Bio Project

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INTRODUCTION

Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix,


plasma, and formed elements. Blood is the most commonly
used body fluid by most of the higher organisms including
humans for this purpose. Another body fluid, lymph, also helps
in the transport of certain substances.
Blood of human beings differ in certain aspects though it
appears to be similar. Various types of grouping of blood has
been done. Two such groupings – the ABO and Rh – are widely
used all over the world.
ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two
surface antigens (chemicals that can induce immune response)
on the RBCs namely A and B. Similarly, the plasma of different
individuals contain two natural antibodies (proteins produced
in response to antigens).
During blood transfusion, any blood cannot be used; the blood
of a donor has to be carefully matched with the blood of a
recipient before any blood transfusion to avoid severe problems
of clumping (destruction of RBC).
Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one present in
Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh), is also observed on the surface of
RBCs of majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans. Such
individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom
this antigen is absent are called Rh negative (Rh-ve).
PRINCIPLE OF BLOOD GROUPING

It was in 1901, that Austrian-American


immunologist and pathologist Karl
Landsteiner discovered human blood
groups. Karl Landsteiner's work helps to
determine blood groups and thus opened
a way for blood transfusions which can
be carried out safely. He was awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1930 for this discovery.
He recognized three groups—A, B, and O—based on their
reactions to each other. A fourth group, AB, was identified a
year later by another research team.Other blood groups were
identified later, such as, Diego, Lutheran, Duffy, and Kidd. The
remaining blood group systems were rest described after
antibodies were identified in patients.
Once reliable tests for Rhesus grouping had been established,
transfusion reactions became rare! For this discovery
Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1930.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ANTIBODIES

Antibodies are part of the circulating plasma proteins


known as immunoglobulins, which are classified by molecular
size and weight and by several other biochemical properties.
Most blood group antibodies are found either on
immunoglobulin G or immunoglobulin M molecules, but
occasionally the immunoglobulin A class may exhibit blood
group specificity. Naturally occurring antibodies are the result
of immunization by substances in nature that have structures
similar to human blood groups. These antibodies are present in
an individual despite the fact that there has been no previous
exposure to the corresponding red cell antigens—for example,
anti-A in the plasma of people of blood group B and anti-B in
the plasma of people of blood group A.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ANTIGENS
The red cells of an individual contain antigens on their surfaces
that correspond to their blood group and antibodies in the serum
that identify and combine with the antigen sites on the surfaces
of red cells of another type.
Individual blood group antigens vary in their antigenic
potential; for example, some of the antigens belonging to the
Rh and ABO systems are strongly immunogenic (i.e., capable
of inducing antibody formation), whereas the antigens of the
Kidd and Duffy blood group systems are much weaker
immunogens.
The blood group antigens are not restricted solely to red cells
or even to hematopoietic tissues. The antigens of the ABO
system are widely distributed throughout the tissues and have
been unequivocally identified on platelets and white cells and
in skin, the epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract, the
kidney, the urinary tract, and the lining of the blood vessels.
Evidence for the presence of the antigens of other blood group
systems on cells other than red cells is less well substantiated.
Among the red cell antigens, only those of the ABO system are
regarded as tissue antigens and therefore need to be considered
in organ transplantation.
ABO BLOOD GROUPING SYSTEM:
ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two
surface antigens on the RBC namely A&B. Similarly, the
plasma of different individuals contain two natural antibodies.
The distribution of antigens & antibodies in the four groups of
blood, A,B,AB&O .

From theabove mentioned table it is evident that group O blood


can be donated to persons with any other blood group and hence
O group individuals are called ‘UNIVERSAL DONORS’.
Persons with AB group can accept blood from persons with AB
as well as the other groups of blood. Therefore, such persons
are called ‘UNIVERSAL RECIPIENTS’.
According to the AB0 blood group system there are four
different kinds of blood groups: A, B, AB and O.
Blood group A
If you are having blood group A, you have A
antigen on the surface of your red blood cells
and B antibodies in your blood plasma .

Blood group B
If you are having blood group B, you have B
antigen on the surface of your red blood cells
and A antibodies in your blood plasma.

Blood group O

If you are having blood group O, you have no


antigen on the surface of your red blood cells
and A,B antibodies in your blood plasma

Blood group AB
If you are having blood group AB, you have
both antigen AB on the surface of your red
blood cells and No antibodies in your blood
plasma
Some observations are as follows:

Here, coagulation took place by anti A & anti B. Hence, the blood group is AB
negative.

Here, coagulation took place by anti A & anti D. Hence, the blood
group is B negative.

Here, the coagulation took place by anti B & anti D. Hence, the
blood group is A negative.
BLOOD DONATION SCHEME

CONCLUSION:
We can conclude any blood group by observing its colour, and
other observations like coagulation or else we can use the
following table:

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