An Overview of GIS

Introduction to GIS:
GIS (Geographical Information Systems) is one such famous IT application tool which can
provide best decision support to bridge the gap between the requirements and the reality. A
geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing,
managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS
allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal
relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. A GIS
helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at your data in a way that is
quickly understood and easily shared. With the exponential growth in IT application and the
Digital literacy all over the world, and GIS being the most advantageous visual dimension of
data base, the potential for GIS application has increased over the years.

What is GIS?
Geographic information systems are computer-based systems that facilitate the input, storage,
manipulation and output of georeferenced data. Using GIS, one can relate otherwise disparate
data on the basis of common geographic location, creating new information from existing
data resources. GIS supports interactive query capabilities, together with graphics tools that
support flexible color assignments, toggling on and off of features, and panning and zooming.

A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing,
managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information.

Fig: An earthquake map making with the help of GIS

GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that
reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts.

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 An Overview of GIS

A GIS helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at your data in a way that
is quickly understood and easily shared.

GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise information system framework.

The “G” = Geographic

– Denotes the concept of spatial location on Earth’s surface

– Importance of relative location (not just where you are but where you are in
relation to everything else)

– Theories and techniques in Geography form the basis of GIS

The “I” = Information

– Substance (knowledge) about location

– Factual and interpretative

– Tables + Maps + Analysis

– Transformation of table information into spatial context for analysis

– Technology and computer systems

The “S” =

 Systems  Science  Studies  Services

Definition of GIS:
“In the strictest sense, a GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing,
manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified
according to their locations. Practitioners also regard the total GIS as including operating
personnel and the data that go into the system.” -------USGS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing
things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates common
database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and
geographic analysis benefits offered by maps.” -------ESRI

“GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained personnel linking
topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other resource data that is
geographically referenced.” -------NASA

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 An Overview of GIS

"The generic issues that surround the use of GIS technology, impede its successful
implementation, or emerge from an understanding of its potential capabilities."
-------(Goodchild, 1992)

“Organized activity by which people measure and represent geographic phenomena, and
then transform these representations into other forms while interacting with social
structures.” -------(Nick Chrisman,1999)

“A geographic information system is a special case of information systems where the

database consists of observations on spatially distributed features, activities or events, which
are definable in space as points, lines, or areas. A geographic information system
manipulates data about these points, lines, and areas to retrieve data for ad hoc queries and
analyses” -----(Kenneth Dueker, Portland State University, 1979)

GIS: Historical Background

GIS’s origins lie in thematic cartography

Many planners used the method of map overlay using manual techniques

Manual map overlay as a method was first described comprehensively by Jacqueline

Tyrwhitt in a 1950 planning textbook

HcHarg used blacked out transparent overlays for site selection in Design with Nature

The 1960s saw many new forms of geographic data and mapping software

Fig: Tyrwhitt: Town & Country Planning

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 An Overview of GIS

Computer cartography developed the first basic GIS concepts during the late 1950s
and 1960s
Linked software modules, rather than stand-alone programs, preceded GISs
Early influential data sets were the World Data Bank and the GBF/DIME files
Early systems were CGIS, MLMIS, GRID and LUNR
The Harvard University ODYSSEY system was influential due to its topological arc-
node (vector) data structure
GIS was significantly altered by (1) the PC and (2) the workstation
In 1965 “Canada GIS”; first nation-wide GIS
In 1967 “New York Land Use and Natural Resources Inventory System”
In 1969 “Minnesota Land Management Information System” Prof. Ian McHarg first
to set the theoretical foundation of GIS. His well known book “Design with
Nature”(published in 1969)
During the 1980s, new GIS software could better exploit more advanced hardware
User Interface developments led to GIS's vastly improved ease of use during the
1990s

During the 1980s, new GIS software could better exploit more advanced hardware

Subsystems of GIS:
Data input subsystem: preprocessing, transformations

Data storage and retrieval subsystem: organizes for retrieval, editing, updating

Data manipulation and analysis subsystem: aggregation, dis-aggregation, modeling

Reporting (output) subsystem: output (tabular, graphic, map…)

Components of GIS:
The next step in understanding GIS is to look at each area and how they work together.
These components are:

 Hardware  Software  Data  People

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 An Overview of GIS

 Hardware

Hardware comprises the equipment needed to support the many activities needed for
geospatial analysis ranging from data collection to data analysis. The central piece of
equipment is the workstation, which runs the GIS software and is the attachment point for
ancillary equipment. Data collection efforts can also require the use of a digitizer for
conversion of hard copy data to digital data and a GPS data logger to collect data in the field.
The use of handheld field technology is also becoming an important data collection tool in
GIS. With the advent of web mapping, web servers have also become an important piece of
equipment.

 Software

Different types of software are important. Central to this is the GIS application package. Such
software is essential for creating, editing and analyzing spatial and attribute data, therefore
these packages contain a myriad of geospatial functions inherent to them. Extensions or add-
ons are software that extends the capabilities of the GIS software package. Component GIS
software is the opposite of application software. Component GIS seeks to build software
applications that meet a specific purpose and thus are limited in their spatial analysis
capabilities. Utilities are stand-alone programs that perform a specific function. For example,
a file format utility that converts from on type of GIS file to another. There is also web
GISsoftware that helps serve data and interactive maps through Internet browsers.

 Data

Data is the core of any GIS. There are two primary types of data that are used in GIS: vector
and raster data. A geodatabase is a database that is in some way referenced to locations on the
earth. Geodatabases are grouped into two different types: vector and raster.

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 An Overview of GIS

Fig: GIS data layers {Source: FCDC}

Vector data is spatial data represented as points, lines and polygons. Raster data is cell-based
data such as aerial imagery and digital elevation models. Coupled with this data is usually
data known as attribute data. Attribute data generally defined as additional information about
each spatial feature housed in tabular format. Documentation of GIS datasets is known as
metadata. Metadata contains such information as the coordinate system, when the data was
created, when it was last updated, who created it and how to contact them and definitions for
any of the code attribute data.

 People

Well-trained GIS professionals knowledgeable in spatial analysis and skilled in using GIS
software are essential to the GIS process. There are three factors to the people component:
education, career path, and networking. The right education is key; taking the right
combination of classes. Selecting the right type of GIS job is important. A person highly
skilled in GIS analysis should not seek a job as a GIS developer if they haven’t taken the
necessary programming classes. Finally, continuous networking with other GIS professionals
is essential for the exchange of ideas as well as a support community.

Top Five Benefits of GIS:

GIS benefits organizations of all sizes and in almost every industry. There is a growing
awareness of the economic and strategic value of GIS. The benefits of GIS generally fall into
five basic categories:

 Cost Savings and  Better Decision Making  Better Recordkeeping

Increased Efficiency
 Improved Communication  Managing Geographically

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1. Cost Savings and Increased Efficiency

GIS is widely used to optimize maintenance schedules and daily fleet movements. Typical
implementations can result in a savings of 10 to 30 percent in operational expenses through
reduction in fuel use and staff time, improved customer service, and more efficient
scheduling.

2. Better Decision Making

GIS is the go-to technology for making better decisions about location. Common examples
include real estate site selection, route/corridor selection, evacuation planning, conservation,
natural resource extraction, etc. Making correct decisions about location is critical to the
success of an organization.

3. Improved Communication

GIS-based maps and visualizations greatly assist in understanding situations and in

storytelling. They are a type of language that improves communication between different
teams, departments, disciplines, professional fields, organizations, and the public.

4. Better Recordkeeping

Many organizations have a primary responsibility of maintaining authoritative records about

the status and change of geography. GIS provides a strong framework for managing these
types of records with full transaction support and reporting tools.

5. Managing Geographically

GIS is becoming essential to understanding what is happening—and what will happen—in

geographic space. Once we understand, we can prescribe action. This new approach to
management—managing geographically—is transforming the way that organizations operate.

Functions of GIS:
GIS gives us a new way to look at the world around us. With GIS you can:

 Map Where Things Are  Map Densities  Find What's Nearby

 Map Quantities  Find What's Inside  Map Change

 Find What's Nearby

GIS can help you find out what's occurring within a set distance of a feature by mapping
what's nearby.

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 Map Change

Map the change in an area to anticipate future conditions, decide on a course of action, or to
evaluate the results of an action or policy. By mapping where and how things move over a
period of time, you can gain insight into how they behave. For example, a meteorologist
might study the paths of hurricanes to predict where and when they might occur in the future.

 Map Where Things Are

Mapping where things are lets you find places that have the features you're looking for and to
see patterns.

 Map Quantities

People map quantities to find places that meet their criteria and take action. A children's
clothing company might want to find ZIP Codes with many young families with relatively
high income. Public health officials might want to map the numbers of physicians per 1,000
people in each census tract to identify which areas are adequately served, and which are not.

 Map Densities

A density map lets you measure the number of features using a uniform areal unit so you can
clearly see the distribution. This is especially useful when mapping areas, such as census
tracts or counties, which vary greatly in size. On maps showing the number of people per
census tract, the larger tracts might have more people than smaller ones. But some smaller
tracts might have more people per square mile—a higher density.

 Find What's Inside

Use GIS to monitor what's happening and to take specific action by mapping what's inside a
specific area. For example, a district attorney would monitor drug-related arrests to find out if
an arrest is within 1,000 feet of a school—if so, stiffer penalties apply.

Uses of GIS:
As well has having significant application in the worlds of business and commerce and
natural resources the largest pool of use for GIS is within the government, transportation and
utilities sectors. For government to provide services, it is important that they have adequate
analysis of data in order to target scarce resources most effectively.

Some key uses for GIS include---

1) Electoral services

Recording and registering voters is a fundamental aspect of the oneman one vote democratic
process. As well as organising the logistics of the democratic process GIS applications can

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be used to identify key areas where voter registrations seem to be underperforming. Analysis
also supports the political press in the stimulation of debate which maintains interest in the
democratic process.

2) Government

government at the national, regional or local level makes significant use of GIS applications
to plan services. Increasingly the ability to update a profile rapidly offers government a
chance to engage with local people in the planning process. Computer models can be
designed and taken into the community as part of consultation processes to give stakeholders
an opportunity to see specifically how their thoughts and ideas may impact a given plan.
Mapping applications can be used to engage with the population and to improve policy
making through greater degrees of transparency.

3) Economic development

economic development is increasingly influenced by government policy. GIS applications

provide a detailed analysis of all the social, economic and topographical features that affect
the economy of a given area. They can then be used accurately to model how a local
economy would be affected by policy implementations of differing types.

4) Urban and regional planning

urban and regional planning can benefit from GIS applications because they allow for greater
transparency and stakeholder involvement in the planning process. Spatial data are at the
core of all planning processes and local, regional and national indicators can all be plotted to
see the extent of their influence on local planning requirements.

5) Public works

public works departments plan transportation link and utility provisions across urban and
rural areas. Current provision can be modelled using GIS applications that can then be used
to predict future requirements given population churn and growth.

6) Schools

GIS tools are important in the education sector for both planning purposes and as tools for
delivering education itself. Detailed analysis of population profiles can be recorded in
geospatial GIS applications that can then model what education provision is currently, against
what it will be in the future at given times. In this way, educators will be able to not only
locate new provision appropriately but they will also be able to judge more effectively what
services are needed in those facilities. GIS applications are also important tools for schools,
colleges and universities to use to help students understand a wide variety of concepts
relating to urban and non-urban life.

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7) Public Health

public health services rely heavily on the outputs provided by GIS applications. Socio-
economic data can be modelled by a GIS app to profile health needs across local and regional
communities. This is an effective tool in determining how you locate health centres and
exactly what services those health centres provide.

8) Surveying

the surveying function of any local government team is critical to the maintenance of roads,
utilities and many public services. A GIS application will allow the use of standard
geospatial layers to ensure that local planning and execution of maintenance activities is
effective. Current software trends allow reporting from GIS applications to multiple data
formats for use in the field.

9) Emergency and Disaster Management

these services are, by their very nature, more unique to a given location. A GIS application
will allow the addition of layers of physical data, perhaps about forestation and wind
prevalence in order to predict the risk of forest fires or wind and tide to predict the occurrence
of flooding, and with the data layered into an application can model what if scenarios to
propose disaster avoidance mechanisms and to add real time data as a way of managing an
unfolding disaster.

10) Law Enforcement

Modern societies require an effective law enforcement function and GIS technolg can make
sure that decisions about the deployment of resources at a street level are made most
effectively. Techniques like hot spot analysis help law enforcement officials make informed
decisions about where to allocate police assets in order to reduce crimes. More: Crime
mapping and analysis.

11) Gas

the gas industry is dependent upon GIS applications to manage the millions of miles of
pipeline used to deliver gas to the consumer. It is effectively used to manage risk profiles for
pipelines and by doing so enables more rapid response to pipeline problems when they do
occur.

12) Electricity

the electricity supply industry has two sections, generation and distribution and GIS
applications effectively support both sides of the industry. The generation side uses GIS apps
to manage and predict short term supply requirements that enable demand to be constantly
matched to supply. The logistical side of ensuring infrastructure is managed effectively

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 An Overview of GIS

allows for planned maintenance to be scheduled and for potential trouble spots to be
identified.

13) Roads and highways

the planning of new roads and the maintenance schedules of existing roads are both areas
where GIS applications are used. Designing new road networks requires a topographical
analysis of the landscape as well as predicted movement patterns across local and regional
levels. GIS can also be used carry out considered impact analysis as part of the decision
making process for developing new roads.

Users of GIS:
Thousands of organizations use GIS to solve problems and improve processes. Learn best
practices and get ideas on how you can implement GIS in your organization or community.

See how businesses, governments, educators and scientists, environmental and conservation
organizations, natural resource groups, and utilities benefit from using GIS.

Businesses:
All types of businesses can benefit from using GIS technology to support marketing,
optimizing business openings and closings, segmenting consumer data, and managing fleets.

a) Banking c) Logistics e) Real Estate

b) Insurance d) Media f) Retail

Governments:
Governments of all sizes use GIS to analyze complex situations and create solutions across
disciplines. GIS helps them increase efficiency, reduce costs, improve coordination, and
deliver transparency and accountability.

a) National Government d) Military Defense g) Health

b) Local Government e) Fire/Emergency h) Transportation

c) Homeland Security f) Law Enforcement

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Educators and scientists:

GIS technology provides educators with tools to develop a greater understanding of our
world. GIS helps prepare students to meet the demands of the twenty-first-century workforce,
whether they are involved in science, government, or business.

a) Research b) Libraries and c) K-12 Education d) Higher Education

Museums

Environmental and conservation organizations:

GIS is a tool that manages, analyzes, and models data from our environment so that we can
make decisions based on that information to better conserve its resources and protect its
biodiversity.

a) Water b) Oceans c) Land d) Wildlife e) Vegetation

Natural resource groups:

Natural resource managers rely on the analytical power of GIS for help in making critical
decisions about managing the earth's resources.

a) Agriculture b) Forestry c) Mining d) Petroleum e) Pipeline

Utilities:
GIS provides utility and communication companies with a common platform
to access business data, manage assets, update network information, integrate work orders,
find customer information, and prepare reports.

a) Power Management c) Gas e) Water and Wastewater

b) Electricity d) Telecommunications

Importance of GIS:
 "GIS technology is to geographical analysis what the microscope, the telescope, and
computers have been to other sciences.... (It) could therefore be the catalyst needed to
dissolve the regional-systematic and human- physical dichotomies that have long plagued
geography" and other disciplines which use spatial information.1

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 GIS integrates spatial and other kinds of information within a single system - it offers
a consistent framework for analyzing geographical data.

 by putting maps and other kinds of spatial information into digital form, GIS allows
us to manipulate and display geographical knowledge in new and exciting ways

 GIS makes connections between activities based on geographic proximity

 looking at data geographically can often suggest new insights, explanations
 these connections are often unrecognized without GIS, but can be vital to
understanding and managing activities and resources
 e.g. we can link toxic waste records with school locations through geographic
proximity

 GIS allows access to administrative records - property ownership, tax files, utility
cables and pipes - via their geographical positions.

REFERENCES

Caitlin Dempsey (2012) “What is GIS?” (http://www.gislounge.com/what-is-gis/ last visited

in 18/09/2013 at 9 pm)

Doaks, J. Another Introduction to GIS, New York: Bogus Press (1997).

Doe, J.H. An Introduction to GIS, New York: Bogus Press (1997).

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http://www.esri.com/what-is-gis/overview#overview_panel (last visited in 18/09/13 at 9 pm)

http://www.esri.com/what-is-gis/careers-in-gis#overview_panel (last visited in 18/09/13 at 9

pm)

http://www.esri.com/what-is-gis/who-uses-gis (last visited in 18/09/2013 at 9 pm)

http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/gis/overview.html (last visited in 18/09/2013 at 9 pm)

http://www.aqua.wisc.edu/cpr/Default.aspx?tabid=78 (last visited in 18/09/2013 at 9 pm)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system (last visited in 18/09/2013 at 9

pm)

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