CHAPTER TWO

2 INTRODUCTION TO METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND

PRESENTATION

2.1 Methods of data collection

There are two sources of data:
1. Primary Data
 Data measured or collected by the investigator or the user
directly from the source.
 Two activities involved: planning and measuring.
a) Planning:
 Identify source and elements of the data.
 Decide whether to consider sample or census.
 If sampling is preferred, decide on sample
size, selection method,… etc
 Decide measurement procedure.
 Set up the necessary organizational structure.
b) Measuring: there are different options.
 Focus Group
 Telephone Interview
 Mail Questionnaires
 Door-to-Door Survey
 Mall Intercept
 New Product Registration
 Personal Interview and
 Experiments are some of the sources for
collecting the primary data.
2. Secondary Data
 Data gathered or compiled from published and unpublished
sources or files.
 When our source is secondary data check that:
 The type and objective of the situations.
 The purpose for which the data are collected and
compatible with the present problem
 The nature and classification of data is appropriate to our
problem.
 There are no biases and misreporting in the published data.

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  Note. Data which are primary for one may be secondary
for the other.
2.2 Methods of data presentation
Having collected and edited the data, the next important step is to
organize it. That is to present it in a readily comprehensible
condensed form that aids in order to draw inferences from it. It is also
necessary that the like be separated from the unlike ones.

The presentation of data is broadly classified in to the following two

categories:

 Tabular presentation
 Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation.

The process of arranging data in to classes or categories according to

similarities technically is called classification.

Classification is a preliminary and it prepares the ground for proper

presentation of data.

Definitions:

 Raw data: recorded information in its original collected form,

whether it be counts or measurements, is referred to as raw data.
 Frequency: is the number of values in a specific class of the
distribution.
 Frequency distribution: is the organization of raw data in table
form using classes and frequencies.

2.2.1 Frequency distributions

There are three basic types of frequency distributions. Those are

categorical frequency distribution, ungrouped frequency
distribution and grouped frequency distribution.

There are specific procedures for constructing each type.

1) Categorical frequency Distribution:

Used for data that can be place in specific categories such as nominal,
or ordinal. e.g. marital status.
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 Example: a social worker collected the following data on marital status
for 25 persons. (M=married, S=single, W=widowed,
D=divorced)
M S D W D
S S M M M
W D S M M
W D D S S
S W W D D

Solution:

Since the data are categorical, discrete classes can be used. There are four
types of marital status M, S, D, and W. These types will be used as class
for the distribution. We follow procedure to construct the frequency
distribution.

Step 1: Make a table as shown.

Class Tally Frequency Percent

(1) (2) (3) (4)

M
S
D
W

Step 2: Tally the data and place the result in column (2).

Step 3: Count the tally and place the result in column (3).

Step 4: Find the percentages of values in each class by using;

f
% *100 Where f= frequency of the class, n=total number of value.
n

Percentages are not normally a part of frequency distribution but they can
be added since they are used in certain types diagrammatic such as pie
charts.

Step 5: Find the total for column (3) and (4).

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Combing all the steps one can construct the following frequency
distribution.

Class Tally Frequency Percent

(1) (2) (3) (4)

M //// 5 20
S //// // 7 28
D //// // 7 28
W //// 6 24

2) Ungrouped frequency Distribution:

 Is a table of all the potential raw score values that could possible
occur in the data along with the number of times each actually
occurred.
 Is often constructed for small set or data on discrete variable.

Constructing ungrouped frequency distribution:

 First find the smallest and largest raw score in the collected data.
 Arrange the data in order of magnitude and count the frequency.
 To facilitate counting one may include a column of tallies.

Example:

The following data represent the mark of 20 students.

80 76 90 85 80
70 60 62 70 85
65 60 63 74 75
76 70 70 80 85

Construct a frequency distribution, which is ungrouped.

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Solution:

Step 1: Find the range, Range=Max-Min=90-60=30.

Step 2: Make a table as shown
Step 3: Tally the data.
Step 4: Compute the frequency.
Mark Tally Frequency
60 // 2
62 / 1
63 / 1
65 / 1
70 //// 4
74 / 1
75 // 2
76 / 1
80 /// 3
85 /// 3
90 / 1

Each individual value is presented separately, that is why it is named

ungrouped frequency distribution.

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3) Grouped frequency Distribution:

 When the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped in to
classes that are more than one unit in width.

Definitions:

 Grouped Frequency Distribution: a frequency distribution when

several numbers are grouped in one class.
 Class limits: Separates one class in a grouped frequency distribution
from another. The limits could actually appear in the data and have
gaps between the upper limits of one class and lower limit of the
next.
 Units of measurement (U): the distance between two possible
consecutive measures. It is usually taken as 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, -----.
 Class boundaries: Separates one class in a grouped frequency
distribution from another. The boundaries have one more decimal
places than the row data and therefore do not appear in the data.
There is no gap between the upper boundary of one class and lower
boundary of the next class. The lower class boundary is found by
subtracting U/2 from the corresponding lower class limit and the
upper class boundary is found by adding U/2 to the corresponding
upper class limit.
 Class width: the difference between the upper and lower class
boundaries of any class. It is also the difference between the lower
limits of any two consecutive classes or the difference between any
two consecutive class marks.
 Class mark (Mid points): it is the average of the lower and upper
class limits or the average of upper and lower class boundary.
 Cumulative frequency: is the number of observations less
than/more than or equal to a specific value.
 Cumulative frequency above: it is the total frequency of all values
greater than or equal to the lower class boundary of a given class.
 Cumulative frequency blow: it is the total frequency of all values
less than or equal to the upper class boundary of a given class.
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution (CFD): it is the tabular
arrangement of class interval together with their corresponding
cumulative frequencies. It can be more than or less than type,
depending on the type of cumulative frequency used.

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 Relative frequency (rf): it is the frequency divided by the total
frequency.
 Relative cumulative frequency (rcf): it is the cumulative frequency
divided by the total frequency.

Guidelines for classes

1. There should be between 5 and 20 classes.

2. The classes must be mutually exclusive. This means that no data
value can fall into two different classes
3. The classes must be all inclusive or exhaustive. This means that
all data values must be included.
4. The classes must be continuous. There are no gaps in a frequency
distribution.
5. The classes must be equal in width. The exception here is the first
or last class. It is possible to have an "below ..." or "... and above"
class. This is often used with ages.

Steps for constructing Grouped frequency Distribution

1. Find the largest and smallest values

2. Compute the Range(R) = Maximum - Minimum
3. Select the number of classes desired, usually between 5 and 20 or
use Sturges rule k  1 3.32 log n where k is number of classes
desired and n is total number of observation.
4. Find the class width by dividing the range by the number of
R
classes and rounding up, not off. w  .
k
5. Pick a suitable starting point less than or equal to the minimum
value. The starting point is called the lower limit of the first class.
Continue to add the class width to this lower limit to get the rest
of the lower limits.
6. To find the upper limit of the first class, subtract U from the
lower limit of the second class. Then continue to add the class
width to this upper limit to find the rest of the upper limits.
7. Find the boundaries by subtracting U/2 units from the lower
limits and adding U/2 units from the upper limits. The boundaries
are also half-way between the upper limit of one class and the

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 lower limit of the next class. !may not be necessary to find the
boundaries.
8. Tally the data.
9. Find the frequencies.
10.Find the cumulative frequencies. Depending on what you're
trying to accomplish, it may not be necessary to find the
cumulative frequencies.
11.If necessary, find the relative frequencies and/or relative
cumulative frequencies

Example*:

Construct a frequency distribution for the following data.

11 29 6 33 14 31 22 27 19 20
18 17 22 38 23 21 26 34 39 27

Solutions:

Step 1: Find the highest and the lowest value H=39, L=6

Step 2: Find the range; R=H-L=39-6=33

Step 3: Select the number of classes desired using Sturges formula;

k  1 3.32 log n =1+3.32log (20) =5.32=6(rounding up)

Step 4: Find the class width; w=R/k=33/6=5.5=6 (rounding up)

Step 5: Select the starting point, let it be the minimum observation.

 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 are the lower class limits.

Step 6: Find the upper class limit; e.g. the first upper class=12-U=12-
1=11

 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, 41 are the upper class limits.

So combining step 5 and step 6, one can construct the following classes.

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 Class limits
6 – 11
12 – 17
18 – 23
24 – 29
30 – 35
36 – 41

Step 7: Find the class boundaries;

E.g. for class 1 Lower class boundary=6-U/2=5.5

Upper class boundary =11+U/2=11.5

 Then continue adding w on both boundaries to obtain the rest

boundaries. By doing so one can obtain the following classes.

Class boundary
5.5 – 11.5
11.5 – 17.5
17.5 – 23.5
23.5 – 29.5
29.5 – 35.5
35.5 – 41.5

Step 8: tally the data.

Step 9: Write the numeric values for the tallies in the frequency
column.

Step 10: Find cumulative frequency.

Step 11: Find relative frequency or/and relative cumulative

frequency.

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 The complete frequency distribution follows:

Class Class Class Tally Freq. Cf (less Cf (more rf. rcf (less
limit boundary Mark than than than type
type) type)
6 – 11 5.5 – 11.5 8.5 // 2 2 20 0.10 0.10
12 – 17 11.5 – 17.5 14.5 // 2 4 18 0.10 0.20
18 – 23 17.5 – 23.5 20.5 ////// 7 11 16 0.35 0.55
24 – 29 23.5 – 29.5 26.5 //// 4 15 9 0.20 0.75
30 – 35 29.5 – 35.5 32.5 /// 3 18 5 0.15 0.90
36 – 41 35.5 – 41.5 38.5 // 2 20 2 0.10 1.00

Exercise Construct a frequency distribution for the following data.

16 16 5 8 9 11 14 12 15 18 40 25 21 35

6 36 25 37 23 20 19 27 38 10 22 33 29

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 2.2.2 Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation of data.

These are techniques for presenting data in visual displays using geometric
and pictures.

Importance:

 They have greater attraction.

 They facilitate comparison.
 They are easily understandable.

-Diagrams are appropriate for presenting discrete data.

-The three most commonly used diagrammatic presentation for discrete as

well as qualitative data are; Pie charts, pictogram and bar charts.

Pie chart

 A pie chart is a circle that is divided in to sections or wedges

according to the percentage of frequencies in each category of the
distribution. The angle of the sector is obtained using:

Valueofthe part
Angleof sec tor  * 360
thewholequ antity

Example: Draw a suitable diagram to represent the following population in a

town.

Men Women Girls Boys

2500 2000 4000 1500

Solutions:

Step 1: Find the percentage.

Step 2: Find the number of degrees for each class.

Step 3: Using a protractor and compass, graph each section and write its name
corresponding percentage.

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 Class Frequency Percent Degree
Men 2500 25 90
Women 2000 20 72
Girls 4000 40 144
Boys 1500 15 54

CLASS

Boys Men

Girls Women

Pictogram

 In this diagram, we represent data by means of some picture symbols.

We decide abut a suitable picture to represent a definite number of
units in which the variable is measured.

Example: draw a pictogram to represent the following population of

a town.
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 Year 1989 1990 1991 1992
Population 2000 3000 5000 7000

Bar Charts:
 A set of bars (thick lines or narrow rectangles) representing some
magnitude over time space.
 They are useful for comparing aggregate over time space.
 Bars can be drawn either vertically or horizontally.
 There are different types of bar charts. The most common being :
 Simple bar chart
 Deviation o0r two way bar chart
 Broken bar chart
 Component or sub divided bar chart.
 Multiple bar charts.

Simple Bar Chart

-Are used to display data on one variable.

-They are thick lines (narrow rectangles) having the same breadth. The
magnitude of a quantity is represented by the height /length of the bar.
Example: The following data represent sale by product, 1957- 1959 of a given
company for three products A, B, C.

Product Sales($) Sales($) Sales($)

In 1957 In 1958 In 1959
A 12 14 18
B 24 21 18
C 24 35 54

Solutions:

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 Sales by product in 1957

30
25
Sales in $

20
15
10
5
0
A B C
product

Component Bar chart

-When there is a desire to show how a total (or aggregate) is divided in to its
component parts, we use component bar chart.
-The bars represent total value of a variable with each total broken in to its
component parts and different colours or designs are used for identifications
Example:
Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by product from 1957 to 1959.
Solutions:

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 SALES BY PRODUCT 1957-1959

100

80
Sales in $

Product C
60
Product B
40
Product A
20

0
1957 1958 1959
Year of production

Multiple Bar charts

- These are used to display data on more than one variable.
- They are used for comparing different variables at the same time.
Example:
Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by product from 1957 to
1959.

Solutions:

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 Sales by product 1957-1959

60
50
Sales in $

40 Product A
30 Product B
20 Product C

10
0
1957 1958 1959
Year of production

2.2.3 Graphical Presentation of data

- The histogram, frequency polygon and cumulative frequency graph or ogive
are most commonly applied graphical representation for continuous data.
Procedures for constructing statistical graphs:
 Draw and label the X and Y axes.
 Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative frequencies and
label it on the Y axes.
 Represent the class boundaries for the histogram or ogive or the mid
points for the frequency polygon on the X axes.
 Plot the points.
 Draw the bars or lines to connect the points.

Histogram

A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of various heights, to
represent frequencies. Class boundaries are placed along the horizontal axes.
Class marks and class limits are some times used as quantity on the X axes.

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Example: Construct a histogram to represent the previous data (example *).
Frequency Polygon:
 A line graph. The frequency is placed along the vertical axis and
classes mid points are placed along the horizontal axis. It is customer
to the next higher and lower class interval with corresponding
frequency of zero, this is to make it a complete polygon.
Example: Draw a frequency polygon for the above data (example *).
Solutions:
8

4
Value Frequency

0
2. 5 8. 5 14.5 20.5 26.5 32.5 38.5 44.5

Class Mid points

Ogive (cumulative frequency polygon)

 A graph showing the cumulative frequency (less than or more than
type) plotted against upper or lower class boundaries respectively.
That is class boundaries are plotted along the horizontal axis and the
corresponding cumulative frequencies are plotted along the vertical
axis. The points are joined by a free hand curve.
Example: Draw an ogive curve(less than type) for the above data.
(Example *)

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