Vol 9.

No 1_January 2023
TẠP CHÍ

TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF TAN TRAO UNIVERSITY
SỐ ĐẶC BIỆT

TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO

SPECIAL ISSUE

ISSN: 2354 - 1431

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Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)

ISSN: 2354 - 1431
Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)
Vol 9. No 1 (January 2023)

FROM MIONG TO DIGONG: THE DYNAMICS

OF PHILIPPINE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS (1897-2016)

Archie B. Resos*, Emmanuel Jeric A. Albela, University of Santo Tomas, España, Manila
Email address: [email protected] *
DOI: 10.51453/2354-1431/2022/861

Article info Abstract:

Elections have always been a vanguard of procedural democracy in the
Philippines. From the time of the first presidential election in the Tejeros
Received:13/11/2022
Convention in 1897 until the 2016 Presidential derby, the voice of the
Revised: 26/11/2022 people has been instrumental in catapulting the chief executive to the seat
of power in Malacañang Palace. It is interesting to note that the dynamics of
Accepted: 30/12/2022 Philippine presidential elections has been written by only a few scholars. This
study attempts to provide the mechanism of elections including its results in
determining the occupant of the highest position of the land which is held by
the Office of the President.
Keywords: Since the first presidential election in 1897 with Emilio Aguinaldo as
Philippine elections, president, the outcome has always been marred with influence peddling and
democracy, political electioneering. The maturity of presidential election was further enhanced
culture, political with the 1935 and 1941 Commonwealth election with Manuel L. Quezon at
parties, president. the helm of power. However, mudslinging and rumour-mongering became
pronounced during this democratic exercise. After the death of Quezon, the
Philippines witnessed its first presidential succession under Sergio Osmeña
Sr. During the outbreak of World War II and the Japanese occupation in 1941,
Jose P. Laurel was installed as president by the National Assembly controlled
by the imperial government of Japan.
After World War II, the election of Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino, Ramon
Magsaysay, Carlos Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal, Ferdinand Marcos, Corazon
Aquino, Fidel Ramos, Joseph Estrada, Benigno Simeon Aquino III and
Rodrigo Duterte provided strength in the procedural aspect of democracy. It
is in this context of the process of presidential electoral procedure that the
following questions will be answered: what was the context of the presidential
election of each chief executive?, what were the political parties involved and
how they contend each other?, what were the significant election issues?, how
was the presidential election conducted?, and what were the results?

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 Vol 9. No 1_January 2023
TẠP CHÍ

TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF TAN TRAO UNIVERSITY
SỐ ĐẶC BIỆT

TẠP CHÍ KHOA HỌC ĐẠI HỌC TÂN TRÀO

SPECIAL ISSUE

ISSN: 2354 - 1431

http://tckh.daihoctantrao.edu.vn/

Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)

ISSN: 2354 - 1431
Tập 9, Số 1 (Tháng 01/2023)
Vol 9. No 1 (January 2023)

TỪ MIONG ĐẾN DIGONG : ĐỘNG LỰC

CỦA CUỘC BẦU CỬ TỔNG THỐNG PHILIPPINES (1897-2016)

Archie B. Resos, Đại học Santo Tomas, España, Manila, Philippines

Emmanuel Jeric A. Albela, Đại học Santo Tomas, España, Manila, Philippines
Địa chỉ email: [email protected] , [email protected]
DOI: 10.51453/2354-1431/2022/861

Thông tin bài viết Tóm tắt

Bầu cử luôn là hoạt động tiên phong của nền dân chủ theo thể chế ở Philippines.
Ngày nhận bài: 13/11/2022
Từ thời điểm diễn ra cuộc bầu cử tổng thống đầu tiên trong Công ước Tejeros
Ngày sửa bài: 26/11/2022 năm 1897 cho đến cuộc bầu cử Tổng thống năm 2016, tiếng nói của người dân
đã đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc đưa giám đốc điều hành lên vị trí quyền
Ngày duyệt đăng: 30/12/2022
lực trong Cung điện Malacañang. Điều thú vị là động lực của các cuộc bầu cử
tổng thống Philippines chỉ được viết bởi một số học giả. Nghiên cứu này cung
cấp nội dung về cơ chế bầu cử bao gồm cả kết quả bầu cử trong việc xác định
Từ khóa: người chiếm giữ vị trí cao nhất của vùng do Văn phòng Tổng thống nắm giữ.
Kể từ cuộc bầu cử tổng thống đầu tiên vào năm 1897 với Emilio Aguinaldo làm
Bầu cử Philippines, dân chủ,
tổng thống, kết quả luôn bị hủy bởi việc rao bán sức ảnh hưởng và vận động
văn hóa chính trị, đảng chính tranh cử. Sự chín muồi của cuộc bầu cử tổng thống được tăng cường hơn nữa
trị, tổng thống với cuộc bầu cử của Khối thịnh vượng chung năm 1935 và 1941 với Manuel L.
Quezon nắm quyền. Tuy nhiên, sự bêu riếu và tung tin đồn đã trở nên rõ ràng
trong quá trình thực thi dân chủ này. Sau cái chết của Quezon, Philippines chứng
kiến sự kế vị tổng thống đầu tiên dưới thời Sergio Osmeña Sr. Khi Chiến tranh
thế giới thứ hai bùng nổ và Nhật Bản chiếm đóng vào năm 1941, Jose P. Laurel
được Quốc hội do chính phủ đế quốc kiểm soát bổ nhiệm làm tổng thống.
Sau Thế chiến II, cuộc bầu cử của Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino, Ramon
Magsaysay, Carlos Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal, Ferdinand Marcos, Corazon
Aquino, Fidel Ramos, Joseph Estrada, Benigno Simeon Aquino III và Rodrigo
Duterte đã mang lại sức mạnh cho các quy định và thủ tục của nền dân chủ .
Chính trong bối cảnh của quy trình bầu cử tổng thống này, các câu hỏi sau đây
được trả lời: bối cảnh của cuộc bầu cử tổng thống của mỗi đặc khu là gì?, các
đảng phái chính trị nào tham gia và họ tranh đấu với nhau như thế nào?, những
vấn đề gì được cho là quan trọng khi bầu cử?, cuộc bầu cử tổng thống được
tiến hành như thế nào?, và kết quả ra sao?

INTRODUCTION which hampers the growth of American based

When the United States of America crafted the democracy in the country. Strong regionalism, debt
framework for the Philippines to become a showcase of gratitude, strong camaraderie, close family affinity
of democracy in Asia, little did they know that there and political patronage forms part of the political
is certain political culture inherent among the Filipinos culture of the Filipinos. Democracy is defined as a
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system of rule that secures the right and interests of the significant impact of the Catholic Church, local
minorities by placing checks upon the power of the Philippine protestant churches and the mass media and
majority. (Heywood, 2002) Philippine democracy has its role in shaping the outcome of the elections.
always followed the procedural definition. If there is
Rommel Banlaoi, Political Parties in the
an election, constitution and basic human rights, then it
Philippines: From 1900 to the Present. (1996)
goes to show that the country is democratic.
chronicled the development of Philippine political
However, more important than the illiberal parties from 1900 to the present. The author used
democratic framework, the substantive democracy various sources to provide ab broad historical telescope
instills accountability, transparency and social justice of Philippine political parties but as well as the brief
in every government. Modern, liberal democracy political history of the Philippines from pre-colonial
has an elected government, to be sure, but also period to the present.
constitutional laws and rights, an independent judiciary,
Clarita R. Carlos’ Handbook of Political Parties
strong political parties, churches, businesses, private
and Elections in the Philippines. (1997) presented
associations and professional elites. (Zakaria, 2003)
various documents from diverse sources including
In the case of the Philippines, democracy has always
the Philippine Commission of elections, national
been procedural and strong inherent political culture
headquarters of political parties, and libraries from
dampens its maturity. From the election of Emilio
various parts of the Philippines. This literature aims
Aguinaldo as the first president of the Philippine
to primarily explain the contents of party documents
Republic until the ascendancy of Rodrigo Duterte as
and ideologies which includes the election laws
head of the Philippine government there has always
and regulations in the Philippines. Another work,
been distortion in the direction of Philippine democracy.
Elections in the Philippines: From Pre-colonial to
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE the Present represents an important contribution to
Joy Aceron’s Infusing reform in Elections: the understanding of Philippine political life because
The Partisan Electoral Engagement of Reform it narrates Philippine elections from the earliest times
Movements in Post Martial Law Philippines. (2012) to the present.
this book points out the importance of civil society
Rosario M. Cortes, Philippine Presidents: 100
groups in engaging into partisan politics. These
Years. (1999) more than a historical account of the
would include the considerations and implications;
country’s leaders, the account follows a narration of
the results and the outcomes. The book would focus
the various contributions of Philippine presidents. This
on how forces from social movements made use of
is done from the First Philippine Republic, American
limited democratic space that became available when
Period, Commonwealth Period, and the Post War
the country transitioned to democracy in order to
Period. The numbering of the presidents has been done
advance an alternative government and development
in consecutive fashion following the sequence of the
agenda. The work would center on the process of
period each president served.
presidential elections and delve on how actors and
groups from social movements influenced the outcome THEORETHICAL FRAMEWORK
of the presidential elections in line with the realities of Sigmund Neumann underscores the sociological
traditional politics and political culture as mainstream examination of political parties and elections. According
players in contesting for state power. to Neumann, one of the most important prerequisites
Geraldine Marie Alumit’s Church-Press for a more accurate appraisal of the intricate web of
Interaction in the Philippines: The Case of the 1986, social relations within modern parties is an exacting
1992 and 1998 Presidential Elections. (2000) provides theoretical framework. He cited that the variations
the connection between the influence of the Catholic in the character of those who were led matters most.
Church, Mass media and Filipino political culture Neumann argues that the variation in the character of
which affects the behavior, psychology and personality those who are led are as important as those who lead
of the electorate. Case study of the 1986, 1992 and specially as the concept of the masses presents an even
1998 presidential elections in the Philippines shows more elastic term.

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 Archie B. Resos et al/Vol 9. No 1_January 2023| p.13-28

He argues that a sharp distinction should be made settle the difference. The two political parties the
between the social variations of rural and urban groups Magdalo under Baldomero Aguinaldo in Imus, Cavite
of scattered crowds and congregated mobs, of the latent advocated the replacement of the Katipunan with a
and aroused masses, of the illiterate, numb and untried new revolutionary government led by a president while
and the educated, alert, skilled people. According to the Magdiwang under Mariano Alvarez in Noveleta,
him, different social classes invite a variety of stimuli Cavite expressed confidence in the continuation of
and reactions. He says that political parties find an the Katipunan as a governing organization to carry
uneven appeal in various social strata, in accordance out the revolution. It ended without a resolution. The
with their specific social experiences and historical following meeting held in Tejeros, a barrio in San
conditions. Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias, Cavite)
METHODOLOGY on March 22, 1897, resulted in a secret balloting to
decide the fate of a revolutionary government since
History is both descriptive and analytical. The
most of the members present embraced the necessity
study will delve on the historical method subscribes
to create a new governing body. Emilio Aguinaldo and
to both descriptive and analytical techniques. Election
Andres Bonifacio became the major contenders for the
data, campaign strategy, role of political parties will be
presidency.
derived from primary sources. This will be analyzed in
the international and local events culled from secondary Aguinaldo joined the freemasonry and joined the
sources which will provide the context of the study. Katipunan and became a member of the Magdalo
The descriptive part of the study will deal with headed by his cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo. (de Viana,
the unfolding of the presidential electoral events. The 2019) Emilio Aguinaldo won the secret balloting with
analytical aspect will therefore provide the context of 146 votes, followed by Andres Bonifacio with 80 votes
the presidential elections in the Philippines. and Mariano Trias with 30 votes. (Banlaoi, 1996) The
elected members of the revolutionary government
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
includes: Emilio Aguinaldo (Magdalo) as President;
Inception of first Filipino Political Parties: Mariano Trias (Magdiwang) as Vice President;
Magdalo vs. Magdiwang Artemio Ricarte (Magdiwang) as Captain General;
The rise of political parties that catered for an Emiliano Riego de Dios (Magdiwang) as Director of
independent Philippines can be traced from the vantage War and Andres Bonifacio (Magdiwang) as Director
point of history during the Tejeros convention of 1897. of Interior. However, the dissention of Daniel Tirona
This merged out of the desire of the members of the KKK on the grounds that Bonifacio doesn’t have any legal
(Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan nang mga background for being a non-lawyer. The outrage of the
Anak ng Bayan) to either continue revolutionary cause Supremo resulted in the creation of the Acta de Tejeros
under the old organization or establish a revolutionary were Bonifcaio vehemently denied to accept the result
government under a president. The KKK was founded of the election. As a consequence, Bonifacio opted to
on July 7, 1892 by Andres Bonifacio, Valentin Diaz, establish a military government in Naic, Cavite with
Teodoro Plata, Ladislao Diwa, Deodato Arellano, and himself as president. This prompted the newly elected
a few others. (Agoncillo, 2012) The primary aim of chief executive, to issue the capture and execution
the Katipunan was to liberate the Philippine from the order of the rebellious Andres Bonifacio that finally led
colonial bondage of Spain. The motivating force of to his death on May 10, 1897. Clearly, the members
the revolution was simply a common grievance of all of the two factions voted in favor of the achievement
social strata against a common enemy, they sought to of the leaders. Aguinaldo’s continuous victories
strengthen national unity by emphasizing the need for are considered primary factor in his election while
brotherhood. (Constantino, 1978) Bonifacio’s lackluster performance as Supremo led
The contention between the rival faction of to his political demise. However, certain controversy
the Katipunan resulted in the weakening of the still hounds the Filipinos including the idea that the
revolutionary cause of the organization. A Magna presidency of the revolutionary government was a gift
Asamblea was hosted by on December 31, 1896 to since it was held on March 22, 1897, the birthday of

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Miong. Others claim that this election was rigged with The Japanese occupation of east, southeast Asia
cheating and influence peddling. and the Pacific region augurs the looming Japanese
aggression in the Philippines. The bombing of Pearl
Manuel L. Quezon: Continued Prominence of
the Nacionalista Party Harbor, a naval installation base of the United States in
1941, precipitated the Quezon government to prepare
Manuel Quezon became visible in the political for the war. Although November, 1941 was the schedule
arena when he became the Speaker pro-tempore
of the Commonwealth election for the presidential
in 1907, Resident Commissioner in 1909, Senate
derby, the Philippines faced its toughest challenge, the
President in 1916 and finally President of the Philippine
defense of the nation against the Japanese imperial
Commonwealth in 1935 and 1941 respectively.
forces. In spite of all these lamentable situation, on
Quezon’s prime consideration was to secure the
December 30, 1941, the Philippines witnessed the
independence bill for the granting of Filipino liberation
inauguration of Manuel Quezon (Nationalista Party)
from American control. Thus, the Tydings-Mcduffie
winning the 2nd Commonwealth election with 1,340,320
law was secured by Quezon to strengthen his position
votes, followed by Juan Sumulong (Popular Front) with
as leader of the Filipinos and get the much-coveted
289,608 vote and Hilario Moncado with 0 vote. (The
independence of the nation.
Tribune, 1941) In the Vice Presidential race, Sergio
The Commonwealth provided a ten-year transition Osmeña (Nacionalista Party) won with 1,445,897 votes
period with which the rudiments of constitutional and Emilio Javier (Popular Front) with 124,035 votes.
mechanism and democratic framework will be (Carlos, 1996)
laid down to train Filipino leaders in handling an
The Commonwealth government was put to
independent nation later on. A constitution (1935) was
exile because of the Japanese occupation of the
created and subsequently the first presidential election
entire country. With this development, the Quezon
was conducted. Filipinos for the first time in their
administration continued to monitor the events in
national political experience was given a chance to
the Philippines while in exile in the United States.
choose their leader. On November 15, 1935, Manuel L.
President Quezon’s presidency would have expired on
Quezon (Nacionalista Party) won the presidential derby
November 15, 1943. However, Vice President Osmeña,
with 695,332 votes followed by Emilio Aguinaldo
(National Socialist Party) with 179,349 and Gregorio a man of genuine patriotism, humanity, honor and
Aglipay (Republican Party) with 148,010. (Lande, sincerity, wrote to Quezon and President Roosevelt
1965) In the vice presidential race, Sergio Osmeña nobly renouncing his constitutional right to assume the
(Nacionalista Party) won with 812,352 votes, followed Philippine Presidency on November 15, 1943. (Zaide,
by Raymundo Melliza (National Socialist Party) with 1994) In doing so, the United Sates Congress issued
70,899 votes and Norberto Nabong (Republican Party). Joint Resolution No. 95 signed by President Franklin
(Lande, 1965) Delano Roosevelt which extended the term of office of
Manuel L. Quezon until the restoration of the normal
It is noteworthy to say that during the 1907 to 1916,
functions of democratic processes in the Philippines.
Sergio Osmeña Sr. was the undisputed Filipino leader
Be that as it may, the selfless act is worthy of emulation
in the political arena. However, in 1916, Manuel L.
since Osmeña’s ascension to power was disregarded
Quezon was elected Senate President while Osmeña
for the sake of the nation’s welfare. In 1944, Quezon
settled in the lower house as Speaker. The saying
died of a lingering tuberculosis. As a litmus test of the
“No permanent friends and enemies, only ambition
provision on the constitutional succession enshrined in
is lasting” applied to them. In the 1922 Senatorial
the 1935 constitution, Vice President Sergio Osmeña
election, Quezon and Osmeña, headed for political
was sworn in as the new Commonwealth president.
collision specially for the Senate Presidency. Quezon
prevailed in his post as Senate President. KALIBAPI and MAKAPILI: Japanese
sponsored Political Parties
Quezon’s Re-election and first Presidential
Succession: The Case of Vice President Sergio Under the Japanese high imperial command, the
Osmeña during the Commonwealth government in Filipino leaders were forced to accept the terms given
Exile to them by the new colonizers. The Commonwealth

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government was forced in US exile in 1942. The trust was still with the old, experienced commonwealth
propaganda initiated by the Japanese colonizers leader or the Filipinos are now craving for a new, vibrant
boasted of a Philippines free from western control, a chief executive. Political accusations were pronounced
government managed by the Filipinos and utilization between the Nacionalista and the Liberal Party camps.
of raw materials solely by the Filipino themselves. In Riding on the crest of popularity, the issue at hand was
1942, the KALIBAPI (Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa the no compromise declaration of independence on
Bagong Pilipinas) was created as the chief organ of July 4, 1946 on the part of Osmeña, while Roxas opted
the Japanese propaganda. To build the close ties of the for an “open minded” and possible “reexamination”
Japanese to the Filipinos, a constitution was crafted on of the issues before the declaration of independence.
September 4, 1943 providing for a Japanese sponsored Roxas attacked the Osmeña administration regarding
Republic of the Philippines. (Zaide, 1994) collaboration and fascism issues.
The MAKAPILI (Makabayang Katipunan ng On April 23, 1946, the people have spoken.
mga Pilipino) on the other hand was a military group Manuel Roxas (Liberal Party) won with 1,333,392
established by the Japanese to support their police and votes, next was Sergio Osmeña (Nacionalista Party),
martial powers in the archipelago. The KALIBAPI with 1,129,996 votes and lastly Hilario Moncada
conventions elected the members of the National (Modernist Party) with 8,538. (Cortes, 1999) In the
Assembly in 1943. This National Assembly elected Vice Presidential race, Elpidio Quirino (Liberal Party)
Jose P. Laurel as president of the Second Philippine won with 1, 161, 725, second was Eulogio Rodriguez
Republic on October 14, 1943. (Zaide, 1994) For fear (Nacionalista Party) with 1,051,243 votes and lastly,
of execution and incarceration, most Filipino leaders Luis Salvador (Modernist Party) with 5879 votes.
collaborated with the Japanese command. However, (Commission of Election Yearbook,1968) The work of
some Filipino officials assumed power for the sake of
rebuilding and rehabilitating the country was too much
preventing bloodshed while some directly defied the
for President Roxas. He was lured to adopt close ties
Japanese authorities resulting in their execution. Jose
with the US specially with the adoption of the Treaty
Abad Santos was executed for his defiance to head
on General Relations (1946), Bell Trade Act (1946)
the Philippine government under the tutelage of the
Military Bases Agreement (1947), Military Assistance
Japanese administration.
Agreement (1947), and Parity Amendment (1947).
From Sergio Osmeña to Manuel Roxas: Post war President Roxas succumb to heart attack on April 16,
Philippines and the Rise of the Liberal Party 1948 in Clark field, Pampanga. The following day,
The devastation of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Vice President Elpidio Quirino took his oath as the new
in 1945, signaled the end of the Japanese military President of the Republic. This was the second time,
expansionism in the Asia-Pacific region. Among the the presidential succession was put in action.
liberated Japanese colony, the Philippines was perhaps Quirino Administration: Political Patronage and
the most devastated after the war. It was a tall order Peace and Order Issues
for President Sergio Osmeña, Sr. to lead the country.
With the succession of Vice President Elpidio
As provided in the 1935 constitution, the presidential
Quirino as new head of the Philippine government, he
election is scheduled in 1946. The Commonwealth
was mandated to finish the six months unexpired term
government would also end and an independent
of former President Roxas. The primary problem of the
Philippine government would assume responsibility in
Quirino administration was the expanding insurgency
1946. Since the previous government of
in the rural areas including the continuous effort to
Osmeña was beleaguered by the issue of rehabilitate the entire nation from the ashes of the
collaboration, the basic and fundamental task of nation war. On November 8, 1949, the second presidential
building was put aside. election under the 3rd Philippine Republic took place.
The next chief executive had the gargantuan task to The Liberal Party was accused of electioneering
reconstruct and rehabilitate the nation facing political, and fraud including manipulation of the result of the
economic, and cultural debasement. The 1946 election since Quirino had the advantage of being the
presidential election was a test of either the people’s incumbent president. Mudslinging became apparent

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when Jose P. Laurel, the standard bearer for Presidency with Jose Yulo(Liberal Party) in second with 1,483,802
of the Nacionalista Party hurled graft and corruption votes. Eventually, the Nacionalista Party regained their
attacks as part of the campaign propaganda against political control in this presidential election. (Report of
Quirino. On the other hand, Quirino accused Laurel of the Commission on Elections, 1954)
collaborating with the Japanese during his presidency.
The promise of President Magsaysay to empower
In the presidential election of 1949, Elpidio Quirino, the hoi polloi became clear as he opened Malacañang
(Liberal Party) the incumbent president, won handily palace for the grievances of the people. As chief
with 1,803,808 votes while his closest opponent Jose executive, his unusual closeness to the masses and
P. Laurel (Nacionalista Party) had 1,318,330 votes. simplicity of life strengthened his legitimacy as
(Report of the Commission on Elections, 1950) The president. Unfortunately the unexpected demise of
Vice Presidential race shows that Fernando Lopez Magsaysay in a plane crash ended his political career
(Liberal Party) had 1,341,284, followed by Manuel
on March 17, 1957. Filipino association with a leader
Briones (Nacionalista Party) with 1,184,215 and
who had sympathy for the ordinary people catapulted
Vicente Francisco (Liberal Party- Avelino Wing) with
Magsaysay to power. Political culture of “mass appeal”
44,510 votes. (Report of the Commission on Elections,
became instrumental for winning the highest position
1950) In 1949, the HUKS became very conspicuous
of the land in the succeeding elections.
in Central and Southern Luzon. The rise of the
communist insurgents were precipitated by the rampant Carlos P. Garcia Administration: Two opposing
corruption of the Quirino government including the Political Parties for the Presidency and Vice-
lack of agrarian program for the poor farmers in the Presidency
countryside. The appointment of Congressman Ramon For the third time in the political history of the
Magsaysay as defense henchman of the government
Philippines, Vice President Garcia, succeeded the
became the nail in the coffin of Quirino’s political
office of President Ramon Magsaysay because of his
career but subsequently became the catalyst of change
sudden death. The newly installed President Carlos
aspired by every poverty ridden Filipinos.
Garcia completed the eight months unexpired term
Ramon Magsaysay and the Rise of Political of the former president. The Filipino nation faced the
Campaign Jingle to carry Government Platform task of concentrating economic power in the hands
The deterioration of the peace and order situation of the local businessmen. Thus, the campaign of
became apparent during the Quirino administration. 1957 presidential election beaconed the continuity of
Although efforts of the government to address the rising strengthening democracy and empowering Filipino
communist insurgency was put in place, the situation industrialist in the economic sector. On November 12,
turned worse. As defense secretary of the Quirino 1957, the fourth presidential election was scheduled.
presidency, Magsaysay utilized every available means The main contenders were: President Carlos Garcia
to reach out the remotest provinces and municipalities (Nacionalista Party) who won the election with
to gain network and connection to the common people. 2,072,257 votes, followed by Jose Yulo (Liberal Party)
with 1,386,829, Manuel Manahan (Progressive Party)
In this election, the use of presidential jingle
(song and dance) were used to make the democratic with 1,049,420, Claro M. Recto (Nationalist Citizen’s
exercise of suffrage more appealing and colorful Party) with 429,226 and Antonio Quirino (Liberal
to the masses. Because of pressing issue of saving Party, Quirino Wing) with 60,328. (Report of the
Philippine democracy as his main battle cry, Defense Commission on Elections, 1958) The Vice Presidential
Secretary Ramon Magsaysay (Nacionalista Party) won election yielded favorable results for the Liberal Party.
with a wide margin of 2,912,992 votes then followed Diosdado Macapagal won with 2,189,197 votes,
by President Elpidio Quirino with 1,313,991 votes second is Jose Laurel Jr. (Nacionalista Party) with
and Gaudencio Bueno (Independent) with 736 votes. 1,783,012, third, Vicente Araneta (Progressive Party)
(Report of the Commission on Elections, 1954) The with 375,090, Lorenzo Tañada, with 344,865 votes and
Vice presidential election resulted in the win of Carlos lastly, Restituto Fresto (Lapiang Malaya) with 10,494.
P. Garcia (Nacionalista Party) with 2, 515,265 votes (Report of the Commission on Elections, 1958)

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The election scenario was interesting because for supported Macapagal to his dream of occupying the
the first time, the political landscape differed from highest office in Malacañang was in fact deprived
the previous configuration. President Carlos Garcia of his ardent desire to become the standard bearer of
came from the Nacionalista Party but the elected the Liberal Party in the 1965 presidential derby. This
Vice President Diosdado Macapagal was from the political culture of mistrust and dishonesty resulted in
opposition Liberal Party. The Garcia administration the political demise of the Macapagal administration.
focused on providing preferential treatment for
Ferdinand Marcos: Political Turncoatism, Mail-fist
Filipino businessmen over the foreign counterpart in
Policy and Constitutional Authoritarianism
his “Filipino first policy” However, the opposing views
of President and Vice President led to disunity and Ferdinand Marcos dream to be president of the
polarization in the government. Philippines was shattered by stalwarts of the Liberal
Party when he lost the nomination bid for the 1965
Diosdado Macapagal: The Broken Promise to a
presidential election. However, the surmounting
fellow Party mate and future President
problems of the Macapagal presidency became the
Since Vice president Diosdado Macapagal was target of attack of the Nacionalista Party. Senate
from the opposition Liberal Party, he was never President Ferdinand Marcos suddenly turned his back
given any government position perhaps to prevent against the Liberal Party and was welcomed with open
him from becoming a future president of the nation. hands in the Nacionalista Party even accepting the
As voice of the opposition, Macapagal capitalized on nomination as the official candidate for the presidency
the weaknesses of the Garcia administration which in 1965. Carrying on the budget deficit, decontrol
includes the failed agrarian reform package and the and devaluation of the pesos as potent political issues
robust increase of insurgency in the provinces. Most of against the previous administration, Marcos was able
Macapagal’s time was devoted in reaching the far flung to gain momentum in the presidential race. Unable to
areas of the countryside thus, making him accessible secure the nomination bid of the Liberal Party, Marcos
to the various municipalities. This catapulted him and other members of the ruling party defected to the
to become ripe and popular for the presidency. On Nacionalista Party as part of the political turncoatism
November 14, 1961, the Philippines was scheduled for to secure a more viable position in the election. On
another round of presidential election. Vice President November 9, 1965, the election for the chief executive
Diosdado Macapagal (Liberal Party) wrestled power was held. The Presidential contenders were: Senate
from the incumbent with 3,554,840 votes, Carlos President Ferdinand Marcos (Nacionalista Party) who
Garcia (Nacionalista Party) had 2,902,996, and won the election with 3,861,324, followed by the
Alfredo Abcede (Federal Party) with 8. (Report of incumbent President Diosdado Macapagal (Liberal
the Commission on Elections, 1962) In the Vice Party) with 3,187,752 votes and Raul Manglapus (Party
Presidential election, Emmanuel Pelaez (Liberal Party) for Philippine Progress) with 384,564 votes. (Report
garnered 2,394,400 votes, followed by Sergio Osmeña, of the Commission on Elections, 1966) In the Vice
Jr. (Independent) with 2,190,424 votes and Gil Puyat Presidential election, Fernando Lopez (Nacionalista
(Nacionalista Party) with 1,787,987 votes. (Report of Party) won with 3,531,550 votes, second was Gerardo
the Commission on Elections, 1962) Roxas (Liberal Party), with 3,505,826 votes lastly,
Manuel Manahan (Progressive Party) with 247,426
Carrying the promise of his campaign, Macapagal
votes. (Report of the Commission on Elections, 1966)
implemented the Agricultural Agrarian Reform Code
The first term of President Marcos was successfully
for the distribution of land to the poor but deserving
able to hurdle the problems of tax collection, food
farmers. His strong advocacy in the usage of Filipino
shortage was addressed and the peace and order
language became pronounced and his ardent desire
situation stabilized.
to commemorate Philippine independence on June
12 instead the neocolonial celebration on July 4 was However, the latter part of the 1960s, was hounded
implemented. One of his closest ally in the Liberal by serious and threatening problems. The efficiency
Party was Senate President Ferdinand Marcos. Marcos of the Marcos administration gave the Nacionalista
who has forgone his bid for the presidency in 1961 Party majority control of the Senate in 1967. Only

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Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. was able to make it in the 18,309,360 votes, Alejo Santo (Nacionalista Party) was
senate. However, the rise to prominence of the young second, with 1,716,449 and Bartolome Cabangbang
senator signaled the birth of the opposition against (Federalist Party) with 749,845 votes. (Carlos, 1996)
the leadership of Marcos. On November 11, 1969, There are no position for the Vice President with the
Ferdinand Marcos (Nacionalista Party) won a reelection amendment done in the 1973 constitution. As leader
bid with 5,017,343 votes followed by Sergio Ormeña of the opposition based in the US, Benigno Aquino
Jr. 3,143,122 votes and Pascual Racuyal (Independent) Jr. decided to go home and reconcile with Marcos.
with 778 votes. (Report of the Commission on Elections, Unfortunately on August 21, 1983, he was assassinated
1970) In the Vice Presidential bid, Fernando Lopez at the Manila International Airport. The nation was
(Nacionalista Party) won with 5,001,737 votes, second rocked by widespread protest from different sectors
Genaro Magsaysay (Liberal Party) with 2,968,526 of society. In 1984, the Batasang Pambansa elected 70
votes and Victoriano Mallari (Partido ng Bansa) with opposition assemblymen as a sign of protest among
229. (Report of the Commission on Elections, 1970) the Filipino people. Because of the widespread chaos,
Marcos opted to push thru with a snap presidential
The second term of Marcos in 1969 was looming
election on February 7, 1986. In this aspect,
with a lot of problems. The formation of the Communist
constitutional authoritarianism was used by Marcos to
Party of the Philippines under Jose Maria Sison and
legitimized laws, directive and letter-of-instruction to
its merging with the New People’s Army of Bernabe
abuse his discretion of power that is within the scope of
“Ka Dante” Buscayno strengthened insurgency in the
a constitution he manipulated.
country. The issue of a separate Mindanao became
the battle cry of the newly formed Moro National Cory Aquino: Brief Restoration and Immediate
Liberation Front under Nur Misuari. Wanton terrorist Reversal of democracy in the Philippines
activities like bombings proliferated in Metro Manila.
The death of Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. in the
The surging prices of crude oil coupled with agrarian
tarmac of the Manila International Airport on August
problems and soaring cost of prime commodities led in
21, 1983 signaled the downfall of the Marcos
the worst street activism. Students, laborers, religious
leadership. With external and internal pressures,
leaders, women groups and academicians staged
President Marcos announced the holding of a snap
rallies that rocked and paralyze normal operations of
presidential election on February 7, 1986. This would
government in the metropolis. With the widespread
vindicate his government actions that the people still
decline of the peace and order situation, Martial
continuously show their trust in his administration by
Law was declared on September 21, 1972. Thus, the
giving him a fresh mandate in Malacañang.
presidential election scheduled in 1973 was suspended
to paved the way for military rule until 1981. This mail- The opposition party Partido Demokratiko ng
first policy enabled Marcos to extend his term of office Pilipinas(PDP)- Lakas ng Bansa (LABAN) and United
almost in perpetuity had it not for the assassination of Nationalist Opposition (UNIDO) fielded the widow
his top opponent, Senator Benigno Aquino Jr in 1983. of Benigno Aquino Jr, Corazon Aquino to run for
the presidency with Salvador Laurel. On February 7,
Martial law became a catalyst of oppression to pacify
1986, the snap presidential election started throughout
the nemesis of the Marcos administration. Thousand of
the country in one of the dirtiest and violent suffrage
students, laborers and church leaders were rounded up
in Philippine political history. It was on February
and placed under incarceration. Those who opposed
15, 1986 that Ferdinand Marcos (Kilusang Bagong
the Marcos administration were either executed or
Lipunan) was proclaimed as winner with 10,807,197
liquidated extrajudicially. However, President Marcos
votes, followed by Corazon Aquino (PDP-LABAN-
was forced to lift martial rule in the country because of
UNIDO) with 9,291,716 votes, Reuben Canoy (Social
the visit of Pope John Paul II in 1981. Marcos would
Democratic Party) got 34,041 votes and Narciso Padilla
declare the creation of a fourth Philippine Republic
(Movement for Truth, Order and Righteousness) had
immediately after martial law was lifted.
23,652 votes. (Cortes, 1999) In the Vice Presidential
On June 16, 1981, President Ferdinand Marcos race, Arturo Tolentino (Kilusang Bagong Lipunan)
(Kilusang Bagong Lipunan) won the election with won with 10,134,130 votes, second was Salvador

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Laurel (PDP-LABAN-UNIDO) with 9,173, 105 votes, buildup of “colonial democracy” under the United
Eva Estrada Kalaw (Liberal Party, Kalaw Wing) States particularly in the 1930s which was thereafter
662,185 and Roger Arienda (Movement for Truth, abruptly halted when the country came under Japanese
Order and Righteousness) with 35,974. (Cortes, 1999) occupation and finally, the third attempt was the historic
The Namfrel (National Movement for Free Election) EDSA People Power uprising of February 1986 that put
results showed otherwise. It was a case of regionalistic an end to the authoritarian regime of Ferdinand Marcos,
strength as the “solid north” consisting of the Ilocos and replaced it with a new democratic government.
Region, Cagayan Valley Region and Central Luzon (Yu-Jose, 2010)
(except for Tarlac) has shown strong preference for
Fidel Ramos: Strong Military Backup and Issues
Marcos and his political party, the Kilusang Bagong
of Vote shaving and Padding (Dagdag Bawas)
Lipunan.
Secretary Fidel Ramos was the shield used by
Slowly losing the mandate to govern exacerbated
President Corazon Aquino to weather coup d’ etat
by United States lost of confidence in the conduct of
against her administration. The loyalty of Ramos paved
election and the withdrawal of support of the military
the way for him to get the anointing for the presidential
led by Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and Vice
race in 1992. Although the ruling party at that time
Chief of Staff Fidel Ramos, the people grew in numbers
was Speaker Ramon Mitra’s Laban ng Demokratikong
in Edsa (a major thoroughfare in Manila) which led to
Filipino (LDP), Secretary Ramos, formed his own
the People Power Revolution from February 22 to 26,
political party the Lakas-NUCD (Lakas ng Bayan-
1986.
National Union of Christian Democrats)
Corazon Aquino was catapulted in power with
On May 11, 1992, Secretary Fidel V. Ramos won
the promise of strengthening democracy, initiate land
the elections with the backing of President Corazon
reform programs and confiscate the ill-gotten wealth of
Aquino. Fidel Ramos (LAKAS-NUCD or National
the Marcos’s.
Union of Christian Democrats) won with 5,342,421
However several problems beset her administration votes followed by Miriam Defensor Santiago (People’s
including issues of insurgency, coup attempts and power Reform Party) with 4,468,173, Eduardo Cojuangco
outages in addition natural disasters like earthquakes (Nationalist People’s Coalition) with 4,116,376 votes,
and volcanic eruptions also emerged. In the political Ramon Mitra (Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino) with
arena, one thing that hampered the growth of democracy 3,316,661 and Imelda Marcos with 2,338,294 votes.
was the rise of political dynasties which continue to (New York Times, 1992) In the Vice Presidential derby,
escalate during her term of office and the widespread Joseph Estrada (Nationalist People’s Coalition) won
poverty which was prevalent that curtail the rebirth of with 6,739,738, second was Marcelo Fernan (Laban ng
Philippine democracy. Close family affiliations of the Demokratikong Pilipino) with 4,438,494 votes, Emilio
Cojuangco and Sumulong to the Aquino administration Osmeña, (LAKAS-NUCD) with 3,362,467 votes,
led in nepotism and the growth of local politics affiliated Ramon Magsaysay Jr. (Peoples Reform Party) with
with the affluent and influential families. 2,900,556 votes, Aquilino Pimentel (PDP-LABAN)
with 2,023,289 and Vicente Magsaysay (KBL) with
The Aquino administration immediate banked on
699,895 votes. (New York Times, 1992) The military
the restoration of democracy. It was however short-
influence that backup the Ramos candidacy became
lived because of the rampant human rights violation,
conspicuous. During the election period, widespread
widespread corruption and red tape in the bureaucracy.
brownouts became the reason for the static results of
Aquino’s presidency should have been the transition
the election. Vote shaving and padding became rampant
in democracy but was subsequently thwarted. There
during this democratic exercise.
have been three attempts to establish democracy in
the Philippines, the first was during the Philippine The primary government program of Ramos
Revolution of liberation from Spain in the late was the immediate restoration of power due to
nineteenth century, culminating in the inauguration outages. He placed the Philippines in the line of
of the democratic albeit short-lived Philippine globalization establishing a medium term development
Republic; a second try took place with the gradual program (Philippines 2000) centering on economic

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sustainability, peace and prosperity, energy generation constitution and loss of public trust which led to his
and conservation, environmental protection and cutting impeachment trial. The trial was suppressed by senators
of bureaucracy. close to him but resulted in the Edsa People Power
Popularity and Power: Joseph Estrada 2 revolt that place Vice President Gloria Macapagal-
Presidency Arroyo as President of the Republic of the Philippines
in 2001.
For the third time in Philippine political history,
the President and Vice president belonged to opposing Gloria Macapagal Arroyo: Militarization of the
political parties. President Ramos is from Lakas-NUCD government and Influence Peddling
and Vice President Joseph Estrada is from Nationalist President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo succeeded
People’s Coalition. Vice President Joseph Estrada Joseph Estrada as chief executive when he was
gained popularity as a movie actor which he capitalized removed by the Edsa People Power 2 in 2001. Gloria
to earn him the mayoral post of San Juan in 1968,
Macapagal-Arroyo immediately strengthened her grip
Senator in 1987, Vice President in 1992 and finally
to power by declaring a state of rebellion in 2001 against
president in 1998. Appointed by President Ramos as
the supporters of Estrada who staged a counter Edsa
head of the anti-crime bureau, the Presidential Anti-
People Power 3 in May of 2001. Military adventurism
Crime Commission (PACC) in 1992. This position
was also prominent during her first term of office as
made him very popular among the masses.
the Oakwood Mutiny in Makati was hatched by a few
On May 11, 1998, the voice of the masses military rebels. Although the constitution explicitly
catapulted Joseph Estrada (Lapian ng Makabayang provided that a president can only run for a single
Masang Pilipino) to the presidency with 10,722,295 term, she became eligible because it was not more than
votes, followed by Jose de Venecia (LAKAS-NUCD- four years. Thus, on May 10, 2004, Gloria Macapagal-
UMPD) with 4,268,483 votes, Raul Roco (Aksyon Arroyo (LAKAS-Christian Muslim Democrats) won
Demokratiko) with 3,720,212 votes, Emilio Osmeña the presidency with 12,905,808 votes, Fernando Poe Jr.
(PROMDI Muna) with 3,347,631 votes, Alfredo Lim (Koalisyon ng Nagkakaisang Pilipino) with 11,782,232
(Liberal Party) 2,344,362 votes, Renato de Villa (Partido
votes, Panfilo Lacson (Laban ng Demokratikong
para sa Demokratikong Reporma) with 1,308,352 and
Pilipino) with 3,510,080 votes, Raul Roco (Aksyon
Miriam Defensor Santiago (PRP) with 797,206 votes.
Demokratiko) with 2,082,762 votes and Eddie
(Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/
Villanueva (Bangon Pilipinas Party) with 1,988,218
election.watch/asiapcf/philippines2.html, 1998) In
votes. (Quezon, 2005) In the Vice Presidential race,
the Vice Presidential race, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo(
Noli de Castro (Independent) won with 15,100,431
LAKAS-NUCD-UMDP) won with 12,667,252 votes,
votes, Loren Legarda (Koalisyon ng Nagkakaisang
followed by Edgardo Angara (Laban ng Demokratikong
Pilipino) with 14,218,709 votes, Herminio Aquino
Pilipino) with 5,652,068 votes, Oscar Orbos (Partido
(Aksyon Demokratiko) 981,500 votes. (Quezon, 2005)
para sa Demokratikong Reporma) with 3,32,779 votes,
Sergio Osmeña (Liberal Party) with 2,351,462 and It was noticeable that Arroyo would appoint loyal
Francisco Tatad (Peoples Reform Party) with 745,389. military officials in the government to create a blind
(Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/ following in her administration. The political culture
election.watch/asiapcf/philippines2.html, 1998) of debt of gratitude (utang na loob) became obvious
Political culture that catered to popularity rather under her administration. The second term of President
than achievement characterized by the acting roles Macapagal-Arroyo was marred with a state of
of Erap in the movies defending the poor created an emergency because of military adventurism caused by
image of savior and protector of the marginalized. her involvement in an election scandal. The expanded
Under the Estrada administration, he maintained peace value added tax scheme was one of the centerpieces
in Mindanao by subduing the Moro Islamic Liberation of her administration which met heavy opposition
Front. An increase in debt marked his administration from many walks of lives. The low popularity of the
that made life harder for the people. He was implicated Macapagal-Arroyo presidency led to the election of
in graft and corruption, culpable violation of the Benigno Simeon Aquino III as president in 2010.

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Benigno Aquino III: Complacency and inaction Retrieved from https://ph.rappler.com/elections/2016/

of the government on Key issues results/philippines/position/1/president 2016) In

Corazon Aquino has been the icon of Philippine the Vice Presidency, Lenie Robredo (Liberal Party)
democracy since 1986. The unpopular government of won with 14,418,817 votes, followed by Ferdinand
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo marred with electioneering “Bongbong” Marcos (Independent) with 14,155,344
and pronounced graft and corruption made an impact votes, Alan Peter Cayetano (PDP-LABAN) with
to a lot of Filipinos. Side by side with the death of 5,903,379 votes, Francis Escudero (Independent) with
President Aquino in 2009, her son, Noynoy Aquino 4,931,962, Antonio Trillanes with
became a popular candidate in 2010. On May 10, 2010, In the Vice Presidency, Lenie Robredo (Liberal
Benigno Simeon Aquino III (Liberal Party) won the
Party) won with 14,418,817 votes, followed by
presidential elections with 15,208,678 votes, Joseph
Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos (Independent) with
Estrada (Pwersa ng Masang Pilipino) with 9,487,837
14,155,344 votes, Alan Peter Cayetano (PDP-LABAN)
votes, Manny Villar (Nacionalista Party) with
with 5,903,379 votes, Francis Escudero (Independent)
5,573,835 votes, Gilbert Teodoro (LAKAS-KAMPI-
with 4,931,962 votes, Antonio Trillanes (Independent)
CMD) 4,095,839 votes and Eddie Villanueva with
with 868,501 votes and Gregorio Honasan (United
(Bangon Pilipinas Party) with 1,125,878. (Quezon,
Nationalist Alliance) with 788,881 votes. President
2005) For the Vice Presidential election, Jejomar Binay
Duterte’s close foreign ties with the People’s Republic
(PDP-LABAN) was victorious with 14,645,574 votes,
of China became a primary protest issue in his
Mar Roxas (Liberal Party), 13,918,490 votes, Loren
Legarda (NPC) with 4,294,664 votes, Bayani Fernado administration including the widespread extra judicial

(Bagumbayan-Volunteers for a New Philippines) with killing to curb criminality. Duterte’s administration,
1,017,631 votes. (Quezon, 2005) like Arroyo was also marked by militarization of the
government with the appointment of former generals to
President Benigno Simeon Aquino III, championed
promote strong government.
to clean the government of graft and corruption though
his “Straight Path” (Daang Matuwid) platform of DISCUSSION: GENERAL TRAITS FOUND IN
governance. However, the hostage taking of Chinese PHILIPPINE POLITICS
tourists in Quirino Grandstand (2010), the Typhoon In order to understand Philippine politics, one
Yolanda fund scandal (2013) and Dengvaxia Dengue
must look at the essential elements that occurred in
vaccine made President Pnoy very unpopular. His
its history. Through the years, Philippine politics have
accusing finger against the Arroyo administration
been tagged with several traits that are still prominent
promoted the political culture of fault-finding to masked
in today’s set-up. From this research, the following
the complacency and inefficiency of his administration.
could be attributed as General Traits of Philippine
Rodrigo Duterte: Extrajudicial Killings and Politics based in history.
Strong Government Control
Regionalism and Nepotism in Philippine politics
Mayor Rodrigo Duterte from Davao City was in
Regionalism is always an issue, especially in the
no way interested in the presidential derby of 2016.
elections. The Filipinos would have their biases based
However, with the popular clamor of the people to
on the place or region of the candidate. Although it
solve the disarray in peace and order situation of the
Philippines, he eventually gave it a shot for the race of was not always the issue, it was a significant factor in
the chief executive position. Banking on his anti-drug choosing their leaders. We always hear the Filipinos
campaign, on May 9, 2016, Rodrigo Duterte (PDP- saying “iboboto ko siya kasi kababayan ko siya,” (I
LABAN) won the presidency with 16,601,997 votes, will vote him/her because he/she is from our place/
followed by Mar Roxas (Liberal Party) with 9,978,175 province). Another good example is “The Solid North”
votes, Grace Poe (Independent) with 9,100,991 of the Marcoses. In our history, this was also the same
votes, Jejomar Binay (United Nationalist Alliance) thing that happened to Bonifacio, a Manileño, when he
with 5,416,140 votes and Miriam Defensor-Santiago went to Cavite and eventually lost to Emilio Aguinaldo,
(People’s Reform Party) with 5,416,140 votes. a Caviteño in Tejeros Convention.

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Nepotism is another trait that observed. The President Joseph Estrada was the typical one. He
family members were favored if a family is in the gained his popularity to the masses because of his
position. In many cases, they also train themselves background in show business. His frequent portrayal of
to become successful politicians in the future. In the masses from the movies he starred gained him the
history, a good example of this was during the time charisma to the people.
of Revolution, when Mariano Alvarez of Magdiwang, Another trait was “mudslinging.” During
siding to Bonifacio because of his relationship to him campaigns, it became a regular diet to the politicians
(Alvarez is the uncle of Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio’s to throw controversial issues to their opponents. One
wife). On the other hand, Baldomero Aguinaldo of good example in our history was the campaign of
Magdalo, siding with Emilio Aguinaldo because they Quezon. He slashed his opponent for the presidency,
were cousins. There are other instances in Philippine Emilio Aguinaldo, by bringing up the Supremo’s death,
politics involved by nepotism. At the time of President Andres Bonifacio. He even showed pictures of the
Joseph Estrada, on his inauguration as president of the recovered bones of the Supremo to show the people
Republic, he mentioned “Walang kama-kamag-anak...” the failed leadership of Aguinaldo in handling the
but eventually turned otherwise. situation, which brought political turmoil during the
period of Revolution.
Popularity and Mudslinging Style of Campaign
It became common to the politicians until today to
In the Philippines, popularity could be a big deal in
sway their campaigns in that kind of set-up. Morality
winning an elected position in the government. It was
could be another component to assess the qualification
a massive advantage if one is from the show business
and performance of the candidate.
because the so-called “fans” could be advantageous
for you to win in the elections. However, gaining The “Sacrifice”
popularity can be seen in many forms. In our history, Sacrifice was also observable in Philippine politics.
one good example was Quezon’s game in politics. President Laurel and other politicians claimed that
collaboration with the Japanese meant sacrifice to
At the start of his career as a politician, he was not
establish political stability and save the lives of
that popular because Sergio Osmeña emerged as the
many Filipinos from the Japanese’ atrocities. It gave
head and leader of the Nationalistas. Quezon paved
the Filipino leaders an avenue to provide necessary
his popularity to politics through his efforts to be
measures for them to be safe in the hands of violence
recognized as the champion of independence. Some of
brought by the occupation. Another form of sacrifice
which was the passage of Jones Law of 1916, and the
could mean the ending of his life, just like in the case
rejection of Hare-Hawes Cutting Law and be replaced
of Jose Abad Santos, who refused to collaborate with
by Tydings-McDuffie Law which dubbed in history as
the Japanese.
the product of Quezon Independence mission.
President Quezon also had a share of this sacrifice
On the part of Magsaysay, he became famous
when he left the Philippines while being attacked by
because of his efforts to prevent the spread of
the Japanese forces and establish the government
communist activities of the HUKS. In addition to that, in exile in the United States. There, he pushed the
his charismatic personality and rugged style fashion agenda for the plans of the Allied forces in the Pacific
got the attention of the masses. His simplistic and pro- War and continued to send messages to the Filipino
masses projects got more appeal to the people, mainly people in facing the darkest moments of their lives
when he used the Barong Tagalog as his formal wear until he died in 1944. Sergio Osmeña also sacrificed
upon electing in the presidency. by waiving his constitutional right as Vice President
In the case of Marcos, his popularity came from his of the Commonwealth by giving President Quezon an
brilliance as a lawyer and a politician. The controversial extension of his term while they were in exile.
Nalundasan Case which he won by defending himself Another form of sacrifice was of Corazon Aquino.
and passing the bar with the highest distinction. Soon, She was convinced to run in the presidency and
Marcos found his popularity among the people. challenged the strongman Ferdinand Marcos in the snap

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elections of 1986. She used the memory of her husband, para sa Masa,” by Joseph Estrada, “Kung Walang
Senator Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, in her campaigns to Corrupt, Walang Mahirap,” of Benigno Aquino III and
remind the people of the effects of Marcos’ dictatorship “Tapang at Malasakit,” and “Change is Coming,” by
in the nation. She sacrificed her motherly duties and Rodrigo Duterte.
quiet life to bring Filipinos the democracy that lost for
The Problem of Having two Opposing Parties in
many years.
Office
The same thing happened to Rodrigo Duterte when
It was also observable in Philippine politics that
he found himself a substitute candidate for PDP-Laban
once the elected President and Vice President came
for the 2016 Presidential Elections. He sacrificed his
from different parties, problems may occur in building
bid for re-election as mayor of Davao City to replace
a harmonious relationship between the two. The
Martin Dino as the official PDP-Laban candidate. Sarah
programs of the administration might always be put into
Duterte filed the candidacy for Davao City mayoralty
question because they oppose each other. It happened
bid, replacing her father (GMA News Online, 2015).
at the time of President Carlos Garcia (Nationalista)
According to Duterte, he was pleased by the heed of the
and Vice President Diosdado Macapagal (Liberal),
people to run. As he mentioned in one of his interviews:
President Fidel Ramos (LAKAS NUCD-UMDP), and
‘’Iyan ang iniisip ng mga tao. Pipigilan mo ba? People
Vice President Joseph Estrada (NPC). Today, we are
again are speculating on my candidacy during the
witnessing it through President Rodrigo Duterte of
substitution month. Para matapos na lang ang ingay
PDP-Laban, always criticized by his Vice President
‘o sige’ tingnan natin sa Disyembre. Hope springs
Leni Robredo of Liberal Party, vice-versa, resulting in
eternal,’’ he said (ABS-CBN News, 2015).
the bile relationship of the two top administrators of the
The Birth of U.S. Neocolonialism Philippine government.
The establishment of the Liberal Party to be Political Turncoatism
separated from its mother political party Nationalista
Turncoatism or turncoats could probably have one
paved the way to the start of having two majority
of the traits that are noticeable in Philippine politics
parties in Philippine politics. However, compared to
at present. In history, the most popular among all was
the United States system, it was quite far because, still,
the action done by Ferdinand Marcos for the 1965
the popularity of the people was more important than
Presidential elections. As mentioned in the findings
the party’s agenda. The emergence of the Liberal party
of this research, because of the broken promise of his
saw in the Philippines’ history as the starting point of
party mate (Liberal), Diosdado Macapagal, he accepted
adopting Neo-colonial policies of the United States in
the offer of the Nacionalista to become the standard-
the Philippines.
bearer for the 1965 Presidential elections and won the
The Importance of Media in Political Campaigns race after.
When Magsaysay started his campaign for the In recent years, many politicians, not only those who
presidency by having a “jingle” or a song with a are bidding for the presidency, have switched parties to
combination of dance and a pop nature of the song, win. They look at the atmosphere of the political party
Filipino hearts were easily captured because, in general, that gains more support from the people. Furthermore,
it is the nature of the Filipinos to be musically inclined. since the government allows a multi-party system, it is
Frequent repetition of the political jingle, in the majority, effortless for the politicians to switch parties and bring
helped the Filipino politician, especially the presidential their brand during the campaign.
candidate, to win the position the desired. This culture
Military backed-up Leadership and Building the
continues until today, where many politicians hiring
Strongmen
pop artists to compose a very catchy jingle for their
campaign for the Filipinos easily comprehend on their If the leader of the country would have strong
platforms once they were elected. Political slogans also support from its military unit is always right in the
were seen as a handy measure to capture votes from the Philippines, it will make or break someone’s career in
Filipinos. It was also Magsaysay who started the trend. politics. There were many instances that the military
Examples of which were “Magsaysay is my Guy,” Erap fueled the leadership of a President. One good

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 Archie B. Resos et al/Vol 9. No 1_January 2023| p.13-28

example was when most of the revolutionaries joined and money propelled the Liberal party to its success.
Emilio Aguinaldo for his cause for independence. In However, Magsaysay would bank on his closeness to
contemporary times, one of the remarkable events was the masses in expounding about the deterioration of
the military’s support to Corazon Aquino and held her peace and order; cheating in the elections and graft and
as president of People Power. The military withdrew corruption as primary issues in his campaign. Riding
their support to Ferdinand Marcos and joined the on the crest as savior of democracy, he won easily
people calling the resignation of the late strongman. against the incumbent. Carlos Garcia’s election proved
that there is no advancement in the development of the
It also happened at the time of Joseph Estrada. The
nation if political polarization would characterize the
military withdrew their support to his leadership and
government.
followed the call of the people gathered in EDSA in
2001, dubbed in history as EDSA Dos that brought Having the President and Vice President from two
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo to the presidency. opposing party made the derailment of government
progress. Diosdado Macapagal’s administration
At the time of Fidel Ramos, he was backed up by
which has not recognized the political potential of his
the military because of his institution’s background.
close ally, Ferdinand Marcos resulted in the political
President Marcos appointed him as Vice Chief of
turncoatism to emerged as Marcos jumped to the
Staff of the defunct Philippine Constabulary. During
Nacionalista Party which gave him success as standard
Corazon Aquino’s leadership, he was appointed Chief
bearer and President of the Republic. The twenty-one
of staff of the Philippines’ Armed Forces.
years of the Marcos administration was characterized by
Military backed-up leadership will also bring the political disloyalty, mail-fist policy and constitutional
status of the leader of becoming a “strongmen.” It authoritarianism. Corazon Aquino’s administration
happened in the case of Ferdinand Marcos, especially became a haven for the growth of political dynasties.
during the Martial Law years and at present, in the Family members became influential in government
administration of President Rodrigo Duterte. position including close friends and allies. Fidel Ramos
CONCLUSION presidency has been marred by cheating, vote padding
and shaving (dagdag bawas) Strong government
Philippine political culture has been characterized by
a strong regionalism, debt of gratitude (utang na loob), machinery catapulted Ramos to power with his

bickering, mudslinging, close family ties (political anointing from the Aquino administration.
dynasty and nepotism) and turncoatism. These would The political culture of popularity made Joseph
characterize the kind of presidential elections in the Estrada as chief executive of the nation. Being a movie
Philippines including the growth and rise of political actor made him very popular among the masses thus
parties in the country. The United States of America catapulting him to Malacañang. However, his close
initiated moves to make the Philippines as the showcase affiliation with friends and cronies resulted in his
of democracy in Asia. From the election of the first eventual downfall in power. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo, the democratic became president with pronouncement of influence-
practice of selecting the ruler has been marred by peddling and debt of gratitude. She became chief
controversy of electioneering and debt of gratitude. executive for nine years under the shadow of graft and
The election of Quezon during the Commonwealth corruption and shady deals. Benigno Simeon Aquino
period has shown how political bickering became the III became president but the political culture of blaming
instrument of destroying the image of the opponent and inaction marked his administration. Finally,
by focusing on the dark side of the past. (execution of Rodrigo Duterte was elected president. Unfortunately,
Bonifacio as ordered by Aguinaldo.) the political culture of violence, extrajudicial killings
The election of Manuel Roxas in 1946 exhibited how and vendetta marked his administration. Did American
black propaganda destroyed the credibility of Osmeña democracy work perfectly in the Philippines? In terms
by pointing out in the campaign that he is tolerant of of the methods employed, it did. Elections, constitutions
the issue of collaboration. The ascendancy of Elpidio and human rights made it procedurally work in the
Quirino has shown obviously that political machinery Philippines. However, substantially, we have not yet

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 Archie B. Resos et al/Vol 9. No 1_January 2023| p.13-28

matured when it comes to accountability, transparency news.abs-cbn.com/nation/10/27/15/party-picks-

and the promotion of social justice. duterte-as-substitute-in-presidential-race”>https://
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