Laboratory Report Cover Sheet

SRM Institute of Science and Technology

College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
21ECC101J - Electronic System and PCB Design Lab
Second Semester, 2023-24 (EVEN Semester)

Name :
Register No. :
Day / Session :
Venue : 2nd Floor, BEL307 & BEL308, Basic Engineering Lab.
Title of Experiment :
Date of Conduction :
Date of Submission :

Particulars Max. Marks

Marks Obtained

Pre-lab questions 10

In-lab Performance and 20

Lab report

Post-lab Viva voce 20

Total 50

REPORT VERIFICATION

Date :
Staff Name :
Signature :
 Expt.- 2: Study and analysis of testing and measuring instruments

Aim:
• Study of various testing and measuring instruments such as Voltmeter, Ammeter,
Digital multi-meter, function generator, CRO, DSO & IC tester
• Observations using Digital multi-meter, function generator, CRO, DSO
Components Required:
Voltmeter, Ammeter, Digital multi-meter, function generator, CRO, DSO, IC tester
Theory:
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electric potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to
the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an
analog-to-digital converter.

Figure 1. Analog Voltmeter

Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel
are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Any measurement that can be
converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is suitably calibrated; for example,
pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical process plant. General purpose analog
voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full scale, and are used with voltages
from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts.
Ammeter
An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in a
circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to
measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as
milliammeters or microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments which relied
on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments
were designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in
electric power systems. It is generally represented by letter 'A' in a circuit.
 Figure 2. Analog Ammeter
The majority of ammeters are either connected in series with the circuit carrying the current to
be measured (for small fractional amperes), or have their shunt resistors connected similarly in
series. In either case, the current passes through the meter or (mostly) through its shunt.
Ammeters must not be connected directly across a voltage source since their internal resistance
is very low and excess current would flow.
Ammeters are designed for a low voltage drop across their terminals, much less than one volt;
the extra circuit losses produced by the ammeter are called its "burden" on the measured circuit.
Digital Multimeter
A Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical measurements, such
as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a Multimeter because it
combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multimeter may also have
other functions, such as diode test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL logic test and frequency
test.
Parts of Multimeter
A Multimeter has three parts:
• Display
• Selection Knob
• Ports
The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few
multimeters have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.
The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).
Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for
common and is almost always connected to Ground or „-‟ of a circuit. The COM probe is
conventionally black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other
than color. 10A is the special port used when measuring large currents (greater than 200 mA).
mAVΩ is the port that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the
measurement of current (up to 200 mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The probes have a
banana type connector on the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe with a banana plug
will work with this meter.

Figure 3. Digital Multimeters

Safety measures
• Be sure the test leads and rotary switch are in the correct position for the desired
measurement.
• Never use the meter if the meter or the test leads look damaged. Never measure
resistance in a circuit when power is applied.
• Never touch the probes to a voltage source when a test lead is plugged into the 10 A or
300 mA input jack.
• To avoid damage or injury, never use the meter on circuits that exceed 4800 watts.
Never apply more than the rated voltage between any input jack and earth ground. Be
careful when working with voltages above 60 V DC or 30 V AC rms. Such voltages
pose a shock hazard.
• Keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the test probes when making
measurements.
• To avoid false readings, which could lead to possible electric shock or personal injury,
replace the battery as soon as the battery indicator appears.
Input jacks
The black lead is always plugged into the common terminal. The red lead is plugged into the
10 A jack when measuring currents greater than 300 mA, the 300 mA jack when measuring
currents less than 300 mA, and the remaining jack (V-ohms-diode) for all other measurements.
Range fixing
The meter defaults to auto range when first turned on. You can choose a manual range in V
AC, V DC, A AC, and A DC by pressing the button in the middle of the rotary dial. To return
to auto range, press the button for one second.

Procedure for measurement

Voltage measurement
D.C. / A.C. Voltage Measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative (black)
lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired mV D.C./D.C.V/A.C.V range.
3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear on the
digital display along with the voltage polarity (if reversed only).

Current measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative (black)
lead to the „COM‟ jack socket (for measurements up to 200mA). For measurements
between 200 mA and 10A connect the red test lead to the „10mA‟ socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired uA/mA/A range.
3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIES with the load in
which current is to be measured.
4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the current is
less than 300 mA. Turn off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For circuits of more
than 10 amps, use a current clamp.) Put the meter in series with the circuit and turn
power on.
Resistance measurement
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the “V/mA” jack socket and the negative(black)
lead to the “COM” jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired OHM (Ω).
3. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
5. The resistance value should now appear on the digital display.

Continuity test
This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often used to verify
connectors. If continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the beeper sounds
continuously.
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative (black)
lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistance is Ohms
the buzzer will sound. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the
power and discharge all capacitors before measurement.
Diode test
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the “V/mA” jack socket and the negative (black)
lead to the “COM” jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect the test leads to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured and the voltage value should appear on
the digital display.

General Operation

Connection of Probes:
All multimeters come with two probes. They are to be connected to the terminals on the meter
itself. The Black probe is to be connected to the COM terminal. Red probe is to be connected
to terminal marked with:
• “V” for voltage measurement
• “mA” or “20A” for current measurement (there are two terminals, one for 2A range and
the other for 20A range)
• “Ω” for resistance measurement.
Setting of function:
The multimeter uses different circuits internally to measure different things. Therefore, you
must select the correct function before using it.
Setting of Range:
• You can change the sensitivity of the meter by selecting different range for
measurement. Set the range to the first range that is higher than the maximum value
you expect to measure. This will give a more accurate reading. If you do not know what
 to expect, use the highest range first. After a reading is obtained, set the range to the
appropriate one to get a better reading.
• When the value measured exceeds the existing range, the display will flash. When this
happens, set the multimeter to a higher range until some values are displayed.
Precautions:
1. For current measurement, the maximum input current is 2A (if the RED mA and
BLACK COM terminals are used) or 20A (if the RED 20A and BLACK COM
terminals are used). Excessive current will blow the fuse on the 2A range, which must
be replaced. The 20A range, however, is not protected by the fuse.
2. For voltage measurement (use the RED V- and BLACK COM terminals), the maximum
input voltage on:
• all DC ranges is 1200V DC or peak AC
• the 20V, 200V and 1000V AC ranges is 1000V rms continuous
• the 2V and 200mV AC ranges is 1000V rms for not more than 15 seconds.
3. To avoid electrical shock and/or instrument damage, do not connect the COM input
terminals to any source of more than 500 volts DC or peak AC above earth ground.
Resistance measurement
Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with
“Ω”
2. Set function to resistance measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
4. Connect the two probes‟ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via
jumper wires) to make measurement
5. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
6. Take the more accurate reading.
Voltage measurement
Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with
“V‟”
2. Set function to voltage measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
4. Set the AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
5. Touch the two points where you want to make measurement
6. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
7. Take the more accurate reading.
Note
Reading obtained is the voltage of where the red probe touch with reference to where the black
probe touches. This may not indicate the voltage level from ground. To find the voltage level
of a point from ground, black probe should be touching a ground point and the red probe on
the point you want to measure.
Current measurement
Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with
“A”
2. Set function to current measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range
4. Set AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
5. Off the power to the circuit
6. Break the path which we want to make measurement
7. Connect the path with the two probes so that current now flow through the multimeter
8. On the power
9. Note the reading, change range if necessary
10. Take the more accurate reading.
Note
Use the 20A range if you are not sure of the current to be measured.
Connection Methods to Measure Voltage and Current

Function generator
A function generator is electronic test equipment used to generate different types of waveforms
over a wide range of frequencies. Function generators are capable of producing a variety of
repetitive waveforms, generally from the list below
Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard sine
wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a standard
sinusoidal shape.

Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to produce.
It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.
Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It is
effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1.

Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves
between a high and low point.

Saw tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the waveform
faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a saw tooth.

These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot Function generators are used in the
development, test and repair of electronic equipment.
Types of Function Generator

Figure 4. Function Generator

Procedure
1. Turn on the oscilloscope
2. Connect the function generator to one vertical channel of the oscilloscope using BNC
Connector
3. Select the type of wave form by pressing Function control button.
4. Set the waveform at desired frequency by adjusting Frequency variable control button.
5. Now adjust the amplitude control of the function generator to establish a 4 V peak-to-
peak (p-p)
 Figure 5. Function Generator connected to CRO
Function Generator Controls
Knobs Control Name Functions
Number
1 Power Push button switch to power ON the instrument.
2 LCD Display 20 x 4 Character bright back lit Liquid Crystal Display.
3 Frequency Used for selection of frequency range step by step.
Used for selection of Particular waveform. A total number of 6
different waveforms:
Sine
4 Function Squae
Triagle
Ramp
Pulse

5 Modulation Used for selection of Frequency Modulation.

6 Attenuation Used for Selection of 20dB or 40dB attenuation
7 Menu Used for selection of Function Generator/Frequency counter
mode.
8 Duty Cycle When pulse output function is selected, this controls the pulse
duty cycle from 15% to 85%.
9 Frequency In conjunction with frequency range, selected by frequency key
Variable on front Panel.
1 Amplitude In conjunction with attenuators (6), this varies the level of output.
0 Variable
This control provides DC offset. Approximately ±5VDC is
1 DC Offset superimposed on the output. Keep the control off if DC offset is
1 not required.
1 Output (BNC Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 20Vpp (Open Circuit)
2 connector)
External Input BNC connector for measuring the frequency of external
1 Connector signal when External Counter mode is selected
3 (BNC by Menu key on the LCD display.
Connector)

1 Modulation Maximum modulation Input i.e. 2Vpp.

4 Input
Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO)
The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode; anode, grid, X&Y-
plates, and a fluorescent screen (see Figure below). When the cathode is heated (by applying a
small potential difference across its terminals), it emits electrons. Having a potential difference
between the cathode and the anode (electrodes), accelerate the emitted electrons towards the
anode, forming an electron beam, which passes to fall on the screen.
When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is
produced. The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons
passing through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y- plates are
responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically.
A sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot
Horizontally across the screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal.
The voltage to be studied is applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages
produce a graph showing the variation of voltage with time.
Experimental Figures

Fig 6. Cathode Ray tube Oscilloscope Fig 7. Out Line Diagram of CRO
Procedure
1. Turn on the Oscilloscope
2. Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
3. Use the X & Y knobs to center the trace horizontally and vertically.
4. Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to Function generator.
5. A signal will appear on the screen.
6. Make sure that the inner red knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are locked
clockwise.
7. Set the frequency of the generator to 100 Hz.
8. Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size signal
9. Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the peak to
peak value as:

Vp-p = No. vertical Div * Volt/Divs

 10. Count the number of horizontal squares lying within the one Duty Cycle, and then
calculate time value as:

Time = No. Horizontal Div * Time/Divs

11. Calculate the Frequency of signal by using the formula:
Freq = 1 /Time
Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is an oscilloscope which stores and analyses the input
signal digitally rather than using analog techniques. It is now the most common type of
oscilloscope in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display and measurement features
which it typically provides.
The principal advantage over analog storage is that the stored traces are as bright, as
sharply defined, and written as quickly as non-stored traces. Traces can be stored indefinitely
or written out to some external data storage device and reloaded. This allows, for example,
comparison of an acquired trace from a system under test with a standard trace acquired from
a known-good system. Many models can display the waveform prior to the trigger signal.
Digital oscilloscopes usually analyze waveforms and provide numerical values as well
as visual displays. These values typically include averages, maxima and minima, root mean
square (RMS) and frequencies. They may be used to capture transient signals when operated
in a single sweep mode, without the brightness and writing speed limitations of an analog
storage oscilloscope.

Figure 8. Digital Storage CRO

IC Tester
IC’s, the main component of each and every electronic circuit can be used for a wide variety
of purposes and functions. But sometimes due to faulty ICs the circuit doesn’t work. Indeed it
is a lot of tedious work to debug the circuit and confirm whether the circuit is creating a problem
or the IC itself is dead. So, to come up with these sorts of problems we intend to make a project
which would confirm whether the IC under consideration is working properly or not.
Working:
The IC to be tested is inserted in the base. The user enters the IC number through a keypad
which is simultaneously displayed on the LCD. The IC number is communicated to other MCU
which basically test the ICs for a few sets of input which is given through the MCU and
corresponding output. The result is again communicated to the first MCU confirming it to be
either correct or faulty which is displayed on the LCD. If the IC tested is ok “IC TESTED OK
is displayed on the LCD. Otherwise “IC TESTED FAILED” is displayed.

Figure 9. IC Tester

Pre lab Questions:

1. Define Calibration.
2. What is multimeter?
3. Mention the safety procedures to handle measuring device
4. What are the internal resistance of ideal ammeter and ideal voltmeter?

LAB Exercise

Digital Multi Meter

Description Value
Measurement of line voltage (ac)
Measurement of resistance
Measurement of continuity
Cathode-ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Self-test of CRO
Description Value
Measurement of voltage
Measurement of Time
Calculated frequency
Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
Self-test of DSO
Description Value
Measurement of voltage
Measurement of Time
Calculated frequency
Function Generator
• Set sine wave of 5 KHz and display in CRO
• Set Triangle/ Square wave of 10 KHz and display in CRO
Description Sine wave Square Wave
Measurement of voltage
Measurement of Time
Calculated frequency
Post-lab Questions:
1. How to check BJT using multimeter? Brief with steps.
2. Define watt meter.
3. List out the safety tips for multimeter.
Result:
Thus, various testing and measuring instruments have been studied.