Ice PPT 2021 30.09.2021

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE THEORY
Introduction
Heat Engine A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical

energy of the fuel into thermal energy and uses this energy to produce
mechanical work. Heat engines are classified into two broad ways
• External combustion engine. In an external combustion engine

the products of the combustion of air and fuel transfer heat to a
secondary fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle. Example: -In
steam engines heat of combustion is used to produce steam and the
steam is used in piston engine or turbine to produce work
• Internal combustion engine. In an internal combustion engine

the combustion takes place directly inside the engine and conversion of
heat energy to mechanical energy take place at the same time.
Example: -Diesel engine, gas turbine
Advantages of ICE over ECE
(a) Mechanical simplicity

(b) Less Auxiliaries
(c) Low initial cost
(d) Less requirement of cooling water
(e) Occupies less space
(f) High fuel economy
Basic parts of an IC Engine.
Cylinder Block. The cylinder block is the main supporting

structure for the various components. The cylinders of a
multi cylinder engine are cast as a single unit called cylinder
block. The cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block.
The cylinder head and cylinder block are provided with the
water jacket in the case of water cooled engines. The bottom
portion of the cylinder block is called as crankcase. And the
cylindrical envelop in which the piston moves is called
cylinder
Inlet and Exhaust valve. Valves are provided either on the

cylinder head or on the sides of the cylinder in 2 stroke engines
for regulating the charge coming into cylinder (inlet ports) and for
the discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve) from
the cylinder.
Push Rod. Push Rod transmits the motion of the camshaft to

the rocker arm, which in turn operates the valves.
Rocker Arm. The rocker arm assembly is mounted on the cylinder

head. One end of it is in contact with the valve and the other with
the push rod. When the push rod exerts pressure on the rocker
arm, the other end pushes the valve open against spring tension.
As the push rod pressure is released the rocker arm withdraws
and the valve is closed by the spring tension.
Cylinder Liners. Cylinder liners are cylindrical metallic sleeves
which are inserted into the cylinder blocks, to form the actual
working surface of the piston. These liners can be replaced if
they are worn out. There are two types of liners namely Dry liners
and Wet Liners.
(i) Wet Liners. In this type, the liner is completely

surrounded by water jacket. These liners are thick when compared
to dry liners and therefore can withstand higher
compression/combustion pressures. Only the top and the bottom
of the liners are in contact with the cylinder block. The top flange
has metal to metal contact with the cylinder block forming a water
tight joint. The bottom end of the liner is free to expand axially
and water sealing is made by ‘O’ rings fitted in grooves machined
on the outside of the liner.
(ii) Dry Liners. In this type, the liner is not in contact with
cooling water/coolant. These liners are thin as compared to wet liners.
The cooling water is circulated through the cavities (jackets) but does
not come in direct contact with the liner.
Piston. It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder

forming the moving boundary of the combustion system. It fits
properly into the cylinder providing a gas tight space with the
piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting
the gas forces to the output shaft. Piston has two parts piston
skirt and piston crown.
Characteristics of a piston
(aa) Must be able to reciprocate rapidly with minimum friction.
(ab) Must form a gas tight seal but have a running clearance
when hot and expanded.
(ac) Must be as light as possible to minimize inertia effects.
(ad) Must be strong enough to transmit the combustion loads
without distortion
Methods of cooling the piston
(aa) Air flow from inlet to exhaust valves over the top of the
piston crown.
(ab) Heat conduction through the piston rings to the
cylinder walls and hence to the cooling medium.
(ac) Oil sprayed through jets on top of connecting rod to
the
underside of the piston crown.
Piston rings
Compression Rings. Normally 2 to 4 compression rings

are fitted\on the top of the piston. Their function is to
provide gas tight sealing and aid dispersion of heat. The
topmost compression ring is directly exposed to the burning
fuel – air mixture, therefore it is also called as the Fire ring.
Oil scraper Rings. Usually 2 to 3 scraper rings are fitted on a

piston skirt portion. Their function is to scrape off excess oil
from the walls. They may be fitted above and below the
gudgeon pin.
Connecting rod.
It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and it transmit

the force from the piston to the crankshaft. Two ends of the
connecting rod are called as small end and big end. The
small end is connected to the piston by the gudgeon pin and
the big end is connected to the crankshaft by crankpin. It has
internal drilled passages to supply lubrication oil to the
crankshaft.
Gudgeon Pins.
It connects the small end of the connecting rod and the

piston. It is cylindrical in shape and is usually hollow to give
strength and reduce weight, Gudgeon pin is also known as
Piston pin. There are two types of Gudgeon pins, namely:-
(i) Fully Floating. In this type the gudgeon pin is

free to rotate 360 degrees in both the connecting rod and
piston.
(ii) Semi Floating. In this type the Gudgeon pin is a tight
fit either to the connecting rod or to the piston.
Crankshaft.
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful

rotary motion of the output shaft. All the pistons are
connected to it by connecting rods. The crankshaft is
generally supported by journal bearings. Balancing weights
are fitted on the crank webs to counteract the forces
developed by pistons. The crankshaft is provided with
internal drilled passages to supply lub oil to all bearings.
Camshaft. The camshaft and its associated parts control

the opening and closing of the two valves. The associated
parts are pushrods, rocker arm, valve springs and tappets.
The shaft also provides drive to the ignition system. The
shaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gear
Fly Wheel.
Unlike turbines, the torque imparted to the crankshaft in an

IC engine during one revolution is not uniform. A piston of
any one cylinder delivers power only during power stroke
and consumes power for all other three strokes (in a 4 stroke
engine). Thus the crankshaft’s angular velocity (rpm)
fluctuates. In order to achieve a uniform torque, a heavy
mass called Flywheel is attached to the output shaft. The
flywheel acts as a reservoir for torque and makes the shaft
revolutions uniform
Inlet manifold. The pipes which connect the intake

system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which air or
air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet
manifold
Exhaust manifold. The pipe which connects the exhaust system

to the exhaust valve of the engine and through which the products
of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust
manifold
Spark plug. It is an electric device which generates spark, which

ignites the petrol/air mixture inside the cylinder in SI engines.
Fuel lift/feed/booster pump. This pump takes suction from

ready use tank and feeds to the fuel injection pumps. The role of
the pump is to provide fuel to Fuel Injection Pumps at a required
positive pressure at all times.
Fuel Injection Pump. These pumps provide fuel to injectors

at very high pressure (250 bar in Radial Engines) as per the firing
order. FIPs also control quantity of fuel to be sent to injectors
(metering) as per the load/speed requirements.
Injector. Used for injecting fuel in to the combustion chamber

in atomized form and at a pressure higher then compression
pressure inside the cylinder.
Terminology Used in ICE
Cylinder Bore (d). The inner diameter of the working cylinder is

called Cylinder bore
Piston Area (A). The area of a circle of diameter equal to the

cylinder bore is called Piston area.
Stroke (L). The distance covered by the piston while moving

from one dead center to the other is called a stroke.
Dead Centre. It is the position of the piston at which the

direction of its motion reversed. As the piston reciprocates inside
the cylinder there are two points where its direction of motion is
reversed. These points are called dead centre.
(i) Top Dead Centre (TDC). This is the highest point inside the
cylinder reached by the piston. At TDC the piston is farthest from
the crankshaft.
(ii) Bottom Dead Centre (BDC). This is the bottom most point
reached by the piston. At BDC the piston is nearest from the
crankshaft.
Swept volume (Vs). The volume swept by the piston during one
stroke is called the Swept Volume. It is expressed in cubic
centimeters or liters.
Clearance Volume (Vc). The volume of the combustion

chamber above the piston when the piston is at TDC is called
Clearance volume.
Total Cylinder Volume (Vt). The sum total of the swept volume and
Clearance volume is called the total cylinder volume (i.e. swept
vol. + clearance vol.)
Compression Ratio (r). It is the ratio of the total cylinder

volume to clearance volume.
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP). It is the average effective pressure

which when assumed to act on the piston during the power
stroke, will produce the same power output as that of a cycle of
operations in an engine cylinder.
(j) Indicated Power (IP). The total power developed
by an engine which is calculated by measuring the pressure
developed in its cylinders is called the Indicated Power.
n * pmi * L *A*N* k x 10
I.P = _____________________ KW
6
Where n= number of cylinders
Pmi = mean effective pressure (bar)
L = length of stroke (metres)
A = area of piston (square metres)
N = speed in r.p.m
k = No of revolutions per power stroke i.e, 2 for four stroke
engine and 1 for two stroke engine
Brake Power (BP). The Brake Power of an engine is the power

available at the output shaft. This is the useful output of an
engine. This is always less than the IP on account of the frictional
losses (i.e. IP- Friction losses = BP).
2πNT
B.P = ________ kW
60
Where N = speed in r.p.m and T = torque in Newton Meters.

Volumetric efficiency. It is the ratio of the volume of air

inducted into a cylinder per suction stroke to its swept volume.
Vol. Efficiency = Volume of air inducted in one suction stroke/

Swept volume
Mechanical efficiency. Mechanical efficiency of an engine is

the ratio of the power delivered to the crankshaft (BP) to that of
the power developed in the cylinder (IP). The losses account for
the power required to overcome friction and inertia of the engine.
Mechanical efficiency = Brake Power x 100 /

Indicated Power
Firing order. Firing order refers to the sequence in which

charge in various cylinders of a multi cylinder engine is burnt. The
power impulses are produced and act on the crankshaft in this
order. The firing order is chosen so as to prevent the crankshaft
from being subjected to non-uniform stress along its length so as
to make the engine run smoothly and also to reduce vibration.
Peak Pressure. The maximum combustion or explosion pressure

attained in the cylinder is termed as the peak pressure. This
pressure is much greater than the compression pressure and
usually occurs immediately after the charge is ignited and just
after the TDC on the expansion stroke (power stroke).
Specific Fuel Consumption (s.f.c.) Specific Fuel Consumption is

the mass of fuel consumed per kilowatt developed per hour, and
is a criterion of economic power production. It is inversely
proportional to thermal efficiency of an engine
Mass flow of fuel.

S.F.C = ________________ kg/kWh
B.P
Thermal Efficiency. It is the ratio of indicated work done to energy

supplied by fuel. If mf = mass of fuel used in kg/sec. and C=
calorific value of fuel, then
I.P
Indicated thermal efficiency (based on I.P) = -----
mf x C
B.P
And Brake thermal efficiency (based on B.P) = --------
mf x C
IC Engine Classification
he IC engines can be classified on the basis of cycle operation in

cylinder, type of fuel, method of supply of fuel, type of ignition,
etc.
(i) Basic engine design. Reciprocating engines, rotary

Engines.
(ii) Working Cycle. Engines working on Otto cycle (SI

engines), and engines working on diesel cycle (CI engines).
(iii) Number of strokes. Four stroke engines and two stroke

engines.
IC Engine Classification
(iv) Fuel. Petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, high speed diesel, FFO
(furnace fuel oil).
(v) Fuel supply and mixture types.

(a) Carbureted type. Fuel supplied through carburetor.
(b) Injection type. Fuel injected into the ports or inlet
manifold
(vi) Method of ignition. Battery ignition or magneto ignition in

SI engines
(vii) Method of cooling. Water cooled or air cooled
(viii) Cylinder arrangement. Inline, ‘V’ shaped, opposed

piston, opposed cylinder, radial, deltaic
Four Stroke Working Cycle
(a) The following requirements are common to all internal

combustion engines:-
(i) Fill the cylinder with air or fuel - air charge.

(ii) Compressing this charge to increase pressure and
temperature.
(iii) Burn the fuel to create rapid rise in pressure and
temperature.
(iv) Expel the burnt gases from the cylinder in order to draw in
fresh charge and to continue the working cycle
These requirements are met in the following ways by the provision

of inlet and exhaust valves arranged to open and close in a
particular sequence and relative to the position of the piston with
respect to the cylinder. In a four stroke engine all the above
requirements are met by four distinct strokes.
Suction stroke. In this stroke the piston moves from TDC to

BDC. The inlet valve remains open and the exhaust valve remains
closed. As the downward movement of the piston creates a
vacuum, atmospheric air is sucked in through the inlet valve. This
continues till the inlet valve is closed after the piston reaches
BDC.
Compression stroke. At the end of the induction stroke both

the valves are closed and the cylinder becomes gas tight.
Therefore, as the piston moves from BDC towards TDC, the
pressure of the air trapped inside rises due to reduction in
volume. The heat created by the compression will be sufficient to
ignite the fuel, when injected in CI Engines.
Power Stroke. Towards the end of compression stroke in

CI engines fuel is injected into the cylinder in atomized form. This
fuel particles mix with the air inside the cylinder, absorb heat from
it and ignite. The burning causes rapid increase in temperature
and pressure inside the cylinder. This forces the piston towards
the BDC. As useful power is developed during this stroke it is
called power stroke.
Exhaust Stroke. In order to continue the cycle, fresh air needs

to be inducted into the cylinder. Prior to that, the burnt gases in
the cylinder are to be expelled out of the cylinder. This is done
during the exhaust stroke when the piston moves from BDC
towards TDC. The exhaust valve is kept open and the gases pass
through it to the atmosphere. At the end of this stroke the
exhaust valve closes.
These four strokes occur continuously to develop continuous

power. These strokes occupy two complete revolutions of the
crankshaft. Therefore one power stroke is achieved for every two
revolution of the crankshaft.
Two Stroke Working Cycle
In this cycle intake or induction, compression, power and exhaust

strokes are arranged to take place in two strokes of the piston, i.e.
one revolution of the crankshaft. Ports cut into the cylinder walls
are used instead of valves. These ports are opened and closed by
the position of the piston. Usually the no of exhaust ports are
higher than the inlet ports. Both the ports are cut towards the
bottom of the cylinder.
When the inlet port is uncovered a mixture of fuel and air is drawn
inside the cylinder. During its upward travel the piston covers
both inlet port and exhaust port making the cylinder gas tight.
Therefore the charge in the cylinder gets compressed.
Two Stroke Working Cycle
This charge is then ignited by a spark (in case of SI engines). This

causes a rise in temperature and pressure inside the cylinder
forcing the piston towards BDC. When the piston uncovers the
exhaust port exhaust gases are expelled from the cylinder under
their own pressure. When the inlet port is uncovered fresh charge
is inducted making the cylinder ready to continue the cycle.
Spark Ignition Engine. In this engine the fuel and air is mixed
outside the cylinder and then the mixture (charge) is drawn inside.
The mixture is then compressed and ignited by an electric spark.
Compression Ignition Engine. In this engine atmospheric air is

drawn into the cylinder and compressed. Fuel is then injected
into the cylinder. This fuel is ignited by the high temperature of
the compressed air inside the cylinder.
Comparison of four-stroke and two-stroke cycle engines.
Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine
1. the cycle is completed in four strokes The cycle is completed in two strokes of
of piston or two revolution of crankshaft piston or one revolution of crankshaft
2. Turning movement is not so uniform One power stroke is obtained in each stroke
and hence heavier flywheel is needed hence lighter flywheel is needed
3. Power produced for same size of Power produced for same size of engine is
engine is small more
4. Lesser cooling/lubrication Greater cooling/lubrication requirement and
requirement and lesser rate of wear tear greater rate of wear and tear
5. It has valves for inlet and exhaust It has only ports
mechanism.
6. Initial cost is high Initial cost is low
7. Volumetric efficiency is more due to Volumetric efficiency is less due to lesser
greater time of induction time of induction
8. Thermal efficiency is higher, part load Thermal efficiency low, part load efficiency
efficiency is better than two stroke lesser than four stroke engine
engine
9. Used where efficiency is important Used where low cost light weight and
compactness is important
Comparison of SI and CI Engine
SI Engine CI Engine
1. Load/speed is controlled by means Load/speed is controlled by regulating the
of a throttle which controls the quality quantity of fuel injected
of the air fuel mixture
2. Operates on Otto cycle (constant Operates on Diesel cycle(constant

volume) pressure)
3. Less efficient. More efficient.
4.Compression ratio limited by knock Higher compression ratio resulting in
consideration higher efficiency
5.Low operating pressure due to low High operating pressure due to high
compression ratio compression ratio
6. Usually considered as high speed Usually considered as low speed engines
engines
7. Mixture of air fuel flows from the Fuel is directly injected into the cylinder
carburetor through inlet manifold ensuring uniform quality
hence quality may not be uniform
Comparison of SI and CI Engine
SI Engine CI Engine
8. lower cranking effect Higher cranking effect due to high
compression ratio
9. Higher exhaust temperature Lower exhaust temperature due to better
efficiency
10. Lower weight/horse power (0.4 to Higher weight/horse power (2.5 to 10
3.5 kg/HP) kg/HP)
11. Low acceleration due to complex High acceleration
air fuel ratio
12. Lower fuel economy Higher fuel economy
13. Costly fuel Cheaper fuel

14. Low initial cost Higher initial cost
15. Lower operating life Higher operating life
16. Higher fire hazard due to high Lower fire hazard
volatility of fuel
ICE (THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES)
Ideal of air Standard Cycles
(a) Air standard cycles are defined as cycles using a perfect

gas as the working medium. Air is almost invariably used as the
working fluid in IC Engine and is assumed to be a perfect gas.
(b) The following simplifying assumptions are made in the

analysis of Air Standard cycle.
(i) The working medium is a perfect gas; i e it follows the law
PV= nRT.
(ii) The working fluid is a fixed mass of air either contained in a
close system of flowing at a constant rate around a closes
circuit.
(iii) The physical constants of the working medium are the same
as those of air at standard atmospheric condition.(ie molecular
Wt=29,Cp=0.24 KJ/KgK,Cv=0.17 KJ/KgK and Cp/Cv=γ =1.4)
(iv) The working medium has constants specific heats.

(v) The working medium does not under go any chemical
change
throughout the cycle.
(vi) Heat is supplied and rejected in a reversible manner and if
necessary can be supplied on rejected instantaneously.
(vii) The compression and expansion processes are reversible
adiabatic (i e. there is no loss or gain of entropy).
(viii) The kinetic and potential energies of working fluid are
neglected.
(ix) The operation of the engine is frictionless.
(c) The work output, peak pressure, peak temp and thermal
efficiency based on the ideal or air standard cycle analysis are
higher than actual engines.
(d) The main use of the ideal cycle is that it is amenable to

simple mathematical analysis based on the perfect gas laws and
can give rough answer to complex engine problems. The analysis
can also indicate the relative effect of the principal variables such
as compression ratio, inlet pressure, inlet temp etc.
The three cycles of a great practical importance in the analysis of

piston engine performance are:-
(a) The Otto Cycle ( Constant Volume)
(b) The Diesel Cycle(Constant Pressure)
(c) The dual Cycle
Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is the theoretical cycle for the spark ignition engine.
After suction stroke 0-1,the piston is at bottom dead center. This is
represented by point 1 on PV and TS diagrams .The air is now
compressed by reversible adiabatic process during the inward
motion of the piston until the piston reaches TDC (process 1-2). In
this process entropy remains constant.
Otto Cycle
At this time heat is added at constant volume so that the state of

air changes from point 2 to 3. In an actual engine it is equivalent to
burning a fuel instantaneously (by an electric spark plug) so that
heat liberation is at constant volume.
The next process is reversible adiabatic expansion 3-4, piston

moving down from TDC to BDC. At the end of this expansion
process the heat is rejected by gasses at constant volume, in
process 4-1 and the cycle is completed.
The efficiency of the Otto cycle is dependent on the compression

ratio and ratio of specific heats. The efficiency increases with
increases in compression ratio and specific heats.
Otto Cycle (Thermal Efficiency)
heat added during processing = cv(T3 - T2 )

heat rejected during processing = cv(T4 - T1 )
 work done = heat added − heat rejected
= cv(T3 − T2 ) − cv(T4 − T1 )
work done
thermal efficiency η =
heat supplied
c v (T3 − T2 ) − c v (T4 − T1 )
=
c v (T3 − T2 )
(T4 − T1 )
=1−
(T3 − T2 )
Otto Cycle (Thermal Efficiency)
v1 v4
now compression ratio = expansion ratio =r
v2 v3
Swept volume + clerance volume
also, r=
clerance volume
for ideal gas pv = RT and pv  = constant
these equation yield
 −1  −1
T2  v1   v4  T
=   =   = 3 = r  −1
T1  v 2   v3  T4
 T3 = T4 r  -1 and T2 = T1 r  -1
hence,substituing
T4 - T1 1
 = 1- = 1 −  −1
(T4 - T1 ) r  −1
r
Diesel Cycle
The diesel cycle is the theoretical cycle, for slow speed

compression ignition or diesel engines. The diesel cycle is
sometimes referred to as constant pressure cycle.
Diesel Cycle
The process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression of

air through the compression ratio r=v1/v2. Heat is then added at
constant pressure, represented by process 2-3. During heat
addition at Cp air expands from volume v2 to v3 doing some work
.In actual engine heat addition takes places in the form of injection
of fuel which self ignites due to the high temperature caused by
high compression ratio, and burns at constant pressure. At point 3
called the cut off point the heat supply (i.e. fuel supply) is cut off.
From 3-4 reversible adiabatic expansions takes places. After

expansion the heat is rejected in the constant volume process 4-1,
completing the cycle.
Diesel Cycle (Thermal Efficiency)
Diesel Cycle (Thermal Efficiency)
COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINE
Normal Combustion
In the normal combustion, a normal flame front travels across the

combustion chamber from ‘A’ to ‘D’. The speed of this flame front
is about 15 to 20 m/s. As the flame front advances it compresses
the charge ‘BB ‘D’ raising its temperature. The temperature is also
raised by radiation of heat from the advancing flame front and due
to reaction taking place in the unburned mixture itself. If this
unburned charge does not reach it critical temperature early, the
flame ‘BB’ will move across the charge in the normal manner till
the farthest point in the combustion chamber ‘D’. The pressure
crank angle diagram will show a smooth curve.
Abnormal Combustion - ‘Detonation’ or Knocking
In the abnormal combustion called ‘detonation’ or knocking the

end charge auto ignites before the flame front reaches it. This
happens when the last unburned portion of the charge reaches
above a certain ‘critical temperature’ and remains at this
temperature for a certain length of time. This results in extremely
rapid release of energy causing the pressure to rise almost 4
times. This condition of extreme pressure variation causes a
‘pressure wave’ which strikes the cylinder walls producing a
characteristic high pitched metallic ringing sound, as if struck by a
light hammer. Therefore this phenomenon is called ‘detonation’ or
‘Knocking’.
Effects of Detonation or knocking.
(a) Noise and roughness
(b) Increase in heat transfer
(c) Mechanical damage
(d) Decrease in output and efficiency
(e) Carbon deposits
(f) Pre-ignition
Methods of detection
(a) Detonation may be heard, if the engine noise is not too

high.
(b) The temperature of the spark plug gasket could be
measured. High temperature indicates detonation.
(c) The vibrations caused by detonations can be measured by a
vibration meter.
(d) Presence of intermittent puffs of grey in the exhaust
indicates detonation.
Methods of controlling detonation
(a) Increasing engine RPM

(b) Retarding spark
(c) Reducing inlet air pressure, throttling
(d) Making fuel-air ratio too lean or too rich.
(e) Water injection.
Design features to reduce detonation
(a) Use of lower compression ratio

(b) Increasing turbulence.
(c) Relocating spark plugs or use of two or more spark plugs.
(d) Suitable combustion chamber design to reduce flame length
and reduce end charge temperature
(e) Use of octane obtained by adding additives in petrol.
OCTANE NUMBER IN SI ENGINES
It is a measure of knock characteristics of a fuel. It is the

percentage of iso-octane(C8H18) in the reference fuel consisting of
a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane(C7H16), when it
produces the same knocking effect as the fuel under test, is called
octane number of the fuel. Iso-octane has excellent antiknock
qualities and is given a rating of 100. Normal heptane would knock
excessively and hence it is assigned a value of zero.
(a) n-Heptane (C7H16) has octane number 0

(b) iso-octane (C8H18) has octane number 100
(c) Gasoline has octane number 93 - 97
COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE
PROCESS OF COMBUSTION
The process of combustion in the CI engine is fundamentally

different from that in the SI engine. In the SI engine a
homogeneous carbureted mixture of petrol vapour and air in
chemically correct ratio is compressed in the compression stroke
though a small compression ratio of 6:1 to 11:1. Then the mixture
is ignited before the end of the compression stroke by means of an
electric spark. After ignition a ‘Single definite flame front’
progresses through the air-fuel mixture, the entire mixture being in
the combustible range.
In the CI engine air alone is compressed through a large

compression ratio during the compression stroke raising its
temperature and pressure.
PROCESS OF COMBUSTION
In this highly compressed and heated air in the combustion

chamber (well above the ignition point of the fuel) one or more jets
of fuel in injected in the liquid state, compressed to a high
pressure of 110 to 250 kg/cm2 by means of a fuel pump. Each
minute droplets as it enters the hot air at temperature of 450-550
deg. Centigrade and pressure of 30-40 kg/cm2 is quickly
surrounded by an envelope of its own vapour and this in turn is
inflamed at the surface of the envelope.
Once the ignition has taken place and a flame established, the heat
required for further evaporation will be supplied from that released
by the combustion and the vapour would be burning as fast as it
can find fresh oxygen.
Stages of Combustion
(a) Ignition delay period

(b) Rapid or uncontrolled combustion
(c) Controlled combustion
(d) After burning
Ignition Delay Period. Ignition delay period is the first stage

of combustion during which some fuel has been admitted but has
not yet been ignited. The ignition delay is counted from the start of
injection to the point. The delay period is a sort of preparatory
phase. The ignition delay period can be roughly divided into two
parts:-
(a) Physical delay. The period of physical delay is the time

between the beginning of injection and the attainment of chemical
reaction conditions. In the physical delay period the fuel is
atomized, vaporized, mixed with air, and raised in temperature.
(b) Chemical delay. The second parts of the delay period, in

which the pre-flame reactions start slowly and then accelerate until
local inflammation or ignition take place.
Rapid Combustion. In this stage the pressure rise is rapid

because during the delay period, the fuel droplets have had time to
spread themselves over a wide area and they have fresh air all
around them. The period of rapid combustion is counted from the
end of delay period to the point of maximum pressure on the
indicator diagram. About one third of the heat is evolved during
this period.
(b) Chemical delay. The second parts of the delay period, in

which the pre-flame reactions start slowly and then accelerate until
local inflammation or ignition take place.
Rapid Combustion. In this stage the pressure rise is rapid

because during the delay period, the fuel droplets have had time to
spread themselves over a wide area and they have fresh air all
around them. The period of rapid combustion is counted from the
end of delay period to the point of maximum pressure on the
indicator diagram. About one third of the heat is evolved during
this period.
Controlled combustion. At the end of second stage the

temperature and pressure are so high that fuel droplets injected
during the last stage burn almost as they enter and any further
pressure rise can be controlled by purely mechanical means i.e. by
the injection rate. The period of controlled combustion is assumed
to end at maximum cycle temperature.
After burning. Theoretically it is expected that combustion

process should end after the third stage. However because of
poor distribution of the fuel particles, combustion continues
during part of the remainder of the expansion stroke. The duration
is corresponding to 70 to 80 degrees of crank travel from TDC
Diesel knock
Diesel engine knocks when there is accumulation of fuel in the

combustion chamber which happens when the injected fuel fails to
burn because of a huge delay period and at a specific time all
mixture burns simultaneously which causes increase in peak
pressure.
When the total delay period is high the fuel injected which was
injected first will not have undergone combustion by this time the
fuel starts to accumulate and it will undergo combustion after a
long delay (mostly after the piston had left TDC) and there will be a
huge shock wave as all the fuel droplet will undergo combustion at
the same time. Some portion of the fuel settles down on the piston
head and it tends to ignite when the piston is almost half away
down towards BDC which causes pressure fluctuation inside the
cylinder.
Cetane Number
Cetane number (CN) is a parameter associated with the

ignition delay time of diesel fuels. Fuels with a high CN have
a very short ignition delay time; that is, ignition occurs in a
very brief interval of time after injection begins. The ignition
delay time of a diesel engine is a fundamental parameter to
effectively control the combustion process.
The percentage of cetane in a mixture of cetane (C6H34) and

alphamethyl naphthalene (C11H16) that produces the same
knocking effects the fuel under test is called cetane number.
Diesel fuels are rated according to cetane number which is
the indication of ignition quality of the fuel. The higher the
cetane number the better the ignition quality of the diesel
fuel. The commercial diesel fuels have got cetane rating
varying from 30 to 60.
Effect of Cetane Number on Diesel Engines
(i) Quicker starting

(ii) Quieter operation with less diesel chatter
(iii) Improved fuel efficiency
(iv) Reduction of harmful emissions
Methods Of Controlling Diesel Knock
(a) Diesel Knock can be reduced by reducing the degree of

turbulence as it will reduce heat loss.
(b) Diesel Knock can also be reduced by increasing
Cetane No. by adding chemical dopes, called ignition
accelerators ( Example: Ethyl-nitrate, Amyl-nitrate)
(c) By arranging the injector in such a way that a small
amount of fuel is injected prior final injection.
Materials used in manufacturing of engine parts
Name of the part Material used Method of manufacturing
1. Cylinder Cast iron, alloy steel Casting

2. Cylinder head Cast iron, aluminium alloy Casting, forging
3. Piston Cast iron, aluminium alloy Casting, forging
4. Piston rings Silicon cast iron Casting
5. Gudgeon pins Steel Forging
6. Valves Specially alloy steels Forging
7. Connecting rods Steel Forging
8. Crankshaft Alloy steel Forging
9. Crankcase Aluminium alloy, steel Casting
10. Cylinder liner Cast iron, nickel alloy steel Casting
11. Bearing White metal, leaded bronze Casting
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Effect of Cetane Number on Diesel Engines
Introduction. To ensure continuous operation of an

engine certain fluid systems are necessary. These systems
form an integral part of the engine and their proper
functioning is unavoidable for the operation of the engine.
Major systems of an engine
(a) Lubricating oil system
(b) Cooling system
(c) Fuel oil system
(d) Starting air system

ENGINE SYSTEMS
Lubricating oil system
When one surface slides up on another, friction is caused.

This friction generates heat and causes wear down of the
surfaces. An IC engine has many metallic surfaces in close
contact and moving against each other. Therefore the friction
and resultant heat and wear down will damage the engine
unless lubricated properly. Thus lubricating system is one of
the most important part of an engine.
Functions of lubricating system
(i) To reduce friction by introducing a lub. oil film between

rubbing surfaces.
(ii) To carry away heat generated by friction.

ENGINE SYSTEMS
(iii) To carry away minute metal particles produced by

friction.
(iv) To seal by forming a thin film
(v) To dampen shocks by providing a cushioning between

contacting surfaces of components
(vi) To prevent corrosion by providing a protective barrier.

ENGINE SYSTEMS
Basic components of a lub.oil system
Lub. oil pump. Usually a gear type pump driven by the

engine itself is used as lub. oil pump. As the pump is Positive
displacement type a pressure relief valve is mandatory. The
pump provides the force to keep the oil circulating in the
engine.
Lub.oil filter. Lub oil filter is incorporated in the system

in order to remove foreign particles from the oil to ensure
cleanliness. The particles are removed when the oil is made
to pass through a filtering medium. The particle thus
removed accumulates in the filter unit, which is cleaned
periodically.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Fig. Lub Oil Filter
Pressure Regulator : Pressure regulator is a spring loaded

pressure relief valve whose function is to dump oil back to
the sump when lub oil pressure exceeds the set pressure,
thereby preventing excessive lub oil pressure in the system.
The pressure regulator is located after the lub oil pump.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Lub oil cooler. The function of lub oil cooler is to cool the
circulating lub. oil to enable it to continue removal of heat
from various rubbing surfaces of the engine. A cooling
medium, either seawater or fresh water, are circulated,
separated by a heat conducting material (usually copper
tubes). Thus heat is transferred from the hot oil to the cooler
water. Temperature of the lub.oil is also very important as an
increase in the temp leads to low viscosity of the oil affecting
the lub oil pressure and quality of lubrication.
Oil Cooler Bypass Valve – when the engine is started the

temperature of the oil is low therefore there is no need to
further cool the oil. Therefore the oil cooler is bypassed. This
valve is manually operated in some old engines but there is a
thermostat which does this work in new engines
ENGINE SYSTEMS
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Types of lubricating systems
Wet sump system In the wet sump lubricating system

all the oil required by the engine is contained in the sump,
formed by the lower part of the crankcase. A pump draws oil
from the sump through a strainer and discharges it, through
a filter, to the cooler. The filter may be single or duplex. From
the cooler the oil is supplied to a lub. oil gallery or header.
The main bearings are fed directly from the gallery. Drilled
passages in the crankshaft lead the oil to the big end bearing
and then through similar passages in the connecting rod to
the small end bearings. Oil escaping from the bearings are
thrown on to the cylinder walls to lubricate the piston skirt
and rings.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Thereafter the oil drains back into the sump. Tapping are
taken from the main header to supply oil to the cam shaft and
rocker arm bearings and, through spray jets, to the timing
gear and auxiliary drives. The oil then drains back into the
sump. Pressure regulating valves are usually fitted to limit
the oil pressure in the system. Pressure and temperature
gauges are also fitted to monitor the lub. oil pressure and
temperature. A hand pump is also fitted to pressurize the
system by hand, when the engine is stationary.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Dry sump system This system differs from wet sump

system in that the lub. oil for circulation is not stored in the
sump. As soon as the lub. oil falls into the sump after
lubricating various parts of the engine it is transferred to a
circulating tank. There are two pumps used in this system.
The pump that takes suction from the circulating tank and
discharges it to the gallery is called pressure pump. The
second pump, also engine driven, taking suction from the
sump and discharging into the circulating tank is called
‘Scavenge pump’. This pump keeps the sump dry at all times.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Type of Motion in IC Engine
Sliding Contact.
(aa) Rotating Motion Eg. Journal Bearing, Crank shaft
(ab) Oscillating Motion E.g Piston Pin, Rocker bearing
(ac) Reciprocating Motion e.g Piston, Piston rings, valves
stem.
Meshing Contact. e.g. worm gear, bevel gear, helical gear.
Rolling Contact. e.g. Ball, needle & roller bearing

ENGINE SYSTEMS
Properties of Lubricating oil
(a) Viscosity. Viscosity of an oil is measure of its

resistance to flow and is measured in an apparatus called
viscometer and is expressed in centistokes
(b) Viscosity index. Viscosity of oil is substantially

affected by its temperature, higher is the temperature lower is
the viscosity. This variation is measured by viscosity index.
(c) Flash point. It is the lowest temperature at which

vapours of a volatile material will ignite, when given an
ignition source
(d) Pour point. It is the minimum temperature at which an

oil turns into semi solid and almost losses its flow
characteristics
ENGINE SYSTEMS
(e) Specific gravity. It is the ratio of the density of the
liquid to the density of water at 40C
(f) Carbon residue. IT is the part remaining after a

petroleum product has been subjected to thermal
decomposition.
(g) Flammability. It is the ability of a substance

to burn or ignite, causing fire or combustion.
(h) Oxidation . Lub oils have many chemicals added in

them. When the oil is circulated through the engine it may
form oxides of the metallic surfaces. This process is called
oxidation of lub oil. These oxides when mixed up with the oil
alter one or more of its properties. Therefore low oxidation
tendency is desirable property of lub oil.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
(j) Fire Point. This is the temperature at which the oil will
spontaneously ignite. The complex chemical structure of the
lubrication oil makes it more prone to spontaneous ignition
than fuel oils. Most lub oils in service have their fire point
around 315 degree C. Therefore extreme care is to be taken
to avoid the lub oil coming in contact with such temperature.
It is to be remembered that exhaust temperature of many
engines go above this limit. Therefore oil spilled on the
exhaust lagging is a potential fire hazard.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
(j) Acidity. Acidity is a property of lub.oil which

increases its tendency to chemically react with the metallic
surfaces and increases corrosion. Therefore low acidity of
lub.oil is preferred. In order to ensure low acidity of oil even
after continuous operation appropriate additives are added to
convert the oil into a base.
(k) Detergency. This is a property of the lub.oil which

enables it to carry minute particles in suspension. This
ensures that minute particles removed from one surface are
not deposited on another. The particles are carried along with
the oil and settles down only in the sump or filter from where
they can be removed.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Additives
`Most of the oils have lubricating characteristics but so as to

use these oils in engines we need to improve their
characteristics by adding different types of compounds
called as additives.
Additive class Functions
Detergent Control of high temperature
deposits. If over based also acts as
effective acid neutralizer
Dispersant Control of low-temperature sludge
and varnishes deposits
Anti-wear Reduces wear and prevent scoring
and seizing of engine
Anti-rust Reduces rusting by acids
neutralization of formation by
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Additives
Additive class Functions

Viscosity index improver Increase viscosity index of oil,
thereby reducing sensitivity of oil
viscosity to temperature
Pour point depressant Reduce pour point off oil by
interfering with wax crystallization
Anti-foam Reduce oil foaming by causing
collapse of bubbles due to air
entrainment
Anti-oxidants Reduce oil oxidation to protect alloy
bearings against corrosive attack
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Type of tests Carried out on Lub Oil
Viscosity test. When fuel dilution occurs viscosity of the oil

decreases and when contamination or oxidation occurs
viscosity of oil increases. Therefore monitoring the viscosity
of oil is very important. The same is undertaken using a
Viscometer.
Crackling test/Water Content Test. This test is a quick

method of detecting presence of water particles in lub oil.
The method is simple and does not require any special
equipment. Here, using a dropper drop two to three drops of
oil onto the hot surface of a hot plate. The presence of water
particles will be indicated by the ‘Crackling’ sound produced
by the boiling particles.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
FUEL SYSTEM
Basic objectives of fuel system
(i) To control the quantity of fuel to each cylinder

(ii) To control the Pressure of fuel
(iii) o ensure that the fuel is delivered at correct time
(iv) To deliver the fuel in correct condition
(v) To govern the engine speed
Components in fuel system
(i) Fuel tank

(ii) Float tank
(iii) Suction line
(iv) Fuel filter, Water separator
(v) PT pump
ENGINE SYSTEMS
FUEL SYSTEM
(vi) EFC governor

(vii) Fuel manifold
(viii) Injectors
ENGINE SYSTEMS
STARTING AIR SYSTEM
Compressed air is charged to the air bottle and there after

this air is used to start the engine by direct or indirect means.
GOVERNOR
Introduction
The speed at which an IC engine runs depends up on two

factors, the amount of fuel supplied to the cylinders and the
amount of work to be done i.e. the load on the engine. In the
case of CI engines the amount of fuel injected is determined
by the position of the fuel pump control rack.
Governor is a speed sensitive device that automatically

controls the speed of the engine by adjusting the amount of
fuel supplied, under varying load conditions.
Engines used for electric power generation must run at a

constant speed in order to maintain constant voltage and
frequency, where as propulsion engines are required to run at
varying speeds.
GOVERNOR
Introduction
Therefore basically there are two types of governors –

constant speed governors and variable speed governors.
(a) Constant speed governors. These governors are

fitted on generator engines. They are highly speed sensitive.
According to load changes the governor moves the fuel rack
to maintain a constant speed.
(b) Variable speed governors. These governors

control the speed of the engine according to the throttle
setting. This set speed is then maintained by controlling the
fuel supply to the engine as the load on the engine varies.
GOVERNOR
Classification of governors
Based on working medium.
(i) Mechanical – Mechanical force and linkages

(ii) Hydraulic – Hydraulic force
(iii) Pneumatic – force of air.
(iv) Electric – electric current.
Based on application.
(i) Speed limiting governor

(ii) Over speed governor.
(iii) Load limiting governor.
GOVERNOR
Classification of governors
Based on governing action.
(i) Direct action. In this type of governor the

speed sensitive unit directly controls the movement of the
fuel rack. There is no other force involved. This is simple in
construction. Its draw back is that the force available for
moving the fuel rack is very less. Therefore this type of
governors cannot be used for large engines.
(ii) Indirect action. In this type of governor the speed

sensing unit and the fuel rack control unit are separate. The
speed-sensing unit senses the variation in speed and gives a
signal to the speed control unit. Then the speed control unit
moves the fuel rack to control the speed of the engine.
GOVERNOR
Simple Mechanical Governor
This is a direct acting centrifugal governor.
Construction. Two flyweights are pivoted onto a rotating

sleeve. The sleeve is supported by bearings on a stationary
block. Drive from the crankshaft is transmitted onto the
sleeve through suitable gears. The block which is spring
loaded and is is connected to a spindle passing through it.
The spindle is connected to the fuel rack of the fuel injection
pump.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Simple Mechanical Governor
GOVERNOR
Simple Mechanical Governor (Load conditions)
When load increase. When load increases speed

decreases. Therefore the flyweights rotate at lower speed.
This results in lesser centrifugal force being developed. Thus
the spring tension overcomes the centrifugal force and
pushes the spindle down. This movement is converted into
upward movement of the fuel control rod and the fuel flow to
the engine increases. Therefore the engine speed increases
till a balance is achieved between the spring force and the
centrifugal force.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
GOVERNOR
When load decreases. When load decreases the

speed increases. The flyweights rotate faster there by
developing more centrifugal force. This increased force acts
against the spring tension and pushes the spindleupward.
This upward movement of the speeder rod, is converted into
downward movement of the fuel rod by the pivoted linkage.
The fuel flow to the engine decreases reducing the speed of
the engine till a balance is reached between the centrifugal
force and the spring tension.
GOVERNOR
Electronic Governor
Electronic governor consists of three major components.

They are Magnetic pick-up (Speed Sensor), Governor Control,
Actuator
Magnetic pick-up (Speed Sensor) - The magnetic pick-up

senses the engine speed at the flywheel and generates an AC
voltage with its frequency proportional to the engine speed.
The signal from the magnetic pick-up is sensed by the
governor controller and is used as a speed feedback.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Electronic Governor
GOVERNOR
Electronic Governor
Governor Controller: The governor controller compares the

electrical signal (pulses) from the magnetic pick-up with a
preset speed reference point. If there is a difference in the
two signals, the controller will change the current into the
actuator.
Actuator: Actuator controls the fuel flow from the fuel pump
to the injectors by operating an actuator valve which opens
depending upon the amount of current through the actuator
coil.
GOVERNOR
Governor characteristics
Droop. Droop is the permanent drop in RPM of an

engine when changed from ‘no load’ to full load. It is
expressed as a percentage of speed at no load.
Where no = speed at no load
n1 = speed at full load

GOVERNOR
Hunting: A governor is said to be hunting if the speed of

the engine fluctuates continuously above & below the mean
speed. This is caused by an over sensitive governor which
changes the fuel supply by a large amount when a small
change in the speed of rotation takes place.
Stability: A governor is said to be stable when for every

speed within the working range there is a definite
configuration.
Promptness: It refers to the speed of action of the

governor. It is usually expressed in units of time (in sec.)
Required for the governor to move the fuel control from no
load to full load position.
GOVERNOR
Hunting: A governor is said to be hunting if the speed of

the engine fluctuates continuously above & below the mean
speed. This is caused by an over sensitive governor which
changes the fuel supply by a large amount when a small
change in the speed of rotation takes place.
Stability: A governor is said to be stable when for every

speed within the working range there is a definite
configuration.
Promptness: It refers to the speed of action of the

governor. It is usually expressed in units of time (in sec.)
Required for the governor to move the fuel control from no
load to full load position.
EXPLOTATION
EXPLOITATION OF IC ENGINE
Exploitation deals with proper procedure for starting,

stopping and doing watch keeping on the engine.
Significant parameters that are to be monitored while an

engine is in operation
(i) Lubrication oil temperature

(ii) Lub oil pressure
(iii) Fresh water temp
(iv) Fresh water pressure
(v) Sea water temp
(vi) Sea water pressure
(vii) Bearing temperature
EXPLOTATION
Preparing an engine for starting. Before an IC engine is

started, it must be prepared for starting to avoid any
damage to the engine, accidents and to achieve successful
starting of the engine. A generic procedure preparing an IC
engine before starting is as follows:-
(a) Check room temperature, if required switch on

heaters/blowers.
(b) Check the level in the lub.oil sump / tank. It should be
up to the working level. Replenish if necessary. Prime the
engine with hand/priming pump and check build up of
pressure.
(c) Open sea suction and discharge valves, clear and vent
the system.
EXPLOTATION
(e) Check F.W. level in expansion tank.
(f) Check freeness of fuel rack by hand movement.
(g) Open fuel valves in the fuel system and prime the
system.
(h) Check that the engine is not clutched in.
(i) Check engine-warning system.
(j) Check air pressure in starting air bottle, if air starting. If

electric motor starting, check the batteries for charge.
EXPLOTATION
Procedure for stopping an engine.
(a) Ensure that the engine is taken off load.
(b) Reduce the speed of the engine to idling speed.
(c) Maintain this speed till the temperatures are brought

down
(d) Bring the governor control level to stop position.
(e) Start priming pump or hand pump to maintain

minimum lub oil pressure.
EXPLOTATION
Procedure for stopping an engine.
(f) Turn the engine using hand turning gear.
(g) Stop priming pump. Switch off all electric control and
warning equipments.
(h) Close all system valves as instructed in the standing

orders.
SCAVENGING
SCAVENGING
Scavenging is the process of expelling the exhaust gases

from the cylinders of an engine by using the intake air. This is
particularly vital in case of two stroke engines since there is
no separate exhaust stroke.
There are three types of scavenging
(a) Direct scavenging

(b) Loop scavenging
(c) Uniflow scavenging
SCAVENGING
SCAVENGING
SCAVENGING
Direct scavenging. In this system the inlet and exhaust

ports are placed circumferentially around the cylinder; inlet
port on one side and exhaust port on the opposite side. The
exhaust ports are set slightly higher than the inlet port, so
that the piston uncovers them first. Moment the exhaust
ports are uncovered, gas which is at high pressures rushes
out to atmosphere. Then the inlet ports are uncovered. The
incoming air is directed towards the top of the cylinder and
this tends to sweep the exhaust gases out through the
exhaust ports.
SCAVENGING
SCAVENGING
Loop scavenging. In this system the exhaust ports are

placed above the inlet ports, both on the same side. When
both ports are uncovered the incoming charge tends to
sweep around the cylinder in the form of a loop and expel the
exhaust gases through the exhaust ports.
SCAVENGING
Uniflow scavenging. This system is called so because
the incoming charge does not change its direction inside the
cylinder. Inlet ports are placed circumferentially around the
cylinder. An exhaust valve operated by camshaft mechanism
is situated on the cylinder head. The incoming air enters
through the ports and travels upward there by pushing the
exhaust gases out through the exhaust valve.

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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE THEORY

Heat Engine A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical

• External combustion engine. In an external combustion engine

• Internal combustion engine. In an internal combustion engine

(a) Mechanical simplicity

Cylinder Block. The cylinder block is the main supporting

Inlet and Exhaust valve. Valves are provided either on the

Push Rod. Push Rod transmits the motion of the camshaft to

Rocker Arm. The rocker arm assembly is mounted on the cylinder

(i) Wet Liners. In this type, the liner is completely

Piston. It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder

Methods of cooling the piston

Compression Rings. Normally 2 to 4 compression rings

Oil scraper Rings. Usually 2 to 3 scraper rings are fitted on a

It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and it transmit

It connects the small end of the connecting rod and the

(i) Fully Floating. In this type the gudgeon pin is

It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful

Camshaft. The camshaft and its associated parts control

Unlike turbines, the torque imparted to the crankshaft in an

Inlet manifold. The pipes which connect the intake

Exhaust manifold. The pipe which connects the exhaust system

Spark plug. It is an electric device which generates spark, which

Fuel lift/feed/booster pump. This pump takes suction from

Fuel Injection Pump. These pumps provide fuel to injectors

Injector. Used for injecting fuel in to the combustion chamber

Cylinder Bore (d). The inner diameter of the working cylinder is

Piston Area (A). The area of a circle of diameter equal to the

Stroke (L). The distance covered by the piston while moving

Dead Centre. It is the position of the piston at which the

Clearance Volume (Vc). The volume of the combustion

Compression Ratio (r). It is the ratio of the total cylinder

Mean Effective Pressure (MEP). It is the average effective pressure

Brake Power (BP). The Brake Power of an engine is the power

Where N = speed in r.p.m and T = torque in Newton Meters.

Volumetric efficiency. It is the ratio of the volume of air

Vol. Efficiency = Volume of air inducted in one suction stroke/

Mechanical efficiency. Mechanical efficiency of an engine is

Mechanical efficiency = Brake Power x 100 /

Firing order. Firing order refers to the sequence in which

Peak Pressure. The maximum combustion or explosion pressure

Specific Fuel Consumption (s.f.c.) Specific Fuel Consumption is

Mass flow of fuel.

Thermal Efficiency. It is the ratio of indicated work done to energy

he IC engines can be classified on the basis of cycle operation in

(i) Basic engine design. Reciprocating engines, rotary

(ii) Working Cycle. Engines working on Otto cycle (SI

(iii) Number of strokes. Four stroke engines and two stroke

(v) Fuel supply and mixture types.

(vi) Method of ignition. Battery ignition or magneto ignition in

(vii) Method of cooling. Water cooled or air cooled

(viii) Cylinder arrangement. Inline, ‘V’ shaped, opposed

(a) The following requirements are common to all internal

(i) Fill the cylinder with air or fuel - air charge.

These requirements are met in the following ways by the provision

Suction stroke. In this stroke the piston moves from TDC to

Compression stroke. At the end of the induction stroke both

Power Stroke. Towards the end of compression stroke in

Exhaust Stroke. In order to continue the cycle, fresh air needs