ELT2035 Signals & Systems

Lecture 12: The z-Transform

Hoang Gia Hung

Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications
University of Engineering and Technology, VNU Hanoi
 Introduction
❑ Fourier representations of DT signals and LTI systems are
based on superpositions of complex sinusoids
➢ Does not exist for signals that are not absolutely summable;
➢ Cannot be easily used to analyze unstable or marginally stable systems.

❑ z-transform provides a broader characterization of discrete

time signals and LTI systems than Fourier methods
𝜎+𝑗Ω 𝑘
➢ Based on superpositions of discrete time complex exponentials 𝑒
rather than complex sinusoids 𝑒𝑗Ω𝑘 .
➢ The z-transform exists for signals that do not have a DTFT by selecting a
proper value for 𝜎, for example:
𝑓𝑘
𝛼 𝑘 𝑢[𝑘] 𝑓[𝑘]𝑟 −𝑘

𝑘 𝑘
 The z-transform
❑ Consider the Fourier transform of 𝑓[𝑘]𝑒 −𝜎𝑘 (𝜎 real)
➢ ℱ 𝑓 𝑘 𝑒 −𝜎𝑘 = σ∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑓 𝑘 𝑒
−𝜎𝑘 −𝑗Ω𝑘
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝜎+𝑗Ω = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗Ω
= σ∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑓[𝑘] 𝑒
−(𝜎+𝑗Ω)𝑘
= 𝐹(𝑒 𝜎+𝑗Ω ).
1 𝜋
➢ ℱ −1 𝐹 𝑒 𝜎+𝑗Ω = ‫׬‬−𝜋
𝐹(𝑒 𝜎+𝑗Ω )𝑒 𝑗Ω𝑘 𝑑Ω = 𝑓[𝑘]𝑒 −𝜎𝑘
2𝜋
1 𝜋 𝜎+𝑗Ω (𝜎+𝑗Ω)𝑘
→ 𝑓[𝑘] = ‫׬‬ 𝐹(𝑒 )𝑒 𝑑Ω.
2𝜋 −𝜋
𝜎+𝑗Ω
➢ Substituting 𝑧 for 𝑒 yields bilateral z-transform pair.
1
Notice that ln 𝑧 = 𝜎 + 𝑗Ω, thus 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑗𝑑Ω.
𝑧
𝑧
❑ Bilateral z-transform pair (commonly denoted as 𝑓 𝑘 𝐹(𝑧)):
𝐹 𝑧 = σ∞ 𝑘=−∞ 𝑓[𝑘]𝑧
−𝑘 (1)
1
𝑓[𝑘] = ‫ׯ‬ 𝐹(𝑧)𝑧 𝑘−1 𝑑𝑧 (2)
2𝜋𝑗
➢ As Ω varies from −𝜋 to 𝜋, 𝑧 completes exactly one rotation in
counterclockwise direction → the integral in (2) is a contour integral around
a circle of radius 𝑟 in counterclockwise direction.
➢ In practice, we usually do not evaluate (2) directly.
 The z-transform and the DTFT
❑ If 𝜎 = 0: 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝐹(𝑒 𝑗Ω )
➢ The DTFT is a special case of the z-transform by letting 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑗Ω (i.e. 𝑧
circumnavigates along the unit circle on the z-plane).
 The z-transform: example
Determine the z-transform of the signal

1, 𝑛 = −1
2, 𝑛=0
𝑥 𝑛 = −1, 𝑛=1 .
1, 𝑛=2
0, otherwise
Use the z-transform to determine the DTFT of 𝑥 𝑛 .
SOLUTION
➢ 𝑋 𝑧 = σ∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑥[𝑘]𝑧
−𝑘
= 𝑧 + 2 − 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2
➢ Substituting 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑗Ω to 𝑋 𝑧 yields 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗Ω = 𝑒 𝑗Ω + 2 − 𝑒 −𝑗Ω +
𝑒 −2𝑗Ω
 Region of convergence (ROC)
❑ The ROC of 𝐹(𝑧) is a set of values of 𝑧 (a region in the z-plane)
for which the infinite sum in Eq. (1) converges.
➢ Necessary condition: 𝑓[𝑘]𝑧 −𝑘 is absolute summable. Since 𝑓[𝑘]𝑧 −𝑘 =
𝑓[𝑘]𝑟 −𝑘 , Eq. (1) converges if σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑓[𝑘]𝑟
−𝑘
< ∞.
➢ Two different signals may have the same 𝐹(𝑧) with different ROC, i.e.
there’s no 1-to-1 correspondence btw 𝐹(𝑧) and 𝑓[𝑘] unless the ROC is
specified.
➢ Example: Find the z-transform and ROC for 𝑥[𝑘] = 𝛼 𝑘 𝑢[𝑘]
➢ Solution:
𝛼 𝑘
𝑋 𝑧 = σ∞ 𝑘
𝑘=−∞ 𝛼 𝑢[𝑘]𝑧
−𝑘
= σ∞
𝑘=0 𝑧
▪ For 𝑧 > 𝛼 , the sum converges to
1 𝑧
𝑋 𝑧 = 𝛼= .
1− 𝑧−𝛼
𝑧 𝛼
• For 𝑧 ≤ 𝛼 , the sum does not
converge. Hence, the ROC of 𝑋 𝑧 is the
shaded region outside the circle of radius
𝛼 , centred at the origin in the z-plane.
 Poles and zeros
𝑏෨ ς𝑀
𝑘=1 1−𝑐𝑘 𝑧
−1
❑ Like in the CT case, it is useful to express 𝑋 𝑧 = ς𝑀 −1
𝑘=1 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧
➢ The roots of the numerator polynomial, 𝑐𝑘, are termed the zeros of 𝑋(𝑧).
➢ The roots of the numerator polynomial, 𝑑𝑘, are termed the poles of 𝑋(𝑧).

❑ Example:
➢ Find the z-transform of the signal 𝑥 𝑘 = −𝛼 𝑘 𝑢[−𝑘 − 1]. Depict the ROC and
locations of poles, zeros of 𝑋(𝑧) in the z-plane.
❑ Solution:
∞ ∞
𝑧 𝑛
𝑘 −𝑘
𝑋 𝑧 = ෍ −𝛼 𝑢[−𝑘 − 1]𝑧 =1−෍
𝛼
𝑘=−∞ 𝑛=0
➢ For 𝑧 > 𝛼 , the sum does not converge.
➢ For 𝑧 < 𝛼 , the sum converges to 𝑋 𝑧 =
𝛼 𝑧
1− = → the ROC is the shaded 𝛼
𝛼−𝑧 𝑧−𝛼
region inside the circle of radius |𝛼|, centered
at the origin in the z-plane.
➢ The signal has one zero at 𝑧 = 0 and one
pole at 𝑧 = 𝛼.
 Properties of the ROC

❑ The ROC cannot contain any pole.

➢ If 𝑑 is a pole → 𝑋(𝑑) = ±∞ → 𝑋(𝑧) does not converge at 𝑑 → 𝑑 ∉ ROC.

❑ The ROC for a finite-duration signal includes the entire z-

plane, except possibly 𝑧 = 0 or |𝑧| = ∞ (or both).
❑ Suppose that 𝑥[𝑛] satisfies exponentially bounded conditions:
𝑥[𝑛] ≤ 𝐴− 𝑟− 𝑛 , 𝑛 < 0; 𝑥 𝑡 ≤ 𝐴+ 𝑟+ 𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑛 𝑛
➢ 𝑥[𝑛] grows no faster than 𝑟+ for positive 𝑛 & 𝑟− for negative 𝑛
➢ If 𝑟+ < 𝑧 < 𝑟− then 𝑋(𝑧) converges. If 𝑟+ > 𝑟− , 𝑋(𝑧) does not converge.

❑ For exponentially bounded 𝑥[𝑛]:

➢ If 𝑥[𝑛] is a right-sided signal (i.e. 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 ∀𝑛 < 0), the ROC is 𝑧 > 𝑟+ .
➢ If 𝑥[𝑛] is a left-sided signal (i.e. 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 ∀𝑛 ≥ 0), the ROC is 𝑧 < 𝑟− .
➢ If 𝑥[𝑛] is a two-sided signal (i.e. 𝑥[𝑛] infinitely extends in both directions), the
ROC is 𝑟+ < 𝑧 < 𝑟− .
ROC of different types of signals
 Example: ROC of a two-sided signal
❑ Determine the z-transform and ROC for: 𝑥 𝑛 = −𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 +
1 𝑛
𝑢[𝑛].
2

❑ Solution:
∞ 𝑛
1
𝑋(𝑧) = ෍ 𝑢 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛 − 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 𝑧 −𝑛
2
𝑛=−∞
∞ 𝑛 −1 𝑛
1 1
= ෍ 𝑧 −𝑛 − ෍
2 𝑧
𝑛=0 𝑛=−∞
∞ 𝑛 ∞
1
= ෍ + 1 − ෍ 𝑧𝑘
2𝑧
𝑛=0 𝑘=0
➢ Both sums must converge in order for
𝑋(𝑧) to converge → 𝑧 > 1Τ2 & 𝑧 < 1.
1
➢ For 1Τ2 < 𝑧 < 1 𝑋 𝑧 = 1 +1−
1−
2𝑧
3
1 𝑧 2𝑧−
= 1
2
.
1−𝑧 𝑧− 𝑧−1
2
 Properties of the z-transform
𝑧 𝑧
❑ Linearity: assume 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑋(𝑧) with ROC 𝑅𝑥, 𝑦 𝑛 𝑌(𝑧) with ROC
𝑧
𝑅𝑦, then 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑛 ՞ 𝑎𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑌(𝑠) with ROC at least 𝑅𝑥 ∩ 𝑅𝑦 .
𝑧 1 1
❑ Time reversal: 𝑥[−𝑛] 𝑋 , with ROC .
𝑧 𝑅𝑥
𝑧
❑ Time shifting: 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 𝑧 −𝑛0 𝑋(𝑧), with ROC 𝑅𝑥 , except possibly
𝑧 = 0 or 𝑧 = ∞.
❑ Multiplication by an exponential sequence:
𝑧 𝑧
𝛼𝑛𝑥 𝑛 𝑋 , with ROC 𝛼 𝑅𝑥 .
𝑎
➢ 𝛼 𝑅𝑥 = the ROC boundaries are multiplied by 𝛼 , e.g. if 𝑅𝑥 is 𝑎 < 𝑧 < 𝑏,
then 𝛼 𝑅𝑥 is 𝛼 𝑎 < 𝑧 < 𝛼 𝑏.

❑ Convolution:
𝑧
𝑥 𝑛 ∗𝑦 𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 𝑌(𝑧), ) with ROC at least 𝑅𝑥 ∩ 𝑅𝑦 .
 Properties of the z-transform (cont.)
❑ Differentiation in the z-domain:
𝑧 𝑑
𝑛𝑥 𝑛 −𝑧 𝑋(𝑧), with ROC 𝑅𝑥 .
𝑑𝑧

❑ Initial and final value theorems:

𝑥 0 = lim 𝑋(𝑧) , if 𝑥 𝑛 is 𝐜𝐚𝐮𝐬𝐚𝐥
𝑧→∞
𝑥 ∞ = lim (𝑧 − 1)𝑋(𝑧) , if poles of 𝑧 − 1 𝑋 𝑧 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 the unit circle
𝑧→1

❑ Example: Find the z-transform of 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 cos Ω0 𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] with 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅+

❑ Solution:
1 1 𝑧 𝑧
➢ We have 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗Ω0 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑒 −𝑗Ω0 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 , where 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 ՞ with
2 2 𝑧−𝑎
ROC 𝑧 > 𝑎.
➢ Applying the property of multiplication by an exponential sequence to 𝑦 𝑛
(twice), we obtain:
1 −𝑗Ω0 1 𝑗Ω0 1−𝑎 cos Ω0 𝑧 −1
𝑋 𝑧 = 𝑌 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑌 𝑒 𝑧 = , with ROC 𝑧 > 𝑎.
2 2 1−2𝑎 cos Ω0 𝑧 −1 +𝑎2 𝑧 −2
Some common z-transform pairs
Some common z-transform pairs (cont.)
 Inversion of the z-transform
❑ Partial fraction expansion:
𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀 +𝑏𝑀−1 𝑧 −(𝑀−1) +⋯+𝑏1 𝑧 −1 +𝑏0 𝐴𝑘
➢ Convert 𝑋 𝑧 = to 𝑋 𝑧 = σ𝑁
𝑘=1 if 𝑑𝑘 are
𝑎0 ς𝑁
𝑘=1 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧
−1 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 −1
distinct.
➢ If 𝑑𝑖 is repeated 𝑟 times, the partial fraction expansion associated with that
𝐴𝑖1 𝐴𝑖2 𝐴𝑖𝑟
pole must involve 𝑟 terms: −1 , −1 2 , ⋯ , −1 𝑟 .
1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧

➢ The inverse z-transform associated with each term is:

𝑧 𝐴𝑘
𝑛
𝐴𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑢[𝑛] ՞ with ROC 𝑧 > 𝑑𝑘 ; or
1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 −1
▪ ൞ 𝑧 𝐴𝑘
or
𝑛
−𝐴𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1] ՞ with ROC 𝑧 < 𝑑𝑘 ;
1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 −1

𝑛+1 ⋯ 𝑛+𝑚−1 𝑧 𝐴𝑘
𝑛
𝐴 𝑑𝑘 𝑢[𝑛] ՞ with ROC 𝑧 > 𝑑𝑘 ; or
𝑚−1 ! 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 −1 𝑚
▪ ൞ 𝑛+1 ⋯ 𝑛+𝑚−1 𝑧 𝐴𝑘
𝑛
−𝐴 𝑑𝑘 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 ՞ with ROC 𝑧 < 𝑑𝑘 .
𝑚−1 ! 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 −1 𝑚

➢ Due to linearity property, i.e. the ROC of 𝑋(𝑧) is at least the intersection of
individual ROCs, the ROC of each term must be correctly inferred from the
ROC of 𝑋(𝑧).
 Example: inversion by partial fraction
expansion
1−𝑧 −1 +𝑧 −2
❑ Find the inverse z-transform of 𝑋 𝑧 = 1 with
1−2𝑧 −1 1−2𝑧 −1 1−𝑧 −1
ROC 1 < 𝑧 < 2.
❑ Solution:
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
➢ Applying partial fraction expansion: 𝑋 𝑧 = 1 + +
1− 𝑧 −1 1−2𝑧 −1 1−𝑧 −1
2
1 2 2
➢ Solving for 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 gives 𝑋 𝑧 = 1 + −
1− 𝑧 −1 1−2𝑧 −1 1−𝑧 −1
2

➢ Now we find the inverse z-transform of each term, using the relationship
between the locations of the poles and the ROC of 𝑋(𝑧), each of which is
depicted in the below Figure:
✓ The ROC has a radius greater than the pole
at 𝑧 = 1/2, so this term has the right-sided
1 𝑛 𝑧 1
inverse transform: 𝑢𝑛 1 .
2 1− 𝑧 −1
2

✓ The ROC also has a radius less than the

pole at 𝑧 = 2, so this term has the left-sided
𝑧 1
inverse transform: − 2 𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1
1−2𝑧 −1
Example: inversion by partial fraction
expansion (cont.)
✓ Finally, the ROC has a radius greater than the pole at 𝑧 = 1, so this term
𝑧 1
has the right-sided inverse z-transform: 𝑢 𝑛 .
1−𝑧 −1
➢ Combining the individual term gives:
1 𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 − 2 2 𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 − 2𝑢[𝑛].
2
 Inversion of the z-transform (cont.)
❑ Power series expansion:
➢ Bring 𝑋 𝑧 to the form of a power series in 𝑧 −1 or 𝑧, then the values of 𝑥[𝑛]
are the coefficients associated with 𝑧 −𝑛 .
➢ This inversion method is limited to one-sided signals only, i.e. signals with
ROCs of the form 𝑧 > 𝑎 or 𝑧 < 𝑎. If the ROC is 𝑧 > 𝑎 → express 𝑋 𝑧 as
a power series in 𝑧 −1 → right-sided 𝑥[𝑛], and vice versa.
2
❑ Example: Find the inverse z-transform of 𝑋 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 , with ROC
all z except 𝑧 = ∞.
❑ Solution:
𝑎 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎
➢ Using the power series representation for 𝑒 , viz. 𝑒 = σ∞
𝑘=0 𝑘! , we have
∞ ∞
𝑧2 𝑘 𝑧 2𝑘
𝑋 𝑧 =෍ =෍
𝑘! 𝑘!
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
➢ On the other hand, as 𝑋 𝑧 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧
−𝑛
by definition, we conclude that
0, 𝑛 > 0 or 𝑛 odd
1
𝑥[𝑛] =
−𝑛 , otherwise
!
2
 The transfer function
❑ Derived in a similar manner to that of CT LTI systems.
𝑌(𝑧)
➢ 𝐻 𝑧 = and is called the transfer function of the DT LTI system.
𝑋(𝑧)
𝑌(𝑧)
➢ ℎ[𝑛] = 𝒵 −1 𝐻(𝑧) = 𝒵 −1 , 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝒵 −1 𝐻 𝑧 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑋(𝑧)

➢ In order to uniquely determine ℎ[𝑛], we must know the ROC. If the ROC is
not known, other system characteristics such as stability or causality must be
known.

❑ The transfer function can be obtained directly from the

difference equation that describes the system.
➢ Assume that the system is described by σ𝑁 𝑀
𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑘] = σ𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘].
Taking z-transform of both sides yields σ𝑁 −𝑘 𝑀 −𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 𝑌(𝑧) = σ𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 𝑋(𝑧).
𝑌(𝑧) σ𝑀
𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑧
−𝑘
➢ Rational transfer function: 𝐻 𝑧 = = σ𝑁 −𝑘
𝑋(𝑧) 𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑧

➢ The poles and zeros of a rational transfer function are found by factoring the
𝑏෨ ς𝑀
𝑘=1 1−𝑐𝑘 𝑧
−1
numerator and denominator 𝐻 𝑧 = ς𝑁 −1
.
𝑘=1 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧
 Causality and stability
❑ Causality: a DT LTI system is causal if ℎ 𝑛 = 0 ∀𝑛 < 0 → the
impulse response of a causal DT LTI system is determined from
its transfer function by using right-sided inverse transform.
❑ Stability: a DT LTI system is stable if its impulse response is
summable → the DTFT of the impulse response exists → the
ROC must includes the unit circle in the z-plane.
❑ If a system is causal:
𝐴𝑘 𝑧
𝑛
➢ 𝐴𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑢[𝑛] → the system is stable if all the poles are inside the
1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 −1
unit circle in the z-plane. If there’s at least one pole outside the unit circle →
unstable.

❑ If the system is anti-causal:

➢ ℎ[𝑛] is the left-sided inverse z-transform of 𝐻(𝑧).
𝐴𝑘 𝑧
𝑛
➢ −𝐴𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1] → the system is stable if all the poles are
1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 −1
outside the unit circle in the z-plane. If there’s at least one pole inside the
unit circle → unstable.
Causal system: pole locations and
impulse response
 Stable system: pole locations and
impulse response

➢ How’s about a system that is both stable and causal?

 Block diagram derivation
❑ Derived directly from the difference equation in the z-domain.
➢ Example: 𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑦 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑎2 𝑦 𝑛 − 2 = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑏2 𝑥 𝑛 − 2 
1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 −1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 −2 𝑌 𝑧 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + 𝑏2 𝑧 −2 𝑋(𝑧).

✓ 𝑧 −1 represents the shift operator.

➢ The block diagram description of a system is NOT unique.
 The direct form II
❑ Derived directly from the transfer function:
1
➢ Let 𝐻1 𝑧 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + 𝑏2 𝑧 −2 , 𝐻2 𝑧 = , then 𝑌 𝑧 =
1+𝑎1 𝑧 −1 +𝑎 2𝑧
−2

𝐻2 𝑧 𝐻1 𝑧 𝑋 𝑧 . Due to commutative & associative properties, 𝑌 𝑧 =

𝐻1 𝑧 𝐻2 𝑧 𝑋 𝑧 = 𝐻1 𝑧 𝐹(𝑧), where 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝐻2 𝑧 𝑋 𝑧 .
➢ Collapsing the two sets of 𝑧 −1 blocks → direct form II
 Determining the frequency response
from poles and zeros
෨ −𝑝 ς𝑀−𝑝 1−𝑐𝑘 𝑧 −1
𝑏𝑧 ෨ −𝑗𝑝Ω ς𝑀−𝑝 1−𝑐𝑘 𝑒 −𝑗Ω
𝑏𝑒
❑ Let 𝐻 𝑧 = 𝑘=1
→ 𝐻 𝑒 𝑗Ω = 𝑘=1
.
𝑧 −𝑙 ς𝑁−𝑙
𝑘=1 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑧 −1 𝑒 −𝑗𝑙Ω ς𝑁−𝑙
𝑘=1 1−𝑑𝑘 𝑒
−𝑗Ω

➢ The magnitude of 𝐻 𝑒 𝑗Ω at Ω0 is defined by

𝑀−𝑝
𝑗Ω0 𝑏෨ ς𝑘=1 𝑒 𝑗Ω0 −𝑐𝑘
𝐻 𝑒 = .
ς𝑁−𝑙
𝑘=1 𝑒
𝑗Ω0 −𝑑
𝑘

➢ In the z-plane, 𝑒 𝑗Ω0 − 𝑔 is a vector from the

point 𝑔 to the point 𝑒 𝑗Ω0 (𝑔 = a pole/zero).
➢ The frequency response is evaluated by the
contribution of all vectors 𝑒 𝑗Ω0 − 𝑔.
 Example
❑ Sketch the magnitude response for
1+𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝑗
𝜋
−𝑗
𝜋 .
1−0.9𝑒 4 𝑧 −1 1−0.9𝑒 4 𝑧 −1
❑ Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
➢ One zero at 𝑧 = −1 and two poles at 𝑧 = 0.9𝑒 𝑗 4 and 𝑧 = 0.9𝑒 −𝑗 4 .
➢ The contribution of the zero to the magnitude response is evaluated as follows
 Example solution

Contribution of the
𝜋
𝑗
pole at 𝑧 = 0.9𝑒 4

Contribution of the
𝜋
−𝑗
pole at 𝑧 = 0.9𝑒 4
Example solution (cont.)

The overall magnitude response

 Unilateral z-transform
❑ Many practical applications involve causal signals only
➢ It is advantageous to define the unilateral z-transform that works only on the
non-negative time portion of the signal → no need to consider the ROC.

❑ Definition
𝐹 𝑧 = σ∞
𝑘=0 𝑓[𝑘]𝑧
−𝑘 (3)
➢ The inverse transform remains the same as in the bilateral case.

❑ Properties: self-study (similar to those of bilateral z-transform).

➢ One important exception is the time shift property. The unilateral version for
a delayed signal is
𝑧𝑢
𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 𝑥 −𝑘 + 𝑥 −𝑘 + 1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑥 −1 𝑧 −𝑘+1 + 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑋 𝑧 for 𝑘 > 0
➢ and for an advanced signal is
𝑧𝑢
𝑥 𝑛+𝑘 − 𝑥 0 𝑧 𝑘 − 𝑥 1 𝑧 𝑘−1 − ⋯ − 𝑥 𝑘 − 1 𝑧 + 𝑧 𝑘 𝑋 𝑧 for 𝑘 > 0
➢ Application: solving difference equations with initial conditions.
Solving difference equations with initial
conditions via unilateral z-transform
❑ Idea:
➢ Taking unilateral z-transform of both sides of a difference equation, then use
algebra to obtain the z-transform of the solution & find the inverse z-transform.

❑ Consider: σ𝑁 𝑀
𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑘] = σ𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]
➢ Taking unilateral z-transform:
𝑁 𝑁−1 𝑁 𝑀

𝑌 𝑧 ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 + ෍ ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑦[−𝑘 + 𝑚]𝑧 −𝑚 = 𝑋 𝑧 ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑚=0 𝑘=𝑚+1 𝑘=0
𝐴 𝑧 𝐶(𝑧) 𝐵 𝑧
𝐵(𝑧) 𝐶(𝑧)
➢ Solving for z-transform of the solution: 𝑌 𝑧 = −
𝐴(𝑧) 𝐴(𝑧)

➢ Find 𝒵 −1 𝑌(𝑧) by partial fraction expansion or power series expansion.

❑ Example:
➢ Find the forced and natural responses of the system
𝑦 𝑛 + 3𝑦 𝑛 − 1 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥[𝑛 − 1],
1 𝑛
with 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑢[𝑛] and the initial condition is 𝑦 −1 = 2.
2
 Example solution
❑ Taking unilateral z-transform of both sides of a difference equation
𝑌 𝑧 1 + 3𝑧 −1 + 3𝑦[−1] = 𝑋 𝑧 1 + 𝑧 −1
𝐴 𝑧 𝐶(𝑧) 𝐵 𝑧

❑ Solving for z-transform of the solution:

1+𝑧 −1 1 6
𝑌 𝑧 = 1+3𝑧 −1 1 −1
− 1+3𝑧 −1
1− 𝑧
2

❑ Taking partial fraction expansion for 𝑌 𝑧 :

4/7 3/7 6
𝑌 𝑧 = + −
1 + 3𝑧 −1 1 − 1 𝑧 −1 1 + 3𝑧 −1
2

❑ Taking inverse z-transform of 𝑌 𝑧 yields

4 3 1 𝑛
➢ Forced response 𝑦 (𝑓) 𝑛 = −3 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 + 𝑢[𝑛]
7 7 2
➢ Natural response 𝑦 (𝑛) 𝑛 = −6 −3 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛
38 𝑛 3 1 𝑛
➢ Total response 𝑦 𝑛 = − −3 𝑢 𝑛 + 𝑢[𝑛]
7 7 2