Sleeve scale
A. long line
Sleeve Vernier scale
marks number

Reading a Metric Outside Micrometer

Each sleeve A metric micrometer is read in the same manner as the
mark equals inch-graduated micrometer except that the graduations
0.025 inch. are in the metric system of measurement.
Readings are obtained as follows:
Third sleeve ●● Each number on the sleeve of the micrometer rep-
B. mark past sleeve
resents 5 mm or 5/1,000 of a meter (Figure 2–16A).
number = 0.075 inch.
●● Each of the 10 equal spaces between each num-
Twelfth thimble ber, with index lines alternating above and below the
mark = 0.012 inch. horizontal line, represents 0.5 mm or five-tenths of
Each thimble a millimeter. One revolution of the thimble changes
mark equals the reading one graduation on the sleeve scale or
0.001 inch. 0.5 mm (Figure 2–16B).
●● The beveled edge of the thimble is divided into
Thimble
C. 50 equal divisions with every fifth line numbered
marks
(0, 5, 10, … 45). Because one complete revolution
of the thimble advances the spindle 0.5 mm, each
5. Now add 2 inches to the measurement, because this graduation on the thimble advances the spindle
is a 2- to 3-inch micrometer. The final reading is 0.5 mm; each graduation on the thimble is equal
2.487 inches. to 1/50 of 0.5 mm or one hundredth of a millimeter
(Figure 2–16C).
Reading an Outside Micrometer
with a Vernier Scale As with the inch-graduated micrometer, the three
separate readings are added together to obtain the total
In cases in which a measurement must be within
reading (Figure 2–17):
0.0001 in. (one ten-thousandth of an inch), a micrometer
with a Vernier scale should be used. This micrometer is ●● Read the largest number on the sleeve that has been
read in the same way as a standard micrometer. How- exposed by the thimble. In the illustration it is 5,
ever, in addition to the three scales found on the typical which means the first number in the series is 5 mm.
micrometer, this type has a Vernier scale on the sleeve. ●● Count the number of lines past the number 5 that
When taking measurements with this micrometer (some- the thimble has exposed. In the example, this is 4,
times called a mike), read it in the same way as you would and because each graduation is equal to 0.5 mm,
a standard mike. Then, locate the thimble graduation 4 graduations equal 4 × 0.5 or 2 mm. This, added
that aligns precisely with one of the Vernier scale lines to the figure obtained in step 1, gives 7 mm.
(Figure 2–15). Only one of these lines will align exactly. ●● Read the graduation line on the thimble that coin-
The other lines will be misaligned. The Vernier scale number cides with the horizontal line of the sleeve scale
that aligns with the thimble graduation is the 0.0001-in. and add this to the total obtained in step 2. In the
(one ten-thousandth of an inch) measurement. example, the thimble scale reads 28 or 0.28 mm.

Figure 2–16 Reading a metric micrometer. Figure 2–18 An outside micrometer with a digital
display.

Courtesy of Mitutoyo American

Corporation
A.

Figure 2–19 Slip the micrometer and adjust the

thimble until it just begins to grab.

Slip back and Rock from

forth over object side to side
B.

Figure 2–17 The reading shown on this metric

micrometer is 7.28 mm.

and slip the object to be measured between the spindle

and anvil. While holding the object against the anvil,
turn the thimble using the thumb and forefinger until the
spindle contacts the object. Never clamp the micrometer
tightly. Use only enough pressure on the thimble to allow
the component to just fit between the anvil and the spin-
dle. If the micrometer is equipped with a ratchet screw,
use it to tighten the micrometer around the object for
final adjustment. For a correct measurement, the object
must just slip while adjusting the thimble. It is important
This, added to the 7 mm from step 2, gives a total to slide the mike back and forth over the work until you
reading of 7.28 mm. feel a very light resistance, while at the same time rock-
ing the mike from side to side to ensure that the spindle
Using an Outside Micrometer cannot be closed any further (Figure 2–19). These steps
Using digital display micrometers has become popular should be taken with any precision measuring device to
in recent years. These are no more accurate but virtually ensure accurate measurements.
eliminate interpretation errors. Figure 2–18 shows a digi- Measurements will be reliable if the mike is cali-
tal micrometer. It is used in the same way as a mechani- brated correctly. To calibrate a micrometer, close the
cal micrometer. Use the following sequence. mike over a micrometer standard. If the reading differs
To measure small objects using an outside from that of the known micrometer standard, then the
micrometer, grasp the micrometer with the right hand mike requires adjustment.

Reading an Inside Micrometer Figure 2–20 Obtaining a precise measurement with

Inside micrometers (Figure 2–20) are used to measure an inside micrometer.
bore sizes. They are frequently used with outside mikes
Inside micrometer
to reduce the chance of error. To use an inside mike,
place it inside the bore or hole and extend the measur-
ing surfaces until each end touches the bore surface. If
the bore is large, it might be necessary to use an exten-
sion rod to increase the measuring range. Extension rods
come in various lengths. The inside micrometer is read
in the same manner as an outside micrometer.
To obtain a precise measurement in either inch or
metric graduations, hold the anvil firmly against one side
of the bore and rock the inside mike back and forth and
side to side. This ensures that the mike fits in the center
of the work with the correct amount of resistance. As
with the outside micrometer, this procedure will require
a little practice until you get a feel for the correct resis-
tance and fit of the mike. After taking a measurement
with the inside mike, use an outside mike to take a com-
parison measurement. This reduces the chance of errors
and helps ensure an accurate measurement. Figure 2–21 Dial indicator terminology.

Line of
measurement

Shop Talk Indicating

hand
–0+

Follow these tips for taking care of a micrometer: 1

●● Always clean a micrometer before using it. 2

Graduated
●● Do not touch the measuring surfaces. Revolution dial face
●● Store the micrometer properly. The spindle face counter
should not contact the anvil face, or a change in Spindle
temperature might spring the micrometer.
●● Clean the mike after use. Wipe it clean of any oil, Travel distance
dirt, or dust using a lint-free cloth.
●● Do not drop the mike. It is a sensitive instrument Reference point
and must be handled with care.
●● Check the calibration weekly. If the mike is dropped
at any time, check it immediately. of the dial and then graduated back down to 0.0010
through the other side of the dial; the 0 at the center of
the dial face would be marked with a + on one side and
a − on the other. This type of dial indicator is useful in
determining the total indicated runout (TIR) of a rotat-
Dial Indicators ing component. Figure 2–21 demonstrates dial indicator
Dial indicators are used to measure travel or movement terminology.
in values of thousandths to one hundred thousandths of For instance, when measuring flywheel concentric-
an inch. Metric dial indicators are calibrated to read in ity, a magnetic base dial indicator would be placed on
tenths to thousandths of a millimeter. Dial indicators are the engine crankshaft and the engine would be rotated
used for many general and job-specific functions in the manually through 360 degrees. Using chalk on the fly-
diesel engine shop. Most have a total travel range of 10 wheel housing face, the indicator dial should be set
(25 mm), but some job-specific indicators may have a to zero at the start point, and as the engine is rotated
total travel range exceeding that and some much less than through 360 degrees, readings both above and below
that. Dial indicators may have a balanced dial, in which zero should be added to indicate the TIR. A secondary
case (in an indicator in which one revolution of the indi- dial gauge is used to indicate complete revolutions of
cator needle represents 0.1000) the dial would be cali- the primary face gauge. Dial indicators should always
brated in units of 0.0010 to 0.0500 through 180 degrees be mounted so that the plunger is at right angles to the

Figure 2–22 Adjustment features of a dial indicator. Figure 2–24 Dial bore gauge being used to measure
cylinder bore.

Figure 2–23 Flex-arm mounted dial indicator.

The typical dial bore gauge consists of a shaft, on top

of which is the dial indicator; at the base of the shaft
is a measuring sled consisting of guides and an actuat-
ing plunger. One of the three guides is located diametri-
component being measured. Figure 2–22 shows the vari-
cally opposite to the actuating plunger. The actuating
ous adjustment points of a universal dial indicator and
plunger is responsible for producing the indicator read-
Figure 2–23 is a flex-arm dial indicator.
ings. Figure 2–24 shows a dial bore gauge being used to
measure cylinder bore.

Tech Tip Setup Options

The TIR is always the sum of the highest positive and the The guide located diametrically opposite the actuating
highest negative reading. plunger is both removable (to permit the dial bore gauge
to measure different bore dimensions) and adjustable
within a range. There are a number of different methods
of setting up a dial bore gauge and each technician will
Dial Bore Gauges in time develop a preference for a particular method; in
Dial bore gauges are used to measure bore dimensions addition, some OEMs have very specific methods that
such as inside diameter (id), taper, and out-of-round. they want used. For instance, one OEM prefers that a
They are calibrated in 0.0010 or 0.00010 and are a C-tram be used: The dimension of the C-tram is exactly
fast way of rapidly assessing cylinder bore dimensions. that of the maximum permitted bore size, meaning that

every within-specification measurement should read on Identifying the Specification Window

the minus side of the indicator scale. Most OEMs use units of 0.0001 inch to express cyl-
inder bore specifications. They will provide a range of
acceptable specifications that may be called a window.
Tech Tip Make a measurement that falls outside that window and
an out-of-spec bore results. Diesel engine technicians
Take the time to learn how to use a dial bore gauge prop- should get used to working in units of 12 thousandths of
erly. Avoid using telescoping gauges to make critical bore an inch. This means that 0.0027 inch can be rounded
measurements when possible: It is an indirect measure- to 0.0025 inch and expressed as 2 12 thousandths inch.
ment method and produces inaccuracies.
If the spec was 0.0028 inch, round to 0.003 inch and
express it as 3 thousandths inch. This makes record-
ing the data measured much easier. When looking at
Dial Bore Gauge Procedure the OEM specification window for a bore, round to the
nearest 12 thousandth and identify the maximum bore
Many students experience some difficulty in setting up specification. This is important. It means that at the start
and making measurements using a dial bore gauge; this is of making measurements, every acceptable specification
because so many different methods are used. I find that the will read on the minus side of the dial bore gauge zero.
following method works well if students do not have a lot
of experience in setting up dial bore gauges. The steps are: Setting the Micrometer
1. Identifying the specification window Set the micrometer reading to the maximum permitted
2. Setting the micrometer bore specification. Lock the micrometer. Record the
3. Setting the dial bore gauge maximum specification on the bore data chart shown in
4. Making bore measurements Figure 2–25. Now wrap the micrometer frame in a wiper
5. Recording the measurement and gently but firmly clamp it into a vise.

Figure 2–25 Cylinder bore data recording chart for a six-cylinder engine. Note the locations for taking
longitudinal and transverse measurements.

1
A

2
B
3

1 A1 B1 2 A1 B1 3 A1 B1
A2 B2 A2 B2 A2 B2
A3 B3 A3 B3 A3 B3

4 A1 B1 5 A1 B1 6 A1 B1
A2 B2 A2 B2 A2 B2
A3 B3 A3 B3 A3 B3

Maximum specification (set micrometer to this dimension)

Minimum specification

Setting the Dial Bore Gauge specification tolerance as 4.8744 inch to 4.8768 inch.
Now set the dial bore gauge to the mike dimension. First, round these values to the nearest half-thousandths
Select the appropriate length adjustable guide and of an inch. Now record the following specs onto the bore
screw inward into the sled until the dimension between chart shown in Figure 2–25:
the adjustable guide and the measuring plunger is less ●● Minimum specified bore size: 4.87450 (or 4.874 12 0)
than the micrometer setting. Supporting the measuring ●● Maximum specified bore size: 4.87700
plunger against the micrometer anvil, begin to screw the
adjustable guide counterclockwise (CCW) until it makes The specification window within which this cylinder
contact with the micrometer spindle. Now, while con- sleeve should measure is 0.00250, usually expressed
tinuing to rotate the adjustable guide CCW, the indicator as 2 12 thousandths inch. Observe the way in which the
reading needle will begin to rotate; make sure that it bore chart shown in Figure 2–26 has been completed,
rotates at least one full revolution (on a typical indica- and note the out-of-spec cylinder.
tor, this will be 100 thousandths). Remove the dial bore
gauge. Lock the jam nut on the adjustable guide. It does
not matter if the adjustable guide moves slightly as the Tech Tip
jam nut is engaged. Next, insert the dial bore gauge back
Always use a bore chart when measuring bore to speci-
into the mike. Make sure the dial bore indicator turns fication. It is the only effective means of organizing the
through approximately one rotation of travel, then zero stream of data generated from making at least six mea-
the indicator and lock the setting. Having set the dial surements per cylinder on an inline six-cylinder engine.
bore gauge, remove and reinstall it a couple of times to
check the measurement.
Each time the dial bore gauge is installed into the
mike it should read exactly zero. When it does, the zero Depth Gauges
corresponds to the maximum permitted bore specifica- Depth gauges may be of the micrometer or dial gauge
tion. This means that any positive reading on the indica- type. In each case, the instrument consists of a block to
tor is out of spec. This also means that for recording the which either a micrometer assembly or a dial indicator
data, every in-spec reading in a within-spec bore should mechanism is attached. The micrometer depth gauge is
be a minus reading. read opposite from the standard micrometer: When the
spindle is flush with the block (that is, when it is in its
Making Bore Measurements most retracted position), the micrometer reads zero. As
If making measurements to determine the serviceability the thimble is rotated, the plunger extends beyond the
of cylinder liners, they should be made in the following flush position on the block to produce readings on the
locations: sleeve calibration scale. The calibration scales on both
standard and metric depth micrometers are read in the
1. Top of the ring belt sweep same way as regular micrometers. The dial-type depth
2. Bottom of the ring belt sweep gauge is simply a dial indicator mounted on a block. It
3. Midway between measurement 2 and the bottom of is read in a manner similar to a dial indicator.
the liner
These locations are shown in Figure 2–25. To make Combination Square
a bore measurement, gently hold the dial bore gauge
between two fingers on the grip of the handle above the The combination square consists of a right-angle square,
indicator. Allow the measuring sled to pivot in the bore a protractor, and a center gauge assembled on a steel
using the dial bore handle to sweep the device through ruler. A good-quality, precision combination square may
an arc. Watch the needle as the dial bore gauge moves be used as a square, protractor, center gauge, depth
through each sweep, and look for the stroke-over point— gauge, height gauge, level, straightedge, and ruler. It is
in other words, the point at which the needle reverses. a valuable addition to the technician’s toolbox.

Recording the Measurements Telescoping Gauges (Snap Gauges)

This is where technicians should keep things as simple Telescoping gauges are used to measure internal
as possible. Think in terms of relative thousandths. Avoid dimensions. They have no integral calibration and
recording the specification and complete the chart as must be used in conjunction with a standard outside
discussed earlier. On this engine, the OEM defines the micrometer. In other words, they are a comparison

Figure 2–26 Completed cylinder bore data recording chart using the method outlined in this chapter: Note the
out-of-spec data on #3 cylinder.

1
A

2
B
3

−1 − 12 −1 −1 12 +1 12 +1
1 A1 B1 2 A1 B1 3 A1 B1
1 1 1 1
−1 −1 −1 −2 − − 12
A2 2 B2 2 A2 2 B2 A2 2 B2
−2 −2 −2 −2 −1 −1 12
A3 B3 A3 B3 A3 B3
− 12 −1 − 12 − 12 − 12 −1
4 A1 B1 5 A1 B1 6 A1 B1
−1 12 −1 −1 −1 12 −1 −1
A2 B2 A2 B2 A2 B2
−2 −2 −1 12 −2 −1 12 −2
A3 B3 A3 B3 A3 B3
4.877"
Maximum specification (set micrometer to this dimension)
1
4.874 "
Minimum specification 2

measuring instrument. A set of telescoping gauges is In the typical small-hole gauge, a tapered spindle is
usually capable of measuring dimensions from 12 0 up rotated by a handle to spread split ball halves, moving
to 60. The gauge has the appearance of a T; the T bar them outward to contact the bore walls being measured.
is equipped with a spring-loaded plunger, which, when The gauge is adjusted for minimal drag in the bore, then
released by the locking handle, expands to the dimen- measured with an outside micrometer. A typical applica-
sion to be measured because it is spring-loaded. The tion of a split ball gauge would be the measuring of valve
gauge may then be locked by the locking handle and guide bores.
removed from the bore; an outside micrometer is then
used to measure the T bar dimension. Plastigage
The diesel engine rebuilder should generally attempt
to avoid the use of telescoping gauges. Because it is an Plastigage™ is used to check friction-bearing clearances.
indirect measuring instrument, the chances of making It consists of a cylindrical plastic thread enclosed in an
inaccurate measurements increase. Telescoping gauges envelope calibrated in the dimensions that the Plastigage
should not be used to measure cylinder bores, first is designed to measure. To measure bearing-to-shaft
because of the potential to make inaccurate measure- clearance, a small strip should be cut and placed across
ments, and second because it takes much longer than the width of the bearing shell. Next, the cap should
using a dial bore gauge. The best use of telescoping be torqued to specification, which results in flattening
gauges is for tasks such as measuring connecting rod the Plastigage. The cap is then removed and the width
big and small ends (which are shown in Chapter 15 of to which the Plastigage has been flattened should be
this book). measured against the calibration scale on the envelope.
The wider the flattened dimension of the Plastigage, the
narrower the bearing clearance. Plastigage is used to
Small-Hole Gauges measure rod and main bearing clearance on engines.
Small-hole gauges, like telescoping gauges, are compari- When crankshaft main journal clearance is measured,
son measuring instruments used to measure small cylin- the engine must be inverted so that the weight of the
drical bores in conjunction with an outside micrometer. crankshaft is fully supported by the cylinder block and

not by the main caps. Chapter 7 goes into detail on the conjunction with a set of thickness gauges. Figure 2–27
step-by-step procedure of using Plastigage. shows a machinist’s straightedge being used on a cylin-
Plastigage is available in four size ranges, but in die- der block deck.
sel engine technology the following are generally used:
Thickness Gauges (Feeler Gauges)
Green: clearance range 0.0010 to 0.0030
Red: clearance range 0.0020 to 0.0060 Thickness gauges are precisely machined blades of tool
Blue: clearance range 0.0040 to 0.0090 steel usually packaged in sets. They are available in stan-
dard and metric dimensions and tend to be one of the
Carefully remove Plastigage from the shaft when the most used items in the technician’s toolbox. Thickness
measurement is complete. A Plastigage test strip that is gauges are used for adjusting valve lash; checking con-
flattened irregularly indicates journal taper. necting rod endplay; checking backlash on gear sets;
checking ring end gap; and, when used with a precision
straightedge, checking cylinder head and cylinder block
Dividers and Calipers warpage and wear.
Dividers are used for measuring dimensions between Go/no-go gauges are feeler gauges that are stepped
lines or points and scribing reference points and arcs. to enable a more precise setting of a lash dimension. The
Calipers are designed with internally or externally arced outboard dimension is lower by either 0.001 or 0.002
legs to perform internal and external measurements. inch than the inboard or stepped ledge of the blade. When
Dividers and calipers are comparison measuring instru- using go/no-go gauges, the outboard step defines the
ments that require the use of a calibrated measuring specified dimension while the inboard step defines
instrument such as a micrometer or ruler to produce a the “no-go” dimension. The go/no-go thickness gauges
specific dimension. reduce the variable element of “feel” when adjusting valve
lash. Some OEMs recommend their use and technicians
less familiar with setting valves may find that doing so
Precision Straightedge results in improved lash setting consistency. The techni-
A precision straightedge is manufactured from a mid- cian should be aware that thickness gauges wear with
dle alloy carbon steel. It should be encased in a pro- frequent use and should be measured from time to time
tective wood or plastic cover and hung vertically when with a micrometer. Individual blades in a thickness gauge
stored. A precision straightedge is used for such tasks set can be easily replaced. Figure 2–28 shows a set of
as measuring cylinder block deck wear and warpage in thickness gauges.

Figure 2–27 Machinist’s straight edge being used on a cylinder block deck.

Figure 2–28 Set of thickness gauges. ●● 1 0 drive ratchet

2
●● 3 0 drive ratchet
4
●● 3 0 drive breaker/flex bar
4
●● Sockets: Purchasing in sets is usually more econom-
ical. See Table 2–2.
●● Allen sockets—an assortment of sizes
●● 1 0 drive torque wrench—click or dial type to 250 ft.-lb
2
(swivel/flex head useful for engine work in tight
locations)
●● 3 0 drive torque wrench—preferably dial type to
8
120 in.-lb
●● 3 0 and 10 drive torque wrenches—usually provided
4
by shops
●● 4:1 torque multiplier—usually provided by shops
●● Combination wrenches—standard: 5 32 0–1 1 4 0; metric:
4 mm–30 mm
●● Open- and box-end wrenches—standard: 5 32 0–1 1 4 0;
metric: 4 mm–30 mm
Note that purchasing wrenches in sets, rather than indi-
vidually, is usually significantly more economical.
Truck Technician’s Toolbox ●● Allen keys—standard and metric sets
●● Screwdrivers—purchase in sets: slotted, Phillips,
Technicians should equip their toolboxes in keeping with
TORX (to #30)
the type of work they will be performing. Tools are costly ●● Digital multimeter (DMM)—2 12 - or 3 12-digit resolu-
and a comprehensive collection takes years to assemble,
tion: Consider purchasing a rubber holster to protect
so technicians should spend wisely, especially during
the tool, such as the one shown in Figure 2–29.
the early years of a career. Figure 2–1 showed a typical ●● Circuit test light
tool cabinet. The following information might help as a ●● Circuit testing clips and cables
guideline for some of the tools required on the shop floor. ●● Breakout Ts
Begin with the safety items: ●● Breakout boxes—specialty diagnostic breakout
●● Safety glasses (make a practice of wearing these boxes are usually provided by shops
while at work: see Chapter 3) ●● Electronic service tools (ESTs)—usually provided by
●● Hearing protection muffs and plugs shops; avoid investing in costly ESTs and software
●● Uncured leather gloves (use for heavy lifting) because they rapidly become obsolete
●● Latex gloves (these provide the hands with protec- ●● Coolant hydrometer (not a recommended instrument)
tion against oil and grease) ●● Refractometer (for coolant and battery electrolyte)—
●● 1 0 drive ratchet usually provided by shops. Ensure that it is calibrated
4
●● 3 0 drive ratchet for electrolyte, ethylene glycol (EG), and propylene
8
●● 1 0 drive breaker/flex bar
2 glycol (PG).

Table 2–2 Ratchet Drives and Socket Sizes

Double Hex Hex Hex Deep Soft Impact
1
4 0 drive 4 mm–12 mm 4 mm–12 mm
5 1 5 1
16 0– 2 0 16 0– 2 0

3
8 0 drive 10 mm–19 mm 10 mm–19 mm 10 mm–19 mm
3 3 3 3 3 3
8 0– 4 0 8 0– 4 0 8 0– 4 0

1
2 0 drive 1 15
2 0– 16 0
1 1
2 0–1 4 0
1 5
2 0– 16 0
1 1
2 0–1 4 0
12 mm–19 mm 12 mm–24 mm 12 mm–19 mm 12 mm–24 mm
3
4 0 drive 7 1
8 0–1 2 0
7 1
8 0–1 2 0
7 1
8 0–1 2 0
20 mm–30 mm 20 mm–30 mm 20 mm–30 mm

Figure 2–29 A typical DMM shown in rubber ●● Sidecutters

protective holster. ●● Tin snips—straight cut
●● Slip joint/waterpump pliers—120, 240, 360
●● Vise grips (Never let anyone kid you that these are
the tools of an amateur; there are thousands of valid
uses for them in the truck shop)
●● 100 pipe jaw/100 straight jaw/80 needle nose vise
grips
●● 180 pipe wrench
●● Adjustable wrenches—60, 80, 120
●● 1 0 chuck pneumatic drill
2
●● High-speed (HS) drill bits to 3 8 0 size
●● 3 0 drive air ratchet
8
●● 1 0 drive impact gun (see Figure 2–34)
2
●● Pneumatic chisel/hammer
●● Truck tire air chuck
●● Tire gauge to 150 psi–1 MPa
●● Air blower nozzle
●● Air hose—often provided by shops (see Figure 2–34)
●● Hand primer pump coupled into #8 hydraulic hose
and fittings
●● Variable-focus flashlight
●● Soldering gun
●● Telescoping mirror
●● Telescoping magnet
●● 0210 micrometer
●● 0210 depth micrometer
●● 0–25 mm micrometer
●● 0–25 mm depth micrometer
●● Micrometer sets exceeding 10 are provided by shops
●● 60–150 mm Vernier caliper—digital preferred
●● 120 tape measure
●● 4-lb cross peen hammer (optional)
●● Dial bore gauge—telescoping gauges (usually pro-
●● 1 12-lb ball peen hammer (wood handle) vided by shops)
●● 1 12-lb nylon/rubber head
●● Stethoscope—usually provided by shops
●● Hacksaw: Selecting a good-quality frame with high
●● Infrared thermometer—usually provided by shops
rigidity and using the best blades can pay off in
●● Fluorescent trouble light—often provided by shops
saved frustration and sweat
●● Heavy-duty hand tools—wrenches sized over 1 1 4 0 or
●● Prybar set—to 180 size (length) 30 mm, 3 4 0 and 10 drive sockets, and other heavy-
●● Cold chisel set—to 10 duty specialty tools are normally provided by shops
●● Set of punches—to 10
●● Roller cabinet—many shallow drawers are preferable
●● Brass drift—10 3 80 to fewer deep ones
●● Mild steel drift—10 3 120
●● Top box—also consider a side cabinet for shop man-
●● Stud extractor set wheel, stud extractor collar uals and fluid containers
●● Nut splitter
●● Creeper—provided by shops
●● Bolt cutter
●● Seal and bearing drivers—normally provided by
shops Shop Tools
●● Lineman pliers 80 and 120
●● Terminal crimpers—bent nose electronic pliers Shop tools are those tools generally provided by the
●● Specialty terminal crimpers/connector disassembly employer. Tools that are too large to fit into a toolbox,
tools—usually provided by shops high in cost, or highly specialized to a specific procedure
●● Wire strippers—needle nose pliers should be provided by the service garage.

Sledgehammers Figure 2–30 Press and bearing clamp used to install

bearing on shaft.
Sledgehammers are designed so that the weight of the
head (and perhaps the length of the arms holding the
hammer) defines the force imparted. Sledgehammers
have a variety of functions in the truck shop and, while
they are unlikely to be called on in engine recondition- Press
ing, they may be required in some of the procedures ram
required to remove components from a chassis. They Bearing
are usually manufactured in 8, 12, and 16 lb weights. separator
Before using a sledgehammer, the handle should be Driver
inspected for damage and the head-to-handle secure-
ment checked. When swinging a sledgehammer, the
hand grip should be firm but relaxed and the weight of
the head allowed to define the amount of force delivered.
On no account should the operator attempt to amplify
this force with muscle power, as it usually results in
missing the target. If the force is insufficient to achieve
the objective, select a heavier hammer.
Support here

Tech Tip
The neck of a sledgehammer handle is vulnerable when engage the mechanical stops and make sure that the
its operator misses the target. Help protect the neck of weight is supported on them and not the power piston.
the sledgehammer handle against accidental damage Also check the weight of the vehicle to be lifted and the
by binding it with a split section of appropriately sized load capacity of the scissor jack. It is good practice to
rubber coolant hose. double-block a raised truck by providing two mechanical
supports. Chock the wheels on the end of the chassis
not being raised after the unit has been raised to the
Presses desired height. Do not attempt to do this before hoisting,
because the vehicle must be allowed to roll unhindered
Most service garages will have at least one power press. during the lift.
Extreme caution is required when operating a power
press: Components should be properly supported, and
mandrels/drivers should be used when required. Arbor
Lift and Hoists
presses are hand actuated. Whenever pressing compo- Raising a heavy-duty truck trailer on a lift system
nents using any kind of power press, always consider requires special care. Adapters and hoist plates must
both the consequences of component slippage and be positioned correctly on multiple posts and rail-type
where separated components will fall. Personal safety lifts to prevent damage to the underbody of the vehicle.
and the safety of those working in the vicinity must There are specific lift points to use where the weight
always be considered. Figure 2–30 shows a press driving of the vehicle is evenly supported by the adapters or
a bearing onto a shaft. hoist plates. The correct lift points may be found in
the vehicle service literature. Before operating any lift
Scissor Jacks or hoist equipment, carefully read the manufacturer’s
literature and understand all the operating and mainte-
Scissor jacks are designed to quickly raise one end of nance instructions.
a truck to heights of up to 8 feet above the shop floor.
Clevises on the jack fit under each frame rail, and the
truck is raised by an air-actuated piston. Scissor jacks
Independent Post Lift Systems
are an invaluable shop tool, but they must be safely Independent post lift systems have become common-
used. Ensure that the lift clevises are positioned at a place in truck shops in recent years. These consist
safe location on the frame rails and make allowance for of “portable” hydraulic (or mechanical jack screw)
the relative movement between the truck and jack during lift posts that can be positioned under a truck, bus,
raising and lowering. When the truck has been raised, or trailer chassis and phased to lift the vehicle level.

Figure 2–31 A typical truck hoist system using four Figure 2–32 Hydraulic boom hoist (often known as a
independent posts wirelessly connected. cherry picker).

Courtesy of Gray USA Corp.

Various systems are available using between 2 and

6 posts. Lift and lower of each post is phased using a
hard-wire or wireless system. Great care should be exer-
cised when using these systems! Make sure you receive
some basic training in the use of post lift devices before
using one yourself. An example is the wireless Gray
WPLS-160 shown in Figure 2–31, for which post lift and
lower phasing is mastered by a computerized control
console. lift potential. If the load-carrying ability is exceeded, the
boom hoist will topple. They are commonly known by
their slang name cherry picker. Figure 2–32 shows a boom
“A” Frame Hoists hoist set to lift an engine.
“A” frame hoists are often large enough to pass over the
top of a truck and use a block-and-tackle (chain falls) lift Transmission and Clutch Jacks
mechanism. They can be used to lift components such
as an engine or a cab from the chassis. They may also be Transmission and clutch jacks are usually hydraulically
capable of hoisting one end of the chassis, but extreme actuated and designed to fit under the truck frame
caution should be exercised because of the tendency of and support the transmission/clutch. It is important
anything lifted by chains to swing. The hoist mechanism to ensure that transmissions are securely chained to
should be inspected annually, whether or not local regu- the jack, especially when the mass of the unit is top
lations require the inspection. heavy such as in triple countershaft units. When it is
expected that the jack must support the transmission
stationary, such as when removing an engine from a
Boom Hoists chassis, ensure that the transmission jack load is sup-
A boom hoist is a portable, hydraulically actuated, one- ported mechanically. Clutch jacks should be used when
arm crane that has many uses in the truck and bus garage. installing heavy-duty clutches: a 15 12-in. clutch pack
They are available in a variety of sizes and load-carrying can weigh somewhere around 175 lb (80 kilograms
ratings. The pickup arm is usually adjustable in length; [kg]) and should never be handled without some kind
the longer the adjustment arm setting, the less the load of assistance.

Spreader Bars Chains

A spreader bar is a rigid bar, usually adjustable in Chains are rated by working load limit—a value that is nor-
length, used for lifting engines out of a chassis. The mally equivalent to about 25% of the tensile strength of
spreader bar should be adjusted to the length of the the chain material. Many jurisdictions require that chains
engine; it can then be attached to the engine at three be inspected annually. Additionally, technicians should
or four points. The bar should be close to level before visually inspect all chains before using them. The saying
a lift is attempted. Chains should be installed so that that every chain is only as strong as its weakest link bears
the chain length is at a minimum with the spreader bar true. Truck diesel engines can weigh more than a ton and
clear of the engine. The chains should be attached to while relying on a chain to support this kind of weight,
the engine by means of hooks to lifting eyes located the technician should try to avoid working under the load.
on either the cylinder head or cylinder block assembly. Apart from inspecting the chain hoists and checking their
Never fit lifting eyes to the rocker housing fasteners. load rating, the technician should check the hooks, lifting
Some engines have just two permanently fitted lifting eyes, lifting eye fasteners, and connecting links.
eyes. It is usually safe to lift these engines using the
spreader bar on a two-point lift.
Figure 2–33 shows a spreader bar.
Slings
Slings may have to be used to hoist engines from the
chassis in some applications. These are normally man-
Load Rotor ufactured from synthetic fibers or braided steel wire.
The load rotor is alternate to the spreader bar when it Again, the load capacity must be checked and the sling
comes to hoisting an engine: it permits a limited abil- integrity inspected. Avoid using steel cable slings unless
ity to tilt the load during the lift. Load rotors consist of also using the engine lift eyes.
a ratcheting chain block with a single chain equipped
with hooks at either end. The hooks fit to the engine
lift eyes and the load rotor chain block locks the chain, WARNING
permitting a different length of chain on either side
of the block. This feature often permits the chains Anything hoisted by chains or slings has a tendency to
to be fitted to the engine and clear the upper engine swing. Keep chain and sling lengths to a minimum.
components.

Figure 2.33 A typical shop spreader bar used to

Air Tools
hoist an engine. Air tools are extensively used in any truck service location.
Some of the air tools are owned by technicians; others
are provided by the shop. Technicians working around
pneumatic equipment sometimes forget that it can be
dangerous. It makes sense to wear eye protection and be
aware that dusts driven into the air by pneumatic tools
can cause breathing problems. Most shops provide heavy-
duty pneumatic tools such as 10 drive air guns. A 12 0 drive
impact wrench such as that shown in Figure 2–34 will be
one of the most frequently used tools in the truck tech-
nician’s cabinet. The engine technician primarily uses
this for disassembly. Buying a good-quality air gun and

Tech Tip
Purchase a good-quality 12-inch drive air impact wrench
and, with a little care, it should last for many years. Low-
cost impact guns are generally a poor investment for a
truck technician who uses one daily.

Figure 2–34 Typical setup for a 1 2-inch drive impact gun.

1"
2 (or
larger)
pipes and fittings
Oil here daily Couplers

Oiler Filter
Do not install Leader hose Air hose
coupler here Drain daily
Nipples

technician should be aware of the potential for damage

WARNING when using any type of high-temperature, high-pressure
washers; eye protection and gloves should be worn when
A pneumatic air gun should never be used to final torque
operating this equipment. Environmental regulations in
any engine fastener. While torque wrenches can be used
most jurisdictions mandate that the runoff from this type
to disassemble engines, using them for reassembly can
of cleaning operation not be permitted to directly enter
generally be regarded as an undesirable practice.
sewage systems. Power wash runoff should be filtered
through a water separator system, and the separator
tanks should be pumped out regularly. Heavy fines may
properly maintaining it by keeping it moisture-free and be imposed when sewage is contaminated with oil and
oiled (observe the oiler and filter in Figure 2–34) will road dirt washed off trucks, buses, and their engines.
help ensure that it functions well for a number of years.
Pullers
Oxyacetylene Equipment Shops usually have a selection of general-use and spe-
Technicians use oxyacetylene for heating and cutting cialty pullers that can be power- or mechanically actu-
probably on a daily basis. Less commonly, this equip- ated. Ensure that puller jaws and legs are capable of
ment is used for brazing and welding. Technicians using handling the force to which they will be subject. Safety
oxyacetylene stations require some basic instruction in glasses should always be worn when operating pull-
the safety requirements and handling of this equipment. ers. They are often used in conjunction with a bearing
A more detailed explanation of oxyacetylene handling puller clamp. A typical bearing puller clamp is shown in
and safety is provided in Chapter 3 of this book. Despite Figure 2–30 where it is used in conjunction with a press.
the fact that oxyacetylene equipment is used by every
technician, the novice technician is seldom provided Bushing Drivers
with adequate instruction. At least consult the section A bushing driver consists of a mandrel, which should
in Chapter 3 before using this equipment, and also get fit tightly in the bushing bore with the shoulder having
some hands-on instruction. an identical outside diameter (od) to the bore that the
bushing is pressed into. This should enable bushings to
Steam and High-Pressure be removed and installed without damaging either the
bushing or the bore to which it is fitted. Bushings may be
Washers installed using direct mechanical force, such as a ham-
Hot water, high-pressure washers have generally replaced mer or slide hammer, or by using hydraulic or pneumatic
the steam cleaners more commonly used a decade ago. power drivers. Always wear safety glasses when using
Hot water, high-pressure washers are safer and usu- bushing drivers. Some bushings must be reamed for final
ally require less maintenance than steam washers. The fit after installation.

Glass Bead Blasters/Sandblasters Figure 2–35 SAE and metric thread bolts.

Most shops rebuilding engines are equipped with a glass Thread Nominal
bead blaster or sandblaster. Usually these are encased pitch diameter

in an enclosed housing and powered pneumatically.

They are an ideal method of cleaning up components,
especially when the components are coated with high-
tack adhesives or gasket remains that can be difficult to
Bolt
remove. In enclosed housing glass bead blasters, protec- S.A.E. grade
length
marking
tive gloves are integral with the unit and in most cases
they can only be actuated when the component is placed Nominal diameter in inches
Thread pitch in threads per inch
inside and the cover sealed. Armored glass permits the Bolt length in inches
object being blasted to be observed. Technicians should
consider using hearing protection, as these units are 1/2–13 × 1–1/2 S.A.E. Thread Bolt
capable of producing high noise levels.
Thread Nominal
pitch
Tech Tip diameter

Following any bead or sandblasting procedure, all the

beading material must be completely removed from the
8.8
components treated. Special attention must be paid to
bolt holes, oil galleries, and bearing surfaces. Bolt
Metric class length
marking

Tachometers Nominal diameter in millimeters

Thread pitch (thread width from
crest to crest in millimeters)
Tachometers measure rotational speed. Mechanical Bolt length in millimeters
tachometers consist of a pickup button that directly con-
tacts the rotating component (it should be held close M12–1.5 × 30 Metric Thread Bolt
to its axis) and produces a direct rpm (revolutions per
minute) reading. Electronic tachometers use a sensor
that reads a magnetic strip and reports the rpm digitally. hardness (HRC). Some fasteners, often those smaller than
Electronic tachometers should be capable of producing 1
2-inch diameter, have integral flanges that fit against the
mean (average) readings when reading rotational speed clamped surfaces. These flanges eliminate the require-
on components whose rpm is fluctuating. ment for washers.

Fasteners Fastener Grades and

Mobile equipment on our roads today uses both standard Classes
and metric threads; metric fasteners are common but not
universal even in late model applications (Figure 2–35). Fasteners are divided into grades established by the SAE
For a number of years, though, engine and major chassis or the International Fastener Institute (IFI). Fastener
components have used metric fasteners almost exclu- grades indicate the tensile strength of the fastener; the
sively (diameter and pitch are measured in millime- higher the number (or letter), the stronger the fastener.
ters), so do not expect to see too many engines that use Bolt (capscrew) grades can be identified by the number
standard fasteners. and pattern of radial lines/dashes/dots forged on the bolt
Most fasteners used on a truck are hex head fas- head (Figure 2–36).
teners (usually nonflanged); most metric fasteners are Hex nut (and locknut) grades can also be identified
also nonflanged. Hardened flat washers are used under by the number and pattern of axial lines and dots on vari-
the bolt head, between the clamped components and ous surfaces of the nut (Figure 2–37). Nearly all of the
the hex nut, to distribute the load: this prevents local- bolts used on the heavy-duty vehicle are grades 5 and 8,
ized stress. The washers are cadmium or zinc plated but some OEMs use special spec variants of both grades,
and have a hardness rating of 38 to 45 Rockwell “C” which are identified using a coding qualifier such as that

Figure 2–36 Bolt (capscrew) identification. shown in Figure 2–38. Matching grades of hex nuts are
used with grade 5 bolts; grade 8, grade C, or grade G
(flanged) hex nuts are used with grade 8 bolts.
Every fastener manufacturer is required by law to
register its headmarking logo with the Industrial Fastener
Institute (IFI) for purposes of identification and mainte-
Grade 2 Grade 5 nance of manufacturing standards. All graded fasteners
are also required by law to meet certification standards for
size, tensile strength, chemical composition, and hardness.

Tech Tip
Grade 8 Grade 8.2
A grade 5 bolt or nut is identified when the radial marks
or dots are more than 60 degrees (1 hex flat). A grade 8
Note: Grade 2 bolts have no grade markings;
bolt or higher is identified when the radial marks or dots
grade 2 bolts are rarely used on trucks.
are spaced 60 degrees (1 hex flat) or less apart. Study
These grade markings are used on plain hex-type Figure 2–37 and make sure you can interpret fastener
and flanged bolts (capscrews). In addition to the
gradings at a glance. An absence of radial marks or dots
grade markings, the bolt head must also carry the
manufacturer’s trademark or identification. identifies a grade 2 bolt, which is generally unsuitable
for use in truck applications. In the case of SAE grade
5 or grade 8 fasteners, only two marks or dots may be
used, depending on the manufacturer.

Figure 2–37 Hex fastener identification.

S.A.E. grade 2 and I.F.I. grade A nuts

Or Or
have no identification marks or notches.

S.A.E. Grade 2 Nut* I.F.I. Grade A Nut*

I.F.I. grade B nuts have three

Or identification marks at 120 Or
degrees, or 6 notches.

I.F.I. Grade B Nut†

S.A.E. Grade 5 Nut†

I.F.I. grade C nuts have six

Or identification marks at 60 Or
degrees, or 12 notches.

S.A.E. Grade 8 Nut‡

I.F.I. Grade C Nut‡

I. F. I. grade G (flanged) nuts have six

identification marks as shown; each
identification mark may be a dotted line,
pair of dots or lines, or any other
symbol at the manufacturer’s option.
I.F.I. Grade G Nut§
* Strength compatible with grade 2 bolt.
† Strength compatible with grade 5 bolt.
‡ Strength compatible with grade 8 or grade 8.2 bolt.
§ Flanged locknut, strength compatible with grade 8 or grade 8.2 bolt.

Figure 2–38 Bolt classes can be identified by the

numbers forged on the head of the bolt. Tech Tip
Color can help you distinguish between grade 8 and
grade 5 nuts: Grade 8 nuts have a zinc yellow dichro-
8.8
mate plating, whereas grade 5 have a zinc plating finish.
8.8

Class 8.8
Metric Fasteners
Fasteners with metric threads are divided into classes
10.9 adopted by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). The higher the class number, the stronger the
10.9 fastener. Bolt classes can be identified by the numbers
Class 10.9 forged on the head of the bolt. Hex nut (and locknut)
classes can be identified by the lines or numbers on
Note: In addition to the grade markings, the various surfaces of the nut (Figure 2–39). Class 8 hex
bolt head must also carry the manufacturer’s nuts are always used with class 8.8 bolts; class 10 hex
trademark or identification.
nuts with class 10.9 bolts. Figure 2–40 shows grade C
fasteners with prevailing torque locknuts. Threads can
be measured with a screw pitch gauge.
WARNING
Tightening Fasteners
While most technicians have no difficulty identify-
When a capscrew or bolt is tightened to its specified
ing grade 5 and grade 8 bolts/capscrews, many get
torque, or a nut is tightened to its torque value on a bolt,
confused when attempting to identify their equivalent
the shank of the capscrew or bolt stretches slightly. This
nuts: Remember the 60-degrees or less (grade 8),
MORE than 60-degrees rule explained in the preced- stretching (tensioning) results in a preload. OEM-specific
ing Tech Tip. Be especially careful not to confuse the torque values are calculated to provide enough clamping
crimp marks used on lock nuts with grade identifica- force on bolted components and the correct tension on
tion (ID) marks. the fastener to maintain the clamping force.

Friction and Clamping Force

Use of a torque wrench to tighten fasteners will help pre-
vent overtensioning. Overtensioning causes permanent
Tech Tip stretching of the fasteners, which can result in breakage
of components or fasteners. When torquing a fastener,
Avoid using fasteners with no obvious manufacturer’s
logo or icon. Over the past decade, the market has typically 80 to 90% of the turning force is used to over-
been flooded with bogus fasteners (mostly from Asia) come thread, cap, and nut face friction; only 10 to 20%
that use SAE grade marks but fall short of the specifi-
cations required. When the manufacturer of a fastener Figure 2–39 Identification markings on Class 8 and
is not known, there is no recourse in the event of a Class 10 nuts.
failure.

8
8
UNF and UNC Threads Class 8 Nut
United National Fine (UNF) (previously SAE) and United
National Coarse (UNC) (previously USS) designate the
thread pitch of fasteners. Thread pitch is classified
10
as threads per inch (TPI) in fasteners. UNF and UNC 10
threads are usually known respectively as “fine” and
“coarse” threads. Class 10 Nut

Figure 2–40 Grade C fastener assembly with a Figure 2–41 This bolt has been torqued beyond its
prevailing torque locknut. yield point.

Grade 8 Hex Head Bolt

Importance of Correct Torque Procedure

Proper use of torque avoids exceeding the yield point of
a bolt. Torque values are calculated with at least a 25%
safety factor below yield point. Some fasteners, however,
are intentionally torqued just barely into a yield condition,
although not quite enough to create the classic Coke-bottle
Grade 8 Low-Profile Hex Head Bolt
shape of a necked-out bolt. This type of fastener, which
is known as a torque-to-yield (TTY) bolt, uses close to
100% of its tensile strength, compared to around 75% on
a regular fastener when both are torqued to specification.
TTY bolts are normally required to be template torqued;
this requires using incrementally increasing torque values
using a torque wrench, with final torque turning through
Grade C Prevailing Torque Locknut a specified number of degrees. TTY fasteners, however,
should not be reused unless otherwise specified.

results in capscrew or bolt clamping force. About 40 to Effect of Lubricants

50% of the turning force is needed to overcome the fric- The torque required to tighten a fastener is reduced when
tion between the underside of the capscrew head or nut friction is reduced. If a fastener is dry (unlubricated) and
and the washer. Another 30 to 40% is needed to over- plain (unplated), thread friction is high. If a fastener is
come the friction between the threads of the capscrew wax coated or oiled or has a zinc phosphate coating or
and the threaded hole or the f riction between the threads cadmium plating, friction forces are reduced. Each of
of the nut and bolt. these coatings and combinations of coatings has a dif-
All metals are elastic to some extent, which means ferent effect. Using zinc-plated hardened flat washers
they can be stretched and compressed to a certain under the bolt (capscrew) head and nut reduces friction.
point. This elastic, spring-like property is what pro- Dirt or other foreign material on the threads or clamp-
vides the clamping force when a bolt is threaded into ing surfaces of the fastener or component can increase
a tapped hole or when a nut is tightened. As the bolt is friction to the point that the torque specification is met
stretched, clamping force is created due to bolt tension. before any clamping force is produced.
Like a spring, the more a bolt is stretched, the tighter it Even though varying conditions affect the amount
becomes. However, a bolt can be stretched too far, which of friction, a different torque value cannot be given for
will result in shear. At this point, the bolt can no longer each. To ensure that they are always torqued accurately,
safely clamp the load it was designed to support. most OEMs recommend that all fasteners be lubricated
with oil (unless specifically instructed to install them
Fastener Elasticity dry), and then torqued to the values for lubricated- and
Elasticity means that a bolt can be stretched a certain plated-thread fasteners. When locking compound or
amount, and each time the stretching load is reduced, antiseize compound is recommended for a fastener, the
the bolt will return to its original, normal size. In other compound acts as a lubricant, and oil is not required.
words, it is reusable. However, if a bolt is stretched
beyond its yield point, it permanently deforms. A bolt Overtorquing Fasteners
will continue to stretch a little more each time it is used, Be careful not to strip bolt threads when using power
just like a piece of taffy that is stretched until it breaks wrenches. It is easy to turn a bolt beyond its yield point
(Figure 2–41). within a split second. Impact wrenches are the worst

offenders. Some friction is required to prevent a nut from ●● When using nuts with bolts, use a grade (or class) of
spinning. When a nut is lubricated, there is insufficient nut that matches the bolt.
friction to stop the impact wrench from hammering the nut ●● When installing nonflanged fasteners, use hardened
beyond the bolt yield point and/or stripping the threads. steel flat washers under the bolt (capscrew) head
Do not run a nut full speed onto the bolt threads with and under the hex nut or locknut.
an impact gun. Instead, run it up slowly until it contacts ●● For bolts 4 inches (100 mm) or less in length, make
the work, and then note the socket position and observe sure that at least 1 12 threads and no more than 5 8-inch
how far it turns. Smaller air-powered speed wrenches (16 mm) bolt length extends through the nut after it
do not produce the aggressive turning force of impact has been tightened. For bolts longer than 4 inches
wrenches and are safer to use. Follow this procedure with (100 mm), allow a minimum of 1 12 threads and a
a torque-modulated air wrench as well. maximum of 3 4-inch (19 mm) bolt length protrusion.
●● Never hammer or screw bolts into place. Align the
Washers and Lock Washers holes of the mating components so that the fastener
surfaces are flush with the washers, and the washers
A rule of thumb on lock washers is that if the fastener are flush with the clamped surfaces.
assembly did not come with one, do not add one. Lock ●● When installing fasteners into threaded aluminum
washers are extremely hard and tend to break under or plastic components, start the fasteners by hand
severe pressure. Use locknuts with hard, flat washers. to ensure that cross-threading does not damage the
Properly torqued, this type of fastener should never threads.
loosen—even when lubricated (Figure 2–42). As a gen- ●● Do not use lock washers (split or toothed) next to
eral rule, when using flat washers, the radius (rounded) aluminum surfaces.
side should face the head of the bolt. Note that there is a ●● When installing studs that do not have an interfer-
difference between UNF (SAE) and UNC (USS) flat wash- ence fit, install them with thread locking compound.
ers: UNF washers fit tighter to the shank of the bolt and ●● When installing components mounted on studs, use
have a reduced skirt radius. UNC flat washers fit looser free-spinning (nonlocking) nuts and helical spring
to the shank of the bolt, and have a larger skirt diameter. (split) lock washers or internal-tooth lock washers.
Avoid using locknuts because they tend to loosen
the studs during removal. Do not use flat washers.
Tech Tip ●● Do not use lock washers and flat washers in combination
When installing flat washers, the radius (rounded) side (against each other); each defeats the other’s purpose.
should always face the bolt cap. ●● Use stainless steel fasteners against chrome plating,
unpainted aluminum, or stainless steel.
Figure 2–43 is a comprehensive ASTM bolt head
Fastener Replacement marking guide.
When selecting and installing replacement fasteners,
keep the following points in mind:
●● When replacing fasteners, use only identical bolts, Shop Talk
washers, and nuts; they should be the same size, If a torque-to-yield bolt is replaced with a new bolt of
strength, and finish as originally specified. identical grade but torqued to a value found in a stan-
●● When replacing graded (or metric class) bolts and dard torque chart, the clamping force produced will be
capscrews, use only fasteners that have the manu- at least 25% less.
facturer trademark or identification on the bolt head;
do not use substandard bolts.

Figure 2–42 Washers used to lock fasteners to WARNING

prevent them coming loose.
A fastener without strength markings must be assumed
to be at the lowest common denominator of ratings
(grade 2) and not suitable for use in vehicle applications.
A fastener with no manufacturer’s logo is probably from
Asia and likely to be of lower quality; there are many of
Plain Spring External Internal these in circulation, so technicians should be very aware!
lock tooth lock tooth lock

Figure 2–43 Bolt head identification chart.

Tensile Bolt Nut

Proof Strength Rockwell Rockwell
Nominal
Grade Size Load PSI Min. PSI Hardness Hardness
Marking Specification Material Dia. In. (MPs) (MPa) Min. Max. Min. Max.
ASTM A307 Grade A Low carbon 1
⁄4 thru 11⁄2 33,000 60,000 B70 B100 — —
SAE J429 Grade 1 steel
1
SAE J429 Grade 2 Low carbon ⁄4 thru 3⁄4 55,000 74,000 B80 B100 — C32
steel over 3⁄4 to 11⁄2 33,000 60,000
ISO SAE J1199 Low or medium M5 thru M24 55,100 (380) 75,400 (520) B82 B95 — C32
Property Class 5.8 carbon steel

1
ASTM A449 Type 1 Medium carbon ⁄4 thru 1 85,000 120,000 C25 C34 — C32
SAE J429 Grade 5 steel, quenched over 1 to 11⁄2 74,000 105,000 C19 C30 C32
and tempered
ISO/DIN SAE J1199 Medium carbon M3 thru M16 84,100 (580) 116,000 (800) C20 C30 — C32
Property Class 8.8 steel, quenched M17 thru M36 87,000 (600) 120,350 (830) C23 C34
and tempered
SAE J429 Low or medium No. 6 thru 5/8 85,000 120,000 C25 C40 — —
Grade 5.1 (SEMS) carbon steel,
quenched and
tempered with
assembled
washer
ISO SAE J1199 Medium carbon M1.6 thru M16 94,250 (650) 130,500 (900) C27 C36 — C32
Property Class 9.6 steel, quenched
and tempered
1
SAE J429 Grade 7 Medium carbon ⁄4 thru 11⁄2 105,000 133,000 C28 C34 — —
allow steel,
quenched and
tempered, roll
threaded after
heat treatment
ASTM A354 Grade BD Medium carbon 1⁄4 thru 11⁄2 120,000 150,000 C33 C39 C24 C36
Bowma-Torq®/Grade 8 alloy steel,
SAE J429 Grade 8 quenched and
tempered
1
SAE J429 Grade 8.2 Low carbon ⁄4 thru 1 120,000 150,000 C35 C42 — —
boron martensite
steel, fully killed,
fine grain,
quenched and
tempered
ISO SAE J1199 Medium carbon M6 thru M36 120,350 150,800 C33 C39 C26 C36
Property Class 10.9 alloy steel, (830) (1040)
quenched and
tempered

Courtesy of Navistar International Corp.

ISO Property Medium carbon M1.6 thru M36 140,650 176,900 C38 C44 C26 C36
Class 12.9 alloy steel, (970) (1220)
quenched and
tempered
Bowmalloy® Proprietary 1
⁄4 thru 11⁄2 156,000 180,000 Min. C38 C42 C26 C36
medium carbon 2,000,000
alloy steel, Max.
quenched and
tempered
*Manufacturer’s identification symbols are required per ASTM, ISO, or SAE.

Fastener Tightening ●● Compression of clamped materials

When tightening fasteners, remember the following
●● Improperly installed washers
procedures:
Reuse of Fasteners
●● Clean all fasteners, all threads, and all surfaces
The Industrial Fastener Institute has conducted detailed
before installing them.
studies on the loss of strength in reused fasteners. A
●● To ensure they are torqued accurately, fasteners
key conclusion is that a reused nut is more likely to fail.
should be lubricated with oil (unless specifically
Threads on a nut are manufactured to be slightly softer
instructed to install them dry), and then torqued to
than those on the bolt so that they deform slightly to
the values for lubricated- and plated-thread fasteners.
form into the contour of the bolt threads when torqued.
When locking compound or antiseize compound is
While the IFI recommends that both the nut and bolt be
recommended for a fastener, the compound acts as a
replaced in any critical application, it emphasizes that
lubricant, and oil is not needed.
nuts are a poor reuse risk. Some facts:
●● Hand turn fasteners so they contact before using a
torque wrench to tighten them to their final torque ●● The first thread of a USS nut supports 38% of the
values. total load on a bolt
●● Tighten the nut, not the bolt head, when possible. ●● The second thread supports 25% of the total bolt
This gives a truer torque reading by eliminating bolt load
body friction. ●● The third thread supports 18% of the total bolt load
●● Always use a torque wrench to tighten fasteners, and ●● Therefore, more than 80% of the total bolt load is
use a slow, smooth, even pull on the wrench. Do not supported by the first three threads on the nut
use a short, jerky motion, or inaccurate readings can
result. Thread Repair
●● When reading a bar-type torque wrench, look straight A common fastening problem is stripped threads. This
down at the scale. Viewing from an angle can give is usually caused by high torque or by cross-threading.
a false reading. Threads can sometimes be replaced by using threaded
●● Only pull on the handle of the torque wrench. inserts. Several types of threaded inserts are available; the
●● Do not allow the beam of the wrench to touch helically coiled insert is the most popular (Figure 2–44).
anything. To install this and similar thread reconditioning inserts,
●● Tighten bolts and nuts incrementally. Typically, this proceed as follows:
should be to one-half specified torque, to three-
fourths torque, to full torque, and then to full torque 1. Establish the size, pitch, and length of the thread
a second time. required. Refer to the insert manufacturer’s instruc-
●● Never overtorque fasteners; overtightening causes tions for the correct size drill for the thread tap to be
permanent stretching of fasteners, which can result used for the repair.
in breakage of parts or fasteners.
●● If specific torque values are not given for counter- Figure 2–44 Steps in the installation of a helical
sunk bolts, use the torque value for the correspond- screw repair coil: A. Drill out the damaged threads using
ing size and grade of regular bolt. the correct sized drill bit. B. Tap new threads into the
●● Follow the torque sequence when provided to ensure hole using the specified tap. The thread depth should
that clamping forces are even and mating parts and exceed the depth of the hole. C. Install the proper sized
fasteners are not distorted. coil insert on the mandrel provided in the installation kit.
Bottom it against the tang. D. Lubricate the insert and
Fastener Failures thread it into the hole until flush with the surface. Use a
punch or chisel to break off the tang.
Most fastener failures can be attributed to human error
concerning application and/or assembly. The conse-
quences of fastener failure on transportation equipment
can be fatal. The following are the most common reasons:
●● Overtorquing
●● Mismatched graded fasteners
●● Reuse of a fastener (especially nuts)
●● Use of too long a bolt A. B. C. D.

2. Drill out the damaged threads with the specified drill.

Clean out the drill swath and chips from the hole. Shop Talk
3. Tap new threads in the hole using the specified tap.
To disassemble fasteners that have been held together
Lubricate the tap while threading the hole. Back out with a thread locking compound, it may be necessary to
the tap every quarter turn or so. When the hole is heat the bond line to 4008F (2058C) before removing the
threaded to the required depth, remove the tap and nut. Every time fasteners held by locking compounds/
all metal cuttings from the hole. adhesives are disassembled, replace them. If mating
4. Select the appropriate size insert and screw it onto components are damaged by overheating, replace them.
the special installing mandrel or tool. Make sure that
the tool engages with the tang of the insert. Screw
the insert into the hole by turning the installing tool
clockwise. Lubricate the thread insert with engine
oil if it is installed in cast iron (do not lubricate if
installing into aluminum). Turn the thread insert into
Adhesives and Chemical
the tapped hole until it is flush with the surface or Sealing Materials
one turn below. Remove the installer.
Chemical adhesives and sealants may provide added
Screw/Stud Removers and Extractors holding force and sealing ability when two components
Stud removers are used to install and remove studs. They are joined. Sealants are applied to threads where fluid
have a hardened, grooved eccentric roller or jaws that contact is frequent. Chemical thread retainers are either
grip the stud tightly when turned. Stud removers/install- aerobic (cures in the presence of air) or anaerobic (cures
ers may be turned by a socket wrench drive handle. in the absence of air). When using a chemical adhesive
Extractors are used on screws and bolts that have or sealant, follow the manufacturer’s instructions. Note
sheared below a surface. Twist drills, fluted extractors, that some adhesives molecularly bond to the surface of
and hex nuts are included in a screw extractor set (see metals, destroying the material on removal. Some can
Figure 2–10). This type of extractor lessens the tendency be harmful on contact with skin. In almost all cases, the
to expand a screw or stud that has been drilled out by pro- material safety data sheet (MSDS) for these products is
viding gripping contact through the full length of the stud. published on the company’s website.

Thread Locking Compound Application Sealants

When applying a thread locking compound, follow the
The following list briefly describes some common shop
safety precautions given on the locking compound con-
sealants:
tainer. Then proceed as follows:
●● High tack. Available as a paste or aerosol spray. Rap-
1. Clean the male and female threads of the fasten-
idly cures and can be used to hold gaskets in place
ers, removing dirt, oil, and other contaminants. If
while clamping two components together. Every tool-
the area around the fastener is contaminated, clean
box should be equipped with some.
with solvent, and then allow everything to air dry for ●● RTV silicone (room temperature vulcanized silicone).
10 minutes. Be sure solvent is completely evapo-
Cheap and outlasts paper gaskets. Uses acid to cure,
rated before applying thread adhesive.
which is corrosive, and for this reason should not
2. Apply a small amount of locking compound from
really be used in any chassis applications. Having
the container to the circumference of three or four
said this, it is more commonly used than any other
fastener threads.
shop sealant.
3. Install and immediately torque the nut. Retorqu- ●● Nonacidic vehicle silicone. RTV silicone that uses a
ing the nut is not possible after installation without
nonacidic desiccant. Designed to replace gaskets,
destroying the adhesive locking bond.
not to glue them into position. These usually take
longer to cure, may be system specific, and are usu-
WARNING ally coded by color—for example, high temperature
for exhaust manifolds and turbos, transmissions,
Thread locking compounds are powerful adhesives. They wheel ends, etc. Apply a single bead about 1 4 inch
are color coded. Use only the color code recommended or less dead center along one side of the mating
by the OEM. face. Circle around the bolt holes. Do not apply too
much. Mate up wet; do not allow cure time.

●● Rubber gasket dressing. This should be applied to The metric system is a decimal system, the meter
reuse rubber gaskets. It tacks them into position being the basis of all measures, whether of length, sur-
while mating up components. face, capacity, volume, or weight. The meter measures
●● Rubber gasket maker. Rubber compound that cures 39.37 inches and is theoretically one ten-millionth of
slowly but can actually be put into service immedi- the distance from the equator to either the North or the
ately due to its high integrity. When fully cured, it South Pole. The unit of weight is the gram (15.432
is very difficult to remove and can actually destroy grains), and is the weight of a cubic centimeter of water
thinner steels. Rated for high temperature and may at its greatest density at about 398F.
be good for problem leaks. Multiples of the units are expressed by the Greek
●● Weatherstrip adhesive. Designed to adhere weather- prefixes deca, hecto, kilo, mega, and giga, indicating,
stripping. Should not be used for anything else. Can respectively, tens, hundreds, thousands, millions, and
be extremely difficult to remove, especially when billions. Decimal parts of the units are indicated by the
applied to aluminum or carbon fibers. Latin prefixes deci, centi, milli, micro, nano, and pico,
meaning, respectively, tenth, hundredth, thousandth,
Thread Lock Compounds millionth, thousand millionth, and billionth.
Thread lock compounds are usually manufactured in
liquid and gel forms. Several manufacturers produce Metric Weights and Measures
thread sealants. Although there are no rules about this,
most manufacturers usually abide by the following Listings of the commonly used metric weights and mea-
color codes: sures as well as a conversion table for common metric
measurements to standard units follow. Note that gr
●● Red. The highest strength adhesive and sealant. indicates U.S. grains and should not be confused with
Usually red locking compound functions effectively metric grams.
at high temperatures. Powerful enough to damage
some metals on removal. Use in small quantities. Metric Weights
●● Blue. A good multipurpose adhesive and sealant
rated at medium strength. Milligram (11000 gm) 5 0.0154 gr
●● Green. A medium-strength adhesive and sealant Centigram (1100 gm) 5 0.1543 gr
with wicking capability; this allows it to run down
Decigram (110 gm) 5 1.5432 gr
threads and create a better seal.
●● Purple. A low-strength thread adhesive that seals Gram 5 15,432 gr
threads effectively. Decagram (10 gm) 5 0.3527 oz
Hectogram (100 gm) 5 3.5274 oz
The Metric System and Kilogram (1000 gm) 5 2.2046 lb
English/Metric Conversion Myriagram (10,000 gm) 5 22.046 lb

The metric system has been authorized by an act of Metric Dry Measures
Congress in the United States and by federal legislation
Milliliter (11000 L) 5 0.061 cu. in.
in Canada. The metric system is used by most coun-
tries in the world, and has been generally adopted by Centiliter (1100 L) 5 0.6102 cu. in.
industry for use in the United States as a replacement Deciliter ( 1 L) 5 6.1022 cu. in.
10
for the standard system. For example, every truck die-
sel engine engineered in the United States since 1980 Liter 5 0.908 qt
has been a metric engine. However, the specifications Decaliter (10 L) 5 9.08 qt
reproduced in service literature are usually presented in
Hectoliter (100 L) 5 2.838 bu
both standard and metric systems with the consequence
that most mechanical technicians are forced to have an Kiloliter (1000 L) 5 1.308 cu. yd
understanding of both. Some OEMs such as Caterpillar
have published specifications using only the metric sys- Metric Liquid Measures
tem for a generation. (It should be noted that the British
replaced the “English” system of weights and measures Milliliter (11000 L) 5 0.0338 fl. oz
with the metric system more than 40 years ago.) Centiliter (1100 L) 5 0.338 fl. oz

Deciliter (110 L) 5 0.845 gill Torque Conversion

Liter 5 1.0567 qt
1 lb-ft. 5 1.355 Newton-meters (N ⋅ m)
Decaliter (10 L) 5 2.6418 gal
1 N ⋅ m 5 0.738 lb-ft
Hectoliter (100 L) 5 26.417 gal
Kiloliter (1000 L) 5 264.18 gal Temperature Conversion
93C
Metric Measures of Length Degrees Fahrenheit 5 1 32
5
Millimeter (11000 m) 5 0.0394 in. 5 3 (F 2 32)
Degrees Celsius 5
Centimeter ( 1
100 m) 5 0.3937 in. 9
Decimeter ( 1
10 m) 5 3.937 in.
Meter 5 39.37 in. Pressure Conversions
Decameter (10 m) 5 393.7 in. Fuel injection test instruments are often calibrated in
Hectometer (100 m) 5 328.1 ft units of atmosphere (atms). Technicians should become
Kilometer (1000 m) 5 0.62137 mi familiar with the process of converting units of pres-
sure into the metric and standard systems. This is an
(1 mile 5 1.6093 km)
easy way:
Myriameter (10,000 m) 5 6.2137 mi
Atmospheric pressure at sea level 5 14.7 psi 5
Metric Surface Measures 101.3 kPa 5 1 unit of atmosphere or 1 atms
Centare (1 sq. m) 5 1550 sq. in.
Remembering the following is not as mathemati-
Are (100 sq. m) 5 119.6 sq. yd cally accurate as the previous equivalent, but it is a fast
Hectare (10,000 sq. m) 5 2.471 acre method of converting pressure values that is accurate
enough for quick conversions:

Metric to Standard 15 psi 5 100 kPa 5 1 atms

Conversion Formulae So, to convert 45 psi to kPa:
The following formulae can be used to translate metric
values to standard and vice versa. 45
5 3 units of atmosphere or 3 atms
15
Linear Measurements 3 atms 5 100 kPa 5 300 kPa

Centimeters 3 0.3937 5 in. In Europe, a unit of pressure measurement known

Meters 5 39.37 in. as a bar is used. Be familiar with bar, because Bosch
Kilometers 5 0.621 mi uses this unit for specifications in the many diesel
Kilometers 3 3280.89 5 ft fuel systems it manufactures. One bar is equivalent to
105 Newtons per square meter, which is not precisely
Square centimeters 3 0.155 5 sq. in.
equivalent to one atmosphere. Although units of bar and
atms are often used as if they were exactly equivalent,
Volume and Mass Measurements this is not so, and where precise values are required they
Cubic centimeters 3 0.06102 5 cu. in. should not be confused. Some fuel injection comparator
equipment is calibrated in bar.
Cubic meters 3 35.3144 cu. ft
Liters 3 0.2642 5 gal (231 cu. in.) 1 atms 5 14.7 psi 5 101.3 kPa 5 1.033 bar
Kilograms 3 2.2046 lb 5 29.920 Hg 5 407.190 H2O
Kilograms per square millimeter 3 1422.3 5
lb per sq. in.
Power Conversion
Kilograms per square centimeter 3 14,223 5 1 hp 5 550 lb-ft per second 5 0.746 kW
lb per sq. in. 5 42.4 Btus per minute

Workplace Organization and Figure 2–46), because it helps identify a missing

component at a glance.
There is no one thing that turns customers away from a
service facility faster than a dirty, cluttered shop. Keep- Toolbox Drawer
ing the workplace clean and organized is the responsibil-
ity of every technician. Just as important is the way a Organizers
technician maintains order within his or her personally Drawer organizers cost little compared to the price of a
owned toolbox. The consequence of not keeping a per- single wrench and will repay the investment you make
sonal toolbox organized is to misplace costly tools and not in them many times over. Their primary benefit is that
realize they are missing until the next time they have to a technician can immediately identify exactly what tool
be used. Whenever possible, use the tool manufacturer’s is missing. The reason truck drivers often have collec-
storage cases and mounting hardware (see Figure 2–45 tions of Snap-on wrenches is not because they have sto-
len them but because technicians have left them in the
engine compartment or elsewhere in the cab and on
Figure 2–45 Heavy-duty puller set stored the chassis.
in the wall mountings supplied by the tool
manufacturer, so that a missing component can
identified at a glance. Exhaust Extraction
Piping
A key piece of shop equipment is the exhaust extraction
system. In a truck shop, this consists of overhead pip-
ing and duct work. Failure to use the exhaust extraction
pipes presents health and safety problems, which are the
subject of Chapter 3. Breathing diesel exhaust fumes,
especially those produced by truck engines built before
2007, is a health hazard. Observing a few simple rules
can minimize this hazard:
●● When starting an engine up outside before bring-
ing it into the service shop, warm the engine for
5 minutes before moving the truck. You may be able
to reduce this time with newer trucks, but try to
avoid driving a truck that is producing visible smoke
into the shop.

Figure 2–46 Proper storage of a dial bore gauge set, which protects the tool and allows a missing component to
be identified immediately.

●● When preparing to remove a truck from the shop Figure 2–47 Exhaust extraction flex pipes in a
following service work, install the exhaust extrac- truck shop.
tion pipe over the stack(s) before attempting to
start the engine. This way you can build the air
pressure and warm the engine before moving the
vehicle.
The exhaust extraction pipes are stainless steel
or galvanized flex pipes designed to fit over the verti-
cal stacks on the truck. An extraction pump helps
pull the diesel exhaust out of the shop. Figure 2–47
shows a network of exhaust extraction pipes in a
truck shop.

Summary
●● The actual contents of a truck technician’s toolbox ●● Diesel engine technicians should be familiar with set-
will be determined by the type of work performed. ting up and using dial bore gauges.
However, 80% of the contents are probably common ●● Shop hoisting apparatus should be routinely inspected
among all truck technicians. by qualified personnel and by the technician before
●● Cheaper tools are often bulkier and more prone to using it. This may be a legal requirement in some
breakage. jurisdictions.
●● The personal safety of the user is always on the line ●● The technician must check out shop power equipment
when hand tools are being used, so it makes sense for before each use.
the professional to invest in reliable tools. ●● The technician should know how to identify SAE, IFI,
●● The apprentice technician should acquire a mastery of and ISO fastener grades and understand the impor-
precision measuring tools before using them in work; tance of selecting the correct grade for the job being
this is best done by practice using the instruments to performed. The engine technician must also under-
measure actual engine components. stand that many specialty fasteners used on engines
●● Reading both standard and metric micrometers have special metal properties and should not be
becomes much easier when the technician under- replaced by generic SAE, IFI, or ISO fasteners.
stands exactly how they are constructed and ●● The technician should get used to both standard and
calibrated. metric systems and be prepared to work in both,
●● A standard micrometer must be rotated through 40 because both are widely used in the industry. Formulae
complete revolutions from the point at which the spin- need not be remembered, but the technician should
dle contacts the anvil producing a zero reading to the get used to rapidly converting values from each system.
point at which it reads 10. Each complete revolution of ●● Technicians who take the trouble to organize their per-
the thimble therefore represents 0.0250. sonal tools will benefit from the resulting minimization
●● A metric micrometer must be rotated through 50 com- of tool losses.
plete revolutions from the point at which the spindle ●● A key piece of shop equipment is the exhaust extrac-
contacts the anvil producing a zero reading to the point tion system. To be effective at preventing harmful
at which it reads 25 mm. Each complete revolution of fumes from being discharged into a closed, indoor
the thimble therefore represents 0.5 mm. environment, it must be used properly.

Review Questions
1. When the spindle contacts the anvil on a standard 8. To which of the following values would 1.5 mm be
0210 micrometer, it should read: closest?
a. 0 a. 0.06250
b. 0.0010 b. 0.1250
c. 0.0250 c. 0.2500
d. 10 d. 1.500
2. How many complete rotations must the thimble of 9. Convert 5508 Fahrenheit into Celsius.
a standard micrometer be turned to travel through a. 240
a reading of zero to a reading of 1 inch? b. 288
a. 25 c. 385
b. 40 d. 550
c. 50
10. A wrench with box and open jaws at either end, both
d. 100
of the same nominal dimension, is known as a(n):
3. How many complete rotations must the thimble of a. torque wrench.
a metric micrometer be turned to travel through a b. combination wrench.
reading of zero to a reading of 25 mm? c. box-end wrench.
a. 25 d. adjustable wrench.
b. 40
c. 50 11. Which of the following is used to identify an SAE
d. 100 grade 8 bolt?
a. 3 radial strokes on the capscrew head
4. When the thimble of a metric micrometer is turned b. 5 radial strokes on the capscrew head
through one full revolution, the dimension between c. 6 radial strokes on the capscrew head
the anvil and the spindle has changed by: d. 8 radial strokes on the capscrew head
a. 0.1 mm
b. 0.5 mm 12. If a 120 linear extension is used on a torque wrench
c. 2.5 mm with a 240 bar, the reading on the torque wrench
d. 0.5 mm scale required to produce an actual torque value of
250 lb-ft would be:
5. When using a dial indicator to check the concentric- a. 36 lb-ft
ity of a flywheel housing, during a single rotation of b. 120 lb-ft
the flywheel the reading on the positive side of the c. 167 lb-ft
zero on the dial peaks at 0.003 while the reading on d. 323 lb-ft
the negative side peaks at 0.006. What is the TIR?
a. 0.0030 13. Convert 250 lb-ft to Newton-meters and select the
b. 0.0060 closest value from the following answers.
c. 0.0090 a. 167 N·m
d. 0.0180 b. 340 N·m
c. 410 N·m
6. Which of the following precision measuring instru-
d. 500 N·m
ments would be required to measure a valve guide
bore? 14. Convert 600 hp into kW and select the closest value
a. Dial indicator from the following answers.
b. Inside micrometer a. 350 kW
c. Split ball gauge and micrometer b. 450 kW
d. Dial bore gauge c. 550 kW
7. If 300 kPa is converted to pounds per square inch, d. 650 kW
the result would be closest to which of the follow- 15. The cutting fluid recommended for use when
ing values? cutting threads in mild steel is:
a. 15 psi a. soluble oil and water.
b. 30 psi b. lard.
c. 45 psi c. dry.
d. 300 psi d. kerosene.

16. When drilling into cast iron, the correct method 19. Which Plastigage color code should be selected to
calls for the procedure to be performed: measure a main bearing clearance that the manu-
a. with kerosene. facturer specifies must be between 0.0023 and
b. with lard. 0.0038?
c. preheated. a. Red
d. dry. b. Green
17. A bolt designed so that the shoulder has a small inter- c. Blue
ference fit with the bore it is to be fitted to is called a(n): 20. After Plastigage checking a main bearing, using
a. SAE #5. red Plastigage, the measuring strip has not been
b. SAE #8. deformed. Technician A states that the bearing
c. body bound bolt. clearance must be greater than 0.0060. Techni-
d. Huck fastener. cian B states that a strip of green-coded Plastigage
18. The working load of a chain is normally what percent- must be used to perform the measurement. Who is
age of the rated tensile strength of the chain material? correct?
a. 10% a. Technician A only
b. 25% b. Technician B only
c. 50% c. Both A and B
d. 75% d. Neither A nor B

Web Development
75% (4)
Web Development
19 pages
MS004009 04e
No ratings yet
MS004009 04e
103 pages
Lesson 1 Automotive Technology Hand Tools and Equipment
100% (3)
Lesson 1 Automotive Technology Hand Tools and Equipment
10 pages
Diesel Mechanics Tools List
No ratings yet
Diesel Mechanics Tools List
1 page
Avaliação Mecanico 1 (Ingles)
100% (1)
Avaliação Mecanico 1 (Ingles)
13 pages
Chapter 3 Basic Hand Tools
50% (4)
Chapter 3 Basic Hand Tools
13 pages
Technical Documentation Engine Working Instructions
100% (1)
Technical Documentation Engine Working Instructions
598 pages
Edpm Study Guide
100% (1)
Edpm Study Guide
25 pages
Grade 4-Q2W2 (Matatag DLL) - Mathematics
No ratings yet
Grade 4-Q2W2 (Matatag DLL) - Mathematics
10 pages
ISyE 6669 Homework 15 PDF
No ratings yet
ISyE 6669 Homework 15 PDF
3 pages
Instagram Photo and Video Downloader
No ratings yet
Instagram Photo and Video Downloader
13 pages
6.034 Quiz 1 September 27, 2006: Name Email
No ratings yet
6.034 Quiz 1 September 27, 2006: Name Email
12 pages
A10 DS Thunder 15102 EN 20150804 PDF
No ratings yet
A10 DS Thunder 15102 EN 20150804 PDF
12 pages
Debug 1214
No ratings yet
Debug 1214
14 pages
Automobile Lab Manual
33% (3)
Automobile Lab Manual
61 pages
Naresh Kobbera
No ratings yet
Naresh Kobbera
9 pages
Related Systems Foreign and Local
No ratings yet
Related Systems Foreign and Local
16 pages
Reasoning EMBEDDED FIGURE Questions, Answers & Explanation: Exercise
No ratings yet
Reasoning EMBEDDED FIGURE Questions, Answers & Explanation: Exercise
4 pages
Mechanics - Career Paths
No ratings yet
Mechanics - Career Paths
122 pages
Time Complexity
No ratings yet
Time Complexity
9 pages
SOP - QBD To QBO Conversion
No ratings yet
SOP - QBD To QBO Conversion
11 pages
Mifos Capabilities: Overview of Functionality Within Mifos
No ratings yet
Mifos Capabilities: Overview of Functionality Within Mifos
49 pages
Hand Tools
No ratings yet
Hand Tools
27 pages
The Information Age
No ratings yet
The Information Age
17 pages
Management Accounts December 2023
No ratings yet
Management Accounts December 2023
19 pages
Basic Hand Tools
No ratings yet
Basic Hand Tools
116 pages
Proposal For PDA - Website - 14.10.2020
No ratings yet
Proposal For PDA - Website - 14.10.2020
27 pages
Wissen Banking Finance Practice
No ratings yet
Wissen Banking Finance Practice
30 pages
Tool Catalog PDF
No ratings yet
Tool Catalog PDF
100 pages
LV02 - Foundation Skills - Issue 1
No ratings yet
LV02 - Foundation Skills - Issue 1
61 pages
Automotive Tools and Equipment
No ratings yet
Automotive Tools and Equipment
33 pages
1.list of Experiments.: S/no Remark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No ratings yet
1.list of Experiments.: S/no Remark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
23 pages
Aaapowerpoint, Automotive
No ratings yet
Aaapowerpoint, Automotive
48 pages
04 Handand P
No ratings yet
04 Handand P
18 pages
323 Assignment 2
No ratings yet
323 Assignment 2
1 page
Jouna Harb-Cv
No ratings yet
Jouna Harb-Cv
1 page
Tool Catalog
No ratings yet
Tool Catalog
100 pages
BK0001 Basic Knowledge of Common Hand Tool
No ratings yet
BK0001 Basic Knowledge of Common Hand Tool
76 pages
Tools Ko Tot
No ratings yet
Tools Ko Tot
11 pages
Lesson 3 Basic Hand Tools and 5S 2
100% (1)
Lesson 3 Basic Hand Tools and 5S 2
47 pages
Auto Mechanics
No ratings yet
Auto Mechanics
73 pages
Using Shop Tools
100% (1)
Using Shop Tools
14 pages
Tools and Equipments Used: 1. Piston Ring Expander
No ratings yet
Tools and Equipments Used: 1. Piston Ring Expander
13 pages
Written Report MR - BULIGAN
No ratings yet
Written Report MR - BULIGAN
10 pages
Automotive-Presentation-I.A.-AS1 20231013 193844 0000
No ratings yet
Automotive-Presentation-I.A.-AS1 20231013 193844 0000
90 pages
Information Security Manual
No ratings yet
Information Security Manual
18 pages
Aghdaie, Bahman EMGT Field Project
No ratings yet
Aghdaie, Bahman EMGT Field Project
36 pages
Automotive Module1
No ratings yet
Automotive Module1
25 pages
Wrenches: Prepared By: Mr. Cael
No ratings yet
Wrenches: Prepared By: Mr. Cael
19 pages
DWM Exp3 33
No ratings yet
DWM Exp3 33
3 pages
Student Homework Planner PDF
100% (1)
Student Homework Planner PDF
5 pages
Chapter (3) Basic Hand Tools
No ratings yet
Chapter (3) Basic Hand Tools
18 pages
Information Sheet 2.1-2docx
No ratings yet
Information Sheet 2.1-2docx
8 pages
Hand Tools and Equipment - Module 4
No ratings yet
Hand Tools and Equipment - Module 4
67 pages
Akwa Ibom State University: Course Registration Form
No ratings yet
Akwa Ibom State University: Course Registration Form
1 page
Brief History of Automotive Service Shop Work Safety Rules and Regulation Introducing Tools And. Equipment
No ratings yet
Brief History of Automotive Service Shop Work Safety Rules and Regulation Introducing Tools And. Equipment
32 pages
My Tools: Big Words
No ratings yet
My Tools: Big Words
14 pages
Automotive: What Are The Four Types of Hand Tools Used in The Automotive Shop and Give Example of Each
No ratings yet
Automotive: What Are The Four Types of Hand Tools Used in The Automotive Shop and Give Example of Each
4 pages
Basic Hand Tools
No ratings yet
Basic Hand Tools
37 pages
Tools & Equipment Info Sheet 2
No ratings yet
Tools & Equipment Info Sheet 2
19 pages
M1-R5: Information Technology Tools and Network Basics SET - 01
No ratings yet
M1-R5: Information Technology Tools and Network Basics SET - 01
24 pages
Hand Tools and Shop Equipment
No ratings yet
Hand Tools and Shop Equipment
27 pages
ESS Reviewer
No ratings yet
ESS Reviewer
2 pages
Engine Tools Final - Wartsila W20V34SG
No ratings yet
Engine Tools Final - Wartsila W20V34SG
3 pages
Petrol Engine Service Lab
No ratings yet
Petrol Engine Service Lab
30 pages
TOOL2
No ratings yet
TOOL2
31 pages
Laravel 10 CRUD (Create, Read, Update and Delete) - Tutorial101
No ratings yet
Laravel 10 CRUD (Create, Read, Update and Delete) - Tutorial101
6 pages
Bench Fitting Tools L1
No ratings yet
Bench Fitting Tools L1
36 pages
Saua2701 Vehicle Maintenance & Reconditioning Lab Manual
No ratings yet
Saua2701 Vehicle Maintenance & Reconditioning Lab Manual
29 pages
Utilizing Automotive Tools
100% (1)
Utilizing Automotive Tools
12 pages
Parts of An Engine Cylinder Block
No ratings yet
Parts of An Engine Cylinder Block
9 pages
Soy Automotive Technology Midterm Exam
No ratings yet
Soy Automotive Technology Midterm Exam
5 pages
Prepare and Uses Hand Tools
No ratings yet
Prepare and Uses Hand Tools
4 pages
Chapter 4 Power Tools and Equipment
No ratings yet
Chapter 4 Power Tools and Equipment
26 pages
Wrenches 1
No ratings yet
Wrenches 1
7 pages
Get Spring 6 Recipes: A Problem-Solution Approach To Spring Framework Marten Deinum PDF Ebook With Full Chapters Now
100% (5)
Get Spring 6 Recipes: A Problem-Solution Approach To Spring Framework Marten Deinum PDF Ebook With Full Chapters Now
66 pages
Automotive Basic Hand Tools
No ratings yet
Automotive Basic Hand Tools
20 pages
VM Troubleshooting
No ratings yet
VM Troubleshooting
12 pages
PDF Tools
No ratings yet
PDF Tools
16 pages
AT 1 LP2 Unit 2
No ratings yet
AT 1 LP2 Unit 2
22 pages
1245 Ref
No ratings yet
1245 Ref
20 pages
Industrial Arts Leap w3 q4
No ratings yet
Industrial Arts Leap w3 q4
21 pages
Asl Lab Manual
No ratings yet
Asl Lab Manual
23 pages
The Four Stroke Engine Building Tools Guidebook 2018
No ratings yet
The Four Stroke Engine Building Tools Guidebook 2018
24 pages
Architectural Drafting Supplies
No ratings yet
Architectural Drafting Supplies
3 pages
Ppe
No ratings yet
Ppe
2 pages
Roadmap For Access To Data For Law Enforcement
No ratings yet
Roadmap For Access To Data For Law Enforcement
2 pages
Vibration Basics and Machine Reliability Simplified : A Practical Guide to Vibration Analysis
From Everand
Vibration Basics and Machine Reliability Simplified : A Practical Guide to Vibration Analysis
Mohammed Hamed Ahmed Soliman
4/5 (2)
Prompting Science and Engineering Students in Practical Trigonometry
From Everand
Prompting Science and Engineering Students in Practical Trigonometry
George Norman Reed
No ratings yet
Correct Maintenance - Cognex DataMan 8500
From Everand
Correct Maintenance - Cognex DataMan 8500
Unique Content
No ratings yet

Chapter 2 Motores

Uploaded by

Chapter 2 Motores

Uploaded by

2

Hand and Shop Tools,

WHY READ THIS? Combination Wrenches

Courtesy of Navistar International Corp.

Care of Torque Wrenches

Torque Wrench Extensions on a repair procedure indicates that a bolt should be

Thread Pitch Gauges

a screw extractor must be used. First, the fastener must Reamers

Stud Extractors Drill Bits

Taps and Dies

Table 2–1 Recommended Cutting Fluid Processes

Anvil Locknut Sleeve

increments. Each of the thimble graduations represents

plete turn, the spindle moves through 25 graduations

1 inch, 1 inch to 2, 2 inches to 3, 3 inches to 4, and so

Reading a Metric Outside Micrometer

Courtesy of Mitutoyo American

Figure 2–19 Slip the micrometer and adjust the

Slip back and Rock from

Figure 2–17 The reading shown on this metric

and slip the object to be measured between the spindle

Reading an Inside Micrometer Figure 2–20 Obtaining a precise measurement with

Shop Talk Indicating

Follow these tips for taking care of a micrometer: 1

●● Always clean a micrometer before using it. 2

Figure 2–23 Flex-arm mounted dial indicator.

The typical dial bore gauge consists of a shaft, on top

Tech Tip Setup Options

every within-specification measurement should read on Identifying the Specification Window

Maximum specification (set micrometer to this dimension)

Recording the Measurements Telescoping Gauges (Snap Gauges)

Figure 2–28 Set of thickness gauges. ●● 1 0 drive ratchet

Table 2–2 Ratchet Drives and Socket Sizes

Figure 2–29 A typical DMM shown in rubber ●● Sidecutters

Sledgehammers Figure 2–30 Press and bearing clamp used to install

Courtesy of Gray USA Corp.

Various systems are available using between 2 and

Spreader Bars Chains

Figure 2.33 A typical shop spreader bar used to

Figure 2–34 Typical setup for a 1 2-inch drive impact gun.

technician should be aware of the potential for damage

in an enclosed housing and powered pneumatically.

Following any bead or sandblasting procedure, all the

Tachometers Nominal diameter in millimeters

Fasteners Fastener Grades and

Figure 2–37 Hex fastener identification.

S.A.E. grade 2 and I.F.I. grade A nuts

S.A.E. Grade 2 Nut* I.F.I. Grade A Nut*

I.F.I. grade B nuts have three

I.F.I. Grade B Nut†

I.F.I. grade C nuts have six

S.A.E. Grade 8 Nut‡

I. F. I. grade G (flanged) nuts have six

Figure 2–38 Bolt classes can be identified by the

Friction and Clamping Force

Grade 8 Hex Head Bolt

Importance of Correct Torque Procedure

results in capscrew or bolt clamping force. About 40 to Effect of Lubricants

Figure 2–42 Washers used to lock fasteners to WARNING

Figure 2–43 Bolt head identification chart.

Tensile Bolt Nut

Courtesy of Navistar International Corp.

Fastener Tightening ●● Compression of clamped materials

2. Drill out the damaged threads with the specified drill.

Thread Locking Compound Application Sealants

Deciliter (110 L) 5 0.845 gill Torque Conversion

Metric to Standard 15 psi 5 100 kPa 5 1 atms

Centimeters 3 0.3937 5 in. In Europe, a unit of pressure measurement known

Workplace Organization and Figure 2–46), because it helps identify a missing

You might also like