1

CONTENT

Basic Concepts of Physics 4

Mechanics 4

1 4
Basic concept of Mechanics 4
Concepts of Time and Space in Newtonian Mechanics. 5

2 5
Kinematics 5
Material point 6
Fundamental Quantity 6
Position 7
Speed 7
Acceleration 8
Motion 8

3 9
Dynamics 9
Newton’s first law: the law of inertia 9
Newton’s First Law of Motion Formula 10
Newton’s second law: F = ma 10
Newton’s third law 13
Inertia 13

4 14
Gravitation 14
Kepler's Laws 15
Escape velocity 20
Balanced forces 22
Types of forces 23

5 29
Statics 29
The moment of force 29
Center of mass 30
Equilibrium 31

6 32
Conservation Laws 32
Mechanical Work 33
Power 33

2
 Energy 33
Types of Energies 33
The Law of Conservation and Transformation of Energy 34

7 35
Impulse 35
Angular Momentum 37
What is Angular Momentum? 37
Angular Momentum Formula 38
Law of conservation 39

8 40
Oscillations 40
Types of Oscillations 41
Resonance 42

9 43
Pendulum 44

10 46
Mechanical Waves 46
Types of mechanical waves 47
Sound 49

11 50
Special Theory of Relativity 50
Galileo's Principle of Relativity 51
Galileo and Lorentz Transformations 51

Electricity 54

12 54
Electricity 54
Basic laws of Electricity 54
Coulomb's Law 55
Electric Charge 56
Charge Interactions 56
Law of conservation of charge 56

13 57
Electrostatics 57
Electric field 57
The laws of direct Current 58
Potential difference 59
Voltage 59

14 60
Current strength 60

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 Current Density 61
Kirchhoff’s Laws 63

15 65
Electric circuits 65
Symbols of components used in electric circuits 68
Switches 69
Difference between Electromotive Force and Potential Difference 71

16 74
Series and Parallel Connection of Transmitters 74
Ohm's Law 75
Joule-Lenz Law 76

16 77
Introduction to electromagnetic waves 77
Basic properties of waves: Amplitude, wavelength, and frequency 78
The electromagnetic spectrum 79

17 82
Classification of materials according to electrical properties of Conductors 82
Semiconductors 83
Intrinsic Semiconductor 84
Extrinsic Semiconductor 84
Dielectrics 84

18 85
Mixed Conductivity of Semiconductors 85
Electron Cavity (p-n) Junction 85
Electricity 86
Capacitor 86

19 87
Electromagnetic field 88
Transformer 89

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 Phyasics
Basic Concepts of Physics. Basic Concepts of Mechanics, Concepts of Time and Space in
Newtonian Mechanics.

Basic Concepts of Physics

Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through
space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it
is the study of nature in an attempt to understand how the universe behaves.

A number of main branches of physics are Mechanics, Optics, Thermodynamics,

Electromagnetism, Relativity and Acoustic.

Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena. These patterns

are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and widely used,
physical laws or principles.

Mechanics

1
Basic concept of Mechanics

Mechanics is a branch of physics that is concerned with the state of rest or motion of
bodies that are subjected to the action of forces. It deals with the effect of forces upon
material bodies.

Branches of Mechanics

1. Quantum mechanics- it deals with the behaviour of matter and energy at atomic
and subatomic scale

2. Relativistic mechanics- it deals with the objects moving with velocities

comparable to the velocity of light.

3. Newtonian mechanics- it deals with the effect of energy and forces on everyday
objects.

Engineering mechanics

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1. Statics – it deals with the study of objects at rest

2. Dynamics- it deals with the study of motion of objects

Classification of Mechanics

1. Kinematics

2. Dynamics

3. Statics

Concepts of Time and Space in Newtonian Mechanics.

Isaac Newton founded classical mechanics on the view that space is distinct from the
body and that time passes uniformly without regard to whether anything happens in the
world. For this reason he spoke of absolute space and absolute time, so as to
distinguish these entities from the various ways by which we measure them which he
called relative spaces and relative times. Newton did not regard space and time as
genuine substances (as are, paradigmatically, bodies and minds), but rather as real
entities with their own manner of existence

● Absolute, true, and mathematical time, from its own nature, passes equably
without relation to anything external, and thus without reference to any change or
way of measuring time e.g., the hour, day, month, or year.
● Absolute, true, and mathematical space remains similar and immovable without
relation to anything external. Relative spaces are measures of absolute space
defined with reference to some system of bodies or another, and thus a relative
space may, and likely will, be in motion.

Kinematics

Kinematics is the study of motion of a system of bodies without directly considering the
forces or potential fields affecting the motion. In other words, kinematics examines how
the momentum and energy are shared among interacting bodies.

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 Material point

A material point is an infinitely small body with a mass, the shape of which can be
neglected. The rotation of the material point is also neglected. It is believed that inside a
material point, there are no forces. It is absolutely elastic. The mass of a material point
is constant in time, and does not depend on any other conditions.The dimensions of the
body must be many times smaller than the distance it travels. Also, an important factor
affecting the possibility of replacing a real body with a simplified model is the conditions
of the experiment and the expected result.

Fundamental Quantity

The Fundamental Quantity is an independent Physical Quantity that is not possible to

express in other Physical Quanitity. It is used as pillars for other quantities aka Derived
Quantities. In Physics, Length, Mass, Time, Electric Current, Thermodynamic
Temperature, etc are examples of Fundamental Quantities.

Area =m^2
Volume =m^3
Force =kgm/s^2
Pressure =kg/(ms^2)
Density =kg/m^3

The seven fundamental S.I units are:−

metre → for length
second → for time
kilogram → for mass
kelvin → for temperature
ampere → for electric current
candela → for luminous intensity
mole → for the amount of substance.

Position
The true position of an object is its location, which is determined by the basic
dimensions. The true position helps to control the variation of a specific feature from its
desired position.

The Formula for the Position is Represented as:

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Case 1:

Δx=x2−x1

Where x1 is the first position of the body,

x2 is the second position after undergoing displacement,

And Δx is the rate of change in the displacement.

Case 2:

If the body changes its position after time t, the rate of change in position at any
moment of time t, x(t), is articulated as
x(t)=1/2αt^2+v0t+X0

Where x(t) is the position of the body with time t,

x0 is the initial position of the body,
v0 is the initial velocity of the body, and
α is the acceleration the body possesses.

Speed
Speed is the time rate at which an object is moving along a path, while velocity is the
rate and direction of an object’s movement.

Speed is directly proportional to distance when time is constant: v ∝ s (t constant)

● Speed is inversely proportional to time when distance is constant: v ∝ 1t (s

constant)

Combining these two rules together gives the definition of speed in symbolic form.

v=
t

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In the language of calculus speed is the first derivative of distance with respect to time.

Acceleration

Acceleration is defined to be the rate of change of the velocity.

a=Δv​/Δt=(vf​−vi)/​​Δt

Note that the unit for acceleration is

m/s^2

vf=vi+aΔt (This rearranged version of the formula lets you find the final velocity.)

Motion
In physics, motion is the change in position of an object with respect to its surroundings
in a given interval of time. The motion of an object with some mass can be described in
terms of the following:

● distance
● displacement
● speed
● velocity
● time
● acceleration

The motion of an object depends on the type of force acting on the body. Examples of
different kinds of motion are given below.

● Translational – It is the type, where an object moves along a path in any of the
three dimensions.
● Rotational/Circular – It is the type, where an object moves along a circular path
about a fixed axis.
● Linear – It is a type of translational motion where the body moves in a single
direction along a single dimension.
● Periodic – It is the type of motion that repeats itself after certain intervals of time
● Simple Harmonic – It is the type of motion like that of a simple pendulum where
a restoring force acts in the direction opposite to the direction of motion of the

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 object. This restoring force is proportional to the displacement of the object from
the mean position.
● Projectile – It is the type of motion which has a horizontal displacement as well
as vertical displacement.
● Oscillatory – It is the type of motion which is repetitive in nature within a time
frame. If it is mechanical it is called vibration.

Dynamics. Basic Laws of Dynamics, Interpretation and Applications. Newton's Laws.

Inertia.

Dynamics

Dynamics, a branch of physical science and subdivision of mechanics that is

concerned with the motion of material objects about the physical factors that affect
them: force, mass, momentum, and energy.
Newton’s laws of motion, three statements describing the relations between the forces
acting on a body and the motion of the body, were first formulated by English physicist
and mathematician Isaac Newton, which are the foundation of classical mechanics.

Newton’s first law: the law of inertia

Newton’s first law states that if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a
straight line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant speed
unless it is acted upon by a force. In fact, in classical Newtonian mechanics, there is no
important distinction between rest and uniform motion in a straight line; they may be
regarded as the same state of motion seen by different observers, one moving at the
same velocity as the particle and the other moving at constant velocity concerning the
particle. This postulate is known as the law of inertia.

“According to the first law of motion, a body at rest or in motion stays in the same state
unless acted on by an external force.”

Newton’s First Law of Motion Formula

The equation for Newton’s first law is as follows:

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F= dp /dt

or

F= d(mv)/dt

In the first statement, p is the momentum. As p=mv, the second equation replaces p
with mv. V is the object’s velocity, t is the time, and F is for force.

Newton’s second law: F = ma

Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force can
produce in the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change of the momentum
of a body is equal in both magnitude and direction to the force imposed on it. The
momentum of a body is equal to the product of its mass and its velocity. Momentum, like
velocity, is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction. A force applied to a
body can change the magnitude of the momentum or its direction or both. Newton’s
second law is one of the most important in all of physics. For a body whose mass m is
constant, it can be written in the form F = ma, where F (force) and an (acceleration) are
both vector quantities. If a body has a net force acting on it, it is accelerated by the
equation. Conversely, if a body is not accelerated, there is no net force acting on it.

Newton’s second law can be formally stated as,

The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.

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Deriving Newton’s Second Law

For Changing Mass

For Constant Mass

What is a Net Force?

A net force ΣF is the sum of all forces acting on a body. More precisely, it is the vector
sum of all forces acting on a body.

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Consider two forces of magnitude 30 N and 20 N that are exerted to the right and left,
respectively on the horse shown in the picture. If we assume the rightward direction as
positive, then the net force on the horse can be calculated as follows:

Newton’s third law

The law of action and reaction
Newton’s third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to one
another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. For example, a book
resting on a table applies a downward force equal to its weight on the table. According
to the third law, the table applies an equal and opposite force to the book. This force
occurs because the weight of the book causes the table to deform slightly so that it
pushes back on the book like a coiled spring.

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This is an example of Newton's third law. The rope is the medium that transmits forces
of equal magnitude between the two objects but that act in opposite directions. T = W =
m g.

Inertia

Inertia is a property of matter that causes it to resist changes in velocity (speed and/or
direction). According to Newton's first law of motion, an object with a given velocity
maintains that velocity unless acted on by an external force.
The moment of inertia must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation. For a
point mass, the moment of inertia is just the mass times the square of perpendicular
distance to the rotation axis, I = mr2.
Examples of Law of Inertia in Everyday Life (Inertia of Motion) When the bus stops
suddenly, people fall forward. When the driver of a bus brakes suddenly, the lower
part of the body comes to rest as the bus comes to rest but the upper part of the body
continues to move forward due to inertia of motion.

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 Gravitation. Kepler's Laws. Escape Velocity. Gravitational Field Strength. Centrifugal
Force.Balance of Forces, Types of Forces.

Gravitation

Gravitation or just gravity is the force of attraction between any two bodies. All the
objects in the universe attract each other with a certain amount of force, but in most of
the cases, the force is too weak to be observed due to the very large distance of
separation. Besides, gravity’s range is infinite, but the effect becomes weaker as objects
move away.

This force of attraction was first observed by Sir Isaac Newton and was presented as
Newton’s law of gravitation in the year 1680. However, gravitation can generally exist in
two main instances.
1. Gravitation may be the attraction of objects by the earth
Example:
If a body (ball) is thrown upwards, it reaches a certain height and falls downwards
because of the gravity of the earth.

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2. Gravitation may be the attraction of objects in outer space.
Example:
Force of attraction between the other planets and the sun.

Kepler's Laws

Kepler’s First Law

Kepler’s first law states that

The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.

An ellipse is a closed plane curve that resembles a stretched out circle. Note that the
Sun is not at the center of the ellipse, but at one of its foci. The other focal point, f2, has
no physical significance for the orbit. The center of an ellipse is the midpoint of the line
segment joining its focal points. A circle is a special case of an ellipse where both focal
points coincide.

Ellipses and Kepler’s First Law: (a) An ellipse is a closed curve such that the sum of
the distances from a point on the curve to the two foci (f1 and f2) is a constant. You can
draw an ellipse as shown by putting a pin at each focus, and then placing a string
around a pencil and the pins and tracing a line on paper. A circle is a special case of an
ellipse in which the two foci coincide (thus any point on the circle is the same distance
from the center). (b) For any closed gravitational orbit, m follows an elliptical path with
M at one focus. Kepler’s first law states this fact for planets orbiting the Sun.

How stretched out an ellipse is from a perfect circle is known as its eccentricity: a
parameter that can take any value greater than or equal to 0 (a circle) and less than 1
(as the eccentricity tends to 1, the ellipse tends to a parabola). The eccentricities of the
planets known to Kepler varied from 0.007 (Venus) to 0.2 (Mercury). Minor bodies such
as comets an asteroids (discovered after Kepler’s time) can have very large
eccentricities. The dwarf planet Pluto, discovered in 1929, has an eccentricity of 0.25.

Symbolically, an ellipse can be represented in polar coordinates as:

r = p/(1+ϵcosθ)

where (r,θ) are the polar coordinates (from the focus) for the ellipse, p is the semi-latus
rectum, and ϵϵ is the eccentricity of the ellipse. For a planet orbiting the Sun, r is the
distance from the Sun to the planet and θ is the angle between the planet’s current
position and its closest approach, with the Sun as the vertex.

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 Orbit As Ellipse: Heliocentric coordinate system (r,θ) for ellipse. Also shown are:
semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b and semi-latus rectum p; center of ellipse and its
two foci marked by large dots. For θ=0°, r = rmin and for θ=180° r = rmax.

At θ=0°, perihelion, the distance is minimum

rmin = p/(1+ϵ)

At θ=90° and at θ=270°, the distance is p.

At θ=180°, aphelion, the distance is maximum

rmax = p/(1−ϵ)

The semi-major axis a is the arithmetic mean between rmin and rmax:

rmax – a = a – rmin

a = p/(1−ϵ2 )

The semi-minor axis b is the geometric mean between rminrmin and rmaxrmax:

rmax/b = b/rmin

b = p/(√1−ϵ2)

The semi-latus rectum p is the harmonic mean between rmin and rmax:

1/rmin – 1/p = 1/p – 1/rmax

pa = rmax ⋅ rmin = b2

The eccentricity ϵϵ is the coefficient of variation between rmin and rmax :

ϵ = (rmax – rmin)/( rmax + rmin)

The area of the ellipse is

A=πab

The special case of a circle is ϵ = 0, resulting in r = p = rmin = rmax = a = b and A=πr 2.

The orbits of planets with very small eccentricities can be approximated as circles.

Kepler’s Second Law

● Apply Kepler’s second law to describe planetary motion

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Kepler’s second law states:

A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of
time.

In a small time the planet sweeps out a small triangle having base line and height. The
area of this triangle is given by:

dA = (½) ⋅ r ⋅ rdθ

and so the constant areal velocity is:

dA/dt = (½ )⋅ r2 ⋅ (dθ/dt)

Now as the first law states that the planet follows an ellipse, the planet is at different
distances from the Sun at different parts in its orbit. So the planet has to move faster
when it is closer to the Sun so that it sweeps equal areas in equal times.

The total area enclosed by the elliptical orbit is:

A = πab

Therefore the period P satisfies:

πab = P ⋅ (½) ⋅ r2θ˙ or r2θ˙=nab

Where θ˙ = dθ/dt is the angular velocity, (using Newton notation for differentiation), and
n = 2π/P is the mean motion of the planet around the Sun.

See below for an illustration of this effect. The planet traverses the distance between A
and B, C and D, and E and F in equal times. When the planet is close to the Sun it has
a larger velocity, making the base of the triangle larger, but the height of the triangle
smaller, than when the planet is far from the Sun. One can see that the planet will travel
fastest at perihelion and slowest at aphelion.

Kepler’s Second Law: The shaded regions have equal areas. It takes equal times for
m to go from A to B, from C to D, and from E to F. The mass m moves fastest when it is
closest to M. Kepler’s second law was originally devised for planets orbiting the Sun, but
it has broader validity.

Kepler’s Third Law

● Apply Kepler’s third law to describe planetary motion

Kepler’s Third Law

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Kepler’s third law states:

The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of its orbit.

The third law, published by Kepler in 1619, captures the relationship between the
distance of planets from the Sun, and their orbital periods. Symbolically, the law can be
expressed as

P2 ∝ a3

where P is the orbital period of the planet and a is the semi-major axis of the orbit (see
).

Kepler’s Third Law: Kepler’s third law states that the square of the period of the orbit
of a planet about the Sun is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the orbit.

The constant of proportionality is

P2planet/a3planet = P2earth/a3earth = 1 ⋅ (yr2/AU3)

for a sidereal year (yr), and astronomical unit (AU).

Kepler enunciated this third law in a laborious attempt to determine what he viewed as
the “music of the spheres” according to precise laws, and express it in terms of musical
notation. Therefore, it used to be known as the harmonic law.

Derivation of Kepler’s Third Law

We can derive Kepler’s third law by starting with Newton’s laws of motion and the
universal law of gravitation. We can therefore demonstrate that the force of gravity is the
cause of Kepler’s laws.

Consider a circular orbit of a small mass m around a large mass M. Gravity supplies the
centripetal force to mass m. Starting with Newton’s second law applied to circular
motion,

Fnet = mac = m ⋅ (v2/r)

The net external force on mass m is gravity, and so we substitute the force of gravity for
Fnet:

G ⋅ (mM)/r2 = m ⋅ (v2/r)

The mass m cancels, as well as an r, yielding

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 G ⋅ (M/r) = v2

The fact that m cancels out is another aspect of the oft-noted fact that at a given
location all masses fall with the same acceleration. Here we see that at a given orbital
radius r, all masses orbit at the same speed. This was implied by the result of the
preceding worked example. Now, to get at Kepler’s third law, we must get the period P
into the equation. By definition, period P is the time for one complete orbit. Now the
average speed v is the circumference divided by the period—that is,

v = (2πr)/P

Substituting this into the previous equation gives

G ⋅ (M/r) = (4πr2)/P2

Solving for P2 yields

P2 = (4π2a3)/(GM)

Using subscripts 1 and 2 to denote two different satellites, and taking the ratio of the last
equation for satellite 1 to satellite 2 yields

P21/P22 = r31r32

This is Kepler’s third law. Note that Kepler’s third law is valid only for comparing
satellites of the same parent body, because only then does the mass of the parent body
M cancel.

Now consider what one would get when solving P2 = (4π2GM)/r3 for the ratio r3/P2. We
obtain a relationship that can be used to determine the mass M of a parent body from
the orbits of its satellites:

M = (4π2r3)/(GP2)

If r and P are known for a satellite, then the mass M of the parent can be calculated.
This principle has been used extensively to find the masses of heavenly bodies that
have satellites.

Furthermore, the ratio r3/T2 should be a constant for all satellites of the same parent
body

r3/T2 = (GM)/(4π2).

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 Escape velocity
Escape velocity, in astronomy and space exploration, is the velocity needed for a body
to escape from a gravitational centre of attraction without undergoing any further
acceleration. The escape velocity vesc is expressed as vesc = √(2GM)/r, where G is the
gravitational constant, M is the mass of the attracting mass, and r is the distance from
the centre of that mass. Escape velocity decreases with altitude and is equal to the
square root of 2 (or about 1.414) times the velocity necessary to maintain a circular orbit
at the same altitude. At Earth’s surface, if atmospheric resistance could be disregarded,
escape velocity would be about 11.2 km (6.96 miles) per second. The velocity of escape
from the less massive Moon is about 2.4 km (1.5 miles) per second at its surface. A
planet or moon cannot long retain an atmosphere if its escape velocity is low enough to
be near the average velocity of the gas molecules making up the atmosphere. Inside
the event horizon of a black hole, the escape velocity exceeds the speed of light, so not
even rays of light can escape into space.

Gravitational Field Strength

This is a way of measuring how much gravity there is. The formula is: weight/mass =
gravitational field strength.

Gravitational field strength = Weight/mass unit is N/kg

Weight = mass x gravitational field strength unit is N

On Earth the gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg. Other planets have different
gravitational field strengths. The Moon has a gravitational field strength of 1.6 N/kg. You
might have seen films of astronauts leaping high on the moon.

Here on Earth, if I jump I am pulled back to ground by gravity. What is my weight? My

mass is 80 kg and if we multiply by gravitational field strength (10N/kg) - my weight is
800N. Now if I go to the moon, my mass will be the same, 80kg. We multiply that by the
moon's gravitational field strength, which is 1.6 N/ kg. That means my weight on the
moon is 128N. So I have different weights on the Earth and on the Moon. That's why
astronauts can jump high into the air on the moon - they're lighter up there.

Jupiter is a very large planet with strong gravitational field strength of 25 N/ kg. My body
is 80kg. If I go to Jupiter my weight is going to be 25 x 80 = 2,000 N. That means I
wouldn't be able to get off the ground or stand up straight! I would probably be lying
down all the time there. So weight varies depending on which planet you are on. You
can find out more yourself by looking up tables of weight on different planets.

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Centrifugal Force

In Newtonian mechanics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a

"fictitious" or "pseudo" force) that appears to act on all objects when viewed in a rotating
frame of reference. It is directed away from an axis which is parallel to the axis of
rotation and passing through the coordinate system's origin. If the axis of rotation
passes through the coordinate system's origin, the centrifugal force is directed radially
outwards from that axis. The magnitude of centrifugal force F on an object of mass m at
the distance r from the origin of a frame of reference rotating with angular velocity ω is:

F = mw2r

The concept of centrifugal force can be applied in rotating devices, such as centrifuges,
centrifugal pumps, centrifugal governors, and centrifugal clutches, and in centrifugal
railways, planetary orbits and banked curves, when they are analyzed in a rotating
coordinate system.
Confusingly, the term has sometimes also been used for the reactive centrifugal force, a
real inertial-frame-independent Newtonian force that exists as a reaction to a centripetal
force.

Balance of Forces

Unequal forces can cause objects to accelerate while balanced forces can cause an
object to stay at rest or at constant velocity. In order to understand this we are
reminded of the condition of weight. (mass * acceleration due to gravity)

Formulas:

F = ma (= m x v/t = kg x m/s2 or N (Newton’s))

**** Remember that forces are vectors! ****

Why is it then that when we are standing on the Earth that we are not moving? The
answer is that the Earth is pressing on us with the same force that we are exerting on it.
The net force = 0.

Balanced forces
Balanced forces are those that are opposite in direction and equal in size. Balanced forces are
considered to be in a state of equilibrium.

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 ● When forces are balanced there is no change in direction.

· Combined forces that are balanced are always equal to zero.

(combining vectors)

· Balance forces cannot change the motion or direction of an object.

· A balanced force keeps an object moving at a constant velocity.

(Newton's 1st Law of Motion)

What are some balanced forces in the room?

A book on the table is an example of a balanced force. The force of the book's
weight is counteracted by the normal force (support force) of the table. The two forces
are completely equal and opposite.

What is an example of a balanced force that keeps an object moving a constant

velocity?

The cruise control on a car attempts to equal the forces of friction with a forward
force. Once constant velocity is obtained the two sets of forces are completely equal
and opposite.

Types of forces

Types of forces: Contact Forces and Non Contact Forces

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Types of forces

Force is the external agent that produces motion. Basically, there are two main types of
forces, contact forces, and non-contact forces. Gravitational forces, electric forces,
magnetic forces, nuclear forces, frictional forces are some examples of force.

Types of forces

Basically, forces are of two types:

1. Contact forces
2. Non-contact forces or At a distance forces

● Contact forces

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Those forces represent the result of physical contact between two objects, where one of
the objects exerts a force on the other.

Examples of contact forces

● Stretching of the spring of a balance

● the pushing of a pram
● kicking of a football
● Pushing the door
● Hitting the ball etc are some examples of contact forces.

Types of contact forces

some types of contact forces are given in the list below:

● Applied force
● Normal force
● Frictional force
● Tension force
● Air resistance force
● Spring force

● Applied force

Force due to the action of muscles is called applied force. It is also called muscular
force.

Normal force

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 Frictional Force

It is a contact interaction force between surfaces. It always acts perpendicular to the

surfaces and out of the surface. It comes from the microscopic deformation of
molecules modeling a system of springs.

Normal force examples

Frictional force:

Frictional Force

Frictional force comes from interactions with a surface as an object moves or tries to
move relative to the surface.

Tension force:

An applied force where force is applied through a string, cable, rope, etc..

tension force

Note that a tension force can only pull, it cannot push. We usually assume the tension in
a cable is the same everywhere in the cable.

Air resistance force:

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 Air Resistance force

The force that acts in a direction opposite motion through a gas is called air resistance
force. It comes from cumulative interaction with air molecules. It increases as the
velocity through the gas increases. It also increases as the area normal to the direction
of motion increases.

Spring force:

Spring force comes from the displacement of molecules. It is always opposite the
displacement of spring.

Spring Force
Noncontact forces

Those forces do not involve physical contact between the two objects but act through
the space between the two.

27
Non-contact forces examples

Examples of non-contact or action at a distance forces, which are given in the list given
below:

● Gravitational force
● Electromagnetic force
● Weak nuclear force
● Strong nuclear force

The gravitational force of attraction:

Gravitational Force

The attractive force exerted between two objects is called gravitational force. It
originates with the presence of matter.

Electromagnetic force:

Electrostatic Force

The electromagnetic force includes basic electric and magnetic interactions and is
responsible for the binding of atoms and the structure of solids.

Magnetic force
Weak nuclear force:

28
The weak nuclear force causes certain radioactive decay processes and certain
reactions among the most fundamental particles.

Strong nuclear force:

Strong Nuclear Force

The strong force operates among the fundamental particles and is responsible for
binding the nucleus together.

Statics. Basic Laws of Statics. Center of Mass. Equilibrium.

Statics
Statics is the branch of classical mechanics that is concerned with the analysis of force
and torque (also called moment) acting on physical systems that do not experience an
acceleration (a=0), but rather, are in static equilibrium with their environment. The
application of Newton's second law to a system gives:
F = ma

The methods and results of the science of statics have proved especially useful in
designing buildings, bridges, and dams, as well as cranes and other similar mechanical

29
devices. To be able to calculate the dimensions of such structures and machines,
architects and engineers must first determine the forces that act on their interconnected
parts. Statics provides the analytical and graphical procedures needed to identify and
describe these unknown forces. Statics assumes that the bodies with which it deals are
perfectly rigid. It also holds that the sum of all the forces acting on a body at rest has to
be zero (i.e., the forces involved balance one another) and that there must be no
tendency for the forces to turn the body about any axis. These three conditions are
independent of one another, and their expression in mathematical form comprises the
equations of equilibrium. There are three equations, and so only three unknown forces
can be calculated. If more than three unknown forces exist, it means that there are more
components in the structure or machine than are required to support the applied loads
or that there are more restraints than are needed to keep the body from moving. Such
unnecessary components or restraints are termed redundant (e.g., a table with four legs
has one redundant leg) and the system of forces is said to be statically indeterminate.
The number of equations available in statics is limited because of a neglect of the
deformations of loaded bodies, a direct consequence of the underlying premise that any
solid body under consideration is ideally rigid and immutable as to shape and size under
all conditions.

The moment of force

The turning effect of the force on the body on which it is acting is measured by the
moment of a force.
The moment of a force depends on the magnitude of the force and the distance from
the axis of rotation.
The moment of a force about a point is (the magnitude of the force) ×× (the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the point).
When there are several forces acting on a body the moments about a point can be
added so long as a positive direction (clockwise or anticlockwise) is specified and is
considered for each moment.
𝝉=F×d
Where 𝝉 is the moment of force/torque.
F is the force.
d is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot.
The shoulder of force (d) - is the shortest distance from the line of action of the force to
the axis of rotation.
Unit: Newton-metre (Nm)
Moments can be either CLOCKWISE or ANTICLOCKWISE.
Clockwise moments: If the force has tendency to turn or rotate a body in clockwise
direction, the moment of force is called clockwise moment.
Anticlockwise moment: If the force has tendency to turn or rotate a body in
anticlockwise direction, the moment of force is called anticlockwise moment.

30
If a moment is moving ANTICLOCKWISE it is considered a POSITIVE moment. If a
moment is moving CLOCKWISE it is considered a NEGATIVE moment.

Center of mass
The center of mass is defined as a position on an object which represents the average
(or mean) mass of that object. For a simple object which has a consistent geometric
shape and consistent mass throughout that shape, the center of mass is found at the
central point of that object.

Equilibrium

When all the forces that act upon an object are balanced, then the object is said to be in
a state of equilibrium. The forces are considered to be balanced if the rightward forces
are balanced by the leftward forces and the upward forces are balanced by the
downward forces. This however does not necessarily mean that all the forces are equal
to each other. Consider the two objects pictured in the force diagram shown below. Note
that the two objects are at equilibrium because the forces that act upon them are
balanced; however, the individual forces are not equal to each other. The 50 N force is
not equal to the 30 N force.

31
The equilibrium condition of the body: The vector sum of all external forces acting on
the body must be equal to zero.
If an object is at rest and is in a state of equilibrium, then we would say that the object is
at "static equilibrium." "Static" means stationary or at rest.

6
Conservation Laws. Mechanical Work, Power. Energy, Types of Energies. The Law of

Conservation Laws
Conservation and Transformation of Energy.
Answer:
In physics, a conservation law states that a particular measurable property of an
isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves over time. These
properties are sometimes called “constants of the motion “. These quantities are said
to be “conserved” and the conservation laws which result can be considered to be the
most fundamental principles of mechanics.

In classical physics, laws of this type govern energy, momentum, angular momentum,
mass, and electric charge.

● Conservation of energy implies that energy can be neither created nor

destroyed, although it can be changed from one form (mechanical, kinetic,
chemical, etc.) into another. In an isolated system the sum of all forms of energy
therefore remains constant.
● Conservation of mass implies that matter can be neither created nor
destroyed—It processes that change the physical or chemical properties of
substances within an isolated system (such as conversion of a liquid to a gas)
leave the total mass unchanged.
● Conservation of linear momentum expresses the fact that a body or system of
bodies in motion retains its total momentum, unless an external force is applied
to it. In an isolated system (such as the universe), there are no external forces,

32
 so momentum is always conserved. Because momentum is conserved, its
components in any direction will also be conserved.
● Conservation of angular momentum of rotating bodies is analogous to the
conservation of linear momentum. Angular momentum is a vector quantity whose
conservation expresses the law that a body or system that is rotating continues
to rotate at the same rate unless a twisting force, called a torque, is applied to it.
● Conservation of charge states that the total amount of electric charge in a
system does not change with time.

Mechanical Work
Mechanical work is the amount of energy necessary to set an object in motion,Like other
physical forms of work, it is usually represented by the letter W (Work) and is measured
in joules, the unit for measuring energy. A Joules is equivalent to the work that a force of
1 Newton does on a body that moves 1 meter in the exact direction and direction of
the initial force. So mechanical work can be calculated according to the formula:

W (work in joules) = F (force in newtons)*d (distance in meters).

Power
We can define Power as the rate of doing work, it is the work done in unit time. The SI
unit of power is Watt (W) which is joules per second (J/s).

Power = Work / time

P=W/t

Energy
Energy, in physics, is the capacity for doing work. Energy is transferred or
transformed whenever work is done. The units for energy are Joules. Energy can be
neither created nor destroyed but only changed from one form to another. This principle
is known as the conservation of energy or the first law of thermodynamics.

Types of Energies

There are several Types of Energies, such as

● Mechanical Energy

· Kinetic Energy
· Potential Energy

33
 ● Chemical Energy
● Light Energy
● Heat Energy
● Sound Energy
● Nuclear Energy
● Electric Energy

Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy in an object that
is used to do a particular work. In other words, it describes the energy of an object
because of its motion or position, or both.
Kinetic energy is a form of energy possessed by an object due to its motion. Any
moving object possesses kinetic energy.
Ek=mv2/2
Where Ek is the kinetic energy, m is the body’s mass, and v is the body’s velocity.

The SI unit of kinetic energy is Joule which is equal to 1 kg m2 / s2. Also, kinetic energy
is a scalar quantity.

Potential energy is the form of energy possessed by an object due to its position or
state. At rest, the potential energy is the energy stored in a body.

Gravitational, elastic, magnetic, chemical, and electric are the types of potential energy.

Ep=mgh

Where, m is the mass in kilograms, g is the acceleration due to gravity, h is the height in
meters
Potential energy has the same unit as kinetic energy: kg m2 / s2

The Law of Conservation and Transformation of Energy

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed
from one form to another. For example, electrical energy passes through a hot plate to
produce heat energy. Or it can be transformed from potential to kinetic energy. For
example, a squirrel eats a nut and then uses this energy to climb a tree. But energy can
never be lost or created. Thus, the total amount of energy in the universe remains
constant.

34
*Work, Energy and Power:
Work, energy and power are the three quantities which are inter-related to each other.
The rate of doing work is called power. An equal amount of energy is consumed to do
work. So, basically the power is the rate at which energy is consumed to complete a
work.

7
Impulse, Angular Momentum. Conservation Laws.

Impulse
Answer:
Impulse in Physics is a term that is used to describe or quantify the effect of force acting
over time to change the momentum of an object. It is represented by the symbol J and
usually expressed in Newton-seconds or kg m/s.

Momentum
The term momentum is commonly used in sports. When a commentator says that a
player has the momentum, it means that the player is actually on the move and it is very
difficult for him/her to stop. A body that has momentum cannot be stopped and therefore
it is mandatory to apply a force against its direction of motion for a particular period of
time. Greater the momentum, the harder it is to stop. Hence, a higher amount of force is
required and considerable time should be spent to bring the body to a halt. As the force
acts on the body for a given time, the body’s velocity changes and hence the body’s
momentum changes.
A force changes the velocity of an object in either way. Also, if the object’s velocity
changes, the momentum also changes.

Impulse Equation
Impulse is often stated to be the product of the average net force that acts on an object
for a certain duration. The equation for impulse is given as;

35
J = F⋅Δt
Note: We assume that force is constant over time.
Impulse is a vector quantity like force and it also has direction.

Newton’s Second Law

According to Newton’s second law, i.e, Fnet = m. An acceleration of a body is directly
proportional to the net force that acts on the body and inversely proportional to the
mass. If combined with the acceleration [a = (v / t)], the resultant equation is described
as:
F=m•a
or
F = m (v / t)
When both sides of the equation are multiplied by t, a new equation formed is
expressed as:
F t = mv
The above equation describes one among the two primary principles to be applied in
the analysis of collision. According to texts in books of Physics, Impulse is defined as
the change in momentum, calculated by multiplying force with time. Since momentum is
mass multiplied by velocity, the quantity m•? v equals to change in momentum.
You need to understand the physics behind collisions. The collisions are based on the
laws of momentum and the first law is described in the above equation, known as the
change in impulse equation.
The body experiences a force in a collision for a particular period of time and results in
the change of momentum. The impact of the force acting for a particular amount of time
is that the body either slows down or speeds up or changes its direction.
The object experiences an impulse in a collision and this impulse is equal to the change
in momentum. For instance, a football halfback who is running down the field and
encounters a collision by a defensive back. The collision changes the halfback’s speed
and therefore his momentum.

Impulse-Momentum Theorem
The Impulse-Momentum theorem helps us establish the relation between the two
concepts. The theorem basically states that the change that is seen in the momentum of
an object is equivalent to the amount of impulse exerted on it.

36
Basically, what students should understand is that impulse is a measure of how much
the momentum changes. Here we also get an alternative formula which is given as;
J→=p2→−p1→
Where,
p1 = initial momentum
p2 = final momentum
With this formula, we can further clearly relate impulse to the changes in the momentum
of the object.

Impulse Examples And Calculation

Here are a few examples of impulse in action.
A cricket player lowers his hand just before catching the ball. This increases the time of
impact and decreases the effect of force.
When someone falls from the bed on a floor receives more injuries when compared to
falling on a heap of sand. This happens because of the sand yields more than the
cemented floor, therefore, increasing the impact time and lowers the impact of force.
Calculation:
We will look at a calculation where the impulse for a ball hits an object and comes to a
halt. Here, the object weighs 3.0 kg and has a velocity of 5 m/s before colliding with the
object. Find the impulse.
Δ J = p2 – p1
Δp=mv2–mv1
Δ p = (3.0 kg)(0 m/s) – (3.0 kg)(5 m/s) = -15 kg m/s

Angular Momentum

What is Angular Momentum?

If you try to get on a bicycle and balance without a kickstand, you will probably fall off.
But once you start pedalling, these wheels pick up angular momentum. They are going
to resist change, thereby making balancing gets easier.
Angular momentum is defined as:
The property of any rotating object given by moment of inertia times angular velocity.

37
It is the property of a rotating body given by the product of the moment of inertia and the
angular velocity of the rotating object. It is a vector quantity, which implies that the
direction is also considered here along with magnitude.

Symbol The angular momentum is a vector

quantity, denoted by

L→

Units It is measured using SI base units:

Kg.m2.s-1

Dimensional formula The dimensional formula is:

[M][L]2[T]-1

Angular Momentum Formula

Angular momentum can be experienced by an object in two situations. They are:
Point object: The object accelerating around a fixed point. For example, Earth
revolving around the sun. Here the angular momentum is given by:

L→=r→×p→

Where,
● L→is the angular velocity
● r is the radius (distance between the object and the fixed point about which it
revolves)
● P→is the linear momentum.

Extended object: The object, which is rotating about a fixed point. For example, Earth
rotates about its axis. Here the angular momentum is given by:

L→=I→×ω→

Where,

38
 ● L→is the angular momentum.
● I is the rotational inertia.
● Ω→is the angular velocity.

Law of conservation
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed - only converted from one form of energy to another. This means that a
system always has the same amount of energy, unless it's added from the outside. This
is particularly confusing in the case of non-conservative forces, where energy is
converted from mechanical energy into thermal energy, but the overall energy does
remain the same. The only way to use energy is to transform energy from one form to
another.
The amount of energy in any system, then, is determined by the following equation:
U =Ui+W+Q

● UT is the total internal energy of a system.

● Ui is the initial internal energy of a system.
● W is the work done by or on the system.
● Q is the heat added to, or removed from, the system.
It is also possible to determine the change in internal energy of the system using the
equation:
ΔU=W+Q

39
This is also a statement of the first law of thermodynamics.
While these equations are extremely powerful, they can make it hard to see the power
of the statement. The takeaway message is that energy cannot be created from nothing.
Society has to get energy from somewhere, although there are many sneaky places to
get it from (some sources are primary fuels and some sources are primary energy
flows).
Early in the 20th century, Einstein figured out that even mass is a form of energy (this is
called mass-energy equivalence). The amount of mass directly relates to the amount of
energy, as determined by the most famous formula in physics:
E=mc2
E is the amount of energy in an object or system.

● m is the mass of the object or system.

● c is the speed of light, roughly
● 3×108m/s.

8
Oscillations, Types of Oscillations. Resonance.

Oscillations

Oscillation is defined as the process of repeating variations of any quantity or measure

about its equilibrium value in time. Oscillation can also be defined as a periodic variation
of a matter between two values or about its central value.

Oscillations can create waves. For example, a guitar produces sound waves, and the
motion of slapping water with your hand can make water waves. Some waves are
visible (e.g. visible light waves), while some are not (e.g. sound waves).

In physics, oscillation is the repeated variation of any quantity or measure in position or

magnitude about a central point. The unit used for the number of oscillations per second
is the Hertz. It is quantified using parameters such as frequency, amplitude, and time
period.

40
Properties of oscillation

● The frequency (F) is defined as the number of complete oscillations per unit time.
● The amplitude (A) is defined as the maximum displacement of an oscillator from
its equilibrium position.
● The time period (T) is defined as the time taken for one complete oscillation, in
seconds. The relationship between frequency and period is f = 1/T

Types of Oscillations

The three types of oscillations are

Free Oscillation- When a body vibrates with its own natural frequency, it is said to execute free
oscillations. The frequency of oscillations depends on the inertial factor and spring factor, which
is given by,

n=1/2π root(k/m)
Examples
(i) (I) Vibrations of tuning fork
(ii) (ii) Vibrations in a stretched string
(iii) (iii) Oscillations of simple pendulum
(iv) (iv) Air blown gently across the mouth of a bottle

Damped Oscillation- The body vibrating with a natural frequency starts vibrating with
the frequency of the applied periodic force due to the presence of external force is
called forced oscillations. Due to external factors such as friction or air resistance that
results in damping, the amplitude of oscillation reduces with time, and this will result in
energy loss from the system. An example would be the decaying oscillations of a
pendulum.

41
Examples :
i) The oscillations of a pendulum
ii) Electromagnetic damping in galvanometer (oscillations of a coil in
galvanometer)
iii) Electromagnetic oscillations in tank circuit

Forced Oscillation-The motion that repeats itself is called oscillatory or periodic

motion. When something oscillated by being influenced by an external periodic force, it
is called a forced oscillation. Here, the amplitude of oscillation experiences damping but
remains constant due to the other external energy supplied to it.
( For example, when you play with a toy that involves an object being supported by an
elastic band suspended on your finger. In the beginning, if you hold your finger still, the
object bounces up and down with a small amount of damping. If you move your finger
up and down, the object will follow along. The object responds by oscillating with the
increasing amplitude as you increase the frequency at which you move your fingers.)
Examples :
(i) Sound boards of stringed instruments execute forced vibration,
(ii) Press the stem of vibrating tuning fork, against tabla. The tabla
suffers forced vibration.

Resonance
In the case of forced vibration, if the frequency difference is small,
the amplitude will be large (Fig.). Ultimately when the two frequencies are same,
amplitude becomes maximum.This is a special case of forced vibration..

42
If the frequency of the external periodic force is equal to the natural frequency of
oscillation of the system, then the amplitude of oscillation will be large and this is known
as resonanc.

Objects, mechanical systems and charged particles tend to vibrate at a specific

frequency. We call this frequency the resonant frequency or the natural frequency.
When a light or a sound wave strikes an object that is already vibrating at some
particular frequency, and if that frequency happens to match the resonant frequency of
the object it’s hitting; then you’ll get what’s called resonance. Resonance occurs when
the matching vibrations of another object increase the amplitude of an object’s
oscillations.
Resonance in physics is defined as follows:
A phenomenon in which an external force or a vibrating system forces another system
around it to vibrate with greater amplitude at a specified frequency of operation.

Resonant frequency is the natural frequency where a medium vibrates at the highest
amplitude. Resonant frequency is usually denoted as f0. Resonance is witnessed in
objects in equilibrium with acting forces and could keep vibrating for a long time under
perfect conditions.
To find the resonant frequency of a single continuous wave, we use the formula
v=λf
Where v is the wave velocity and λ is the distance of the wavelength.

43
9

Pendulum
A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When a
pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a
restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position.
When released, the restoring force acting on the pendulum's mass causes it to oscillate
about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one complete
cycle, a left swing and a right swing, is called the period. The period depends on the
length of the pendulum and also to a slight degree on the amplitude, the width of the
pendulum's swing. Pendulums have been used in clocks since the 17th century. Crude
pendulums are cheap and easy to build — all you need is a small weight, a piece of
string, and something to hang it from — and make appropriate hands-on devices for
introductory physics courses. The arms and legs of a walking person are also
pendulums, so your typical off-the-shelf human comes with pendulums included.
The simple gravity pendulum is an idealized mathematical model of a pendulum. This
is a weight(bob) on the end of a massless cord suspended from a pivot, without friction.
When given an initial push, it will swing back and forth at a constant amplitude. Real
pendulums are subject to friction and air drag, so the amplitude of their swings declines.

Two forces act on the bob a simple pendulum whether it is moving or not — weight (the
force of gravity) and tension. In the equilibrium position, when the pendulum is at rest,
the two forces are equal and opposite.
Since the whole pendulum is held fixed at the pivot (the noun), any attempt to move the
pendulum side to side causes the whole thing to pivot (the verb) with an angular
displacement θ.

44
This is a problem where a radial-tangential coordinate system works better than the
typical vertical-horizontal one. Tension points radially inward toward the pivot and is
considered the "good" vector. Weight is the "bad" vector and must be broken up into
components — one radial (mg sin θ) and one tangential (mg cos θ).

The period of a simple pendulum with small angle amplitudes is given by the following
equation…
T = 2π√ℓ
g
Where…
T= period [s], the time to complete one cycle of motion
π = a mathematical constant [unitless]
ℓ= length [m], measured from the suspension point to the mass
g= gravity [m/s2], the gravitational field strength in the place where the pendulum is
doing its thing

10

45
 Mechanical Waves

In physics, a mechanical wave is a wave that is an oscillation of matter, and

therefore transfers energy through a medium.[1] While waves can move over long
distances, the movement of the medium of transmission—the material—is limited.
Therefore, the oscillating material does not move far from its initial equilibrium position.
Mechanical waves can be produced only in media which possess elasticity and inertia.
There are three types of mechanical waves: transverse waves, longitudinal waves, and
surface waves. Some of the most common examples of mechanical waves are water
waves, sound waves, and seismic waves.
Like all waves, mechanical waves transport energy. This energy propagates in
the same direction as the wave. A wave requires an initial energy input; once this initial
energy is added, the wave travels through the medium until all its energy is transferred.
In contrast, electromagnetic waves require no medium, but can still travel through one.
One important property of mechanical waves is that their amplitudes are
measured in an unusual way, displacement divided by (reduced) wavelength. When
this gets comparable to unity, significant nonlinear effects such as harmonic generation
may occur, and, if large enough, may result in chaotic effects. For example, waves on
the surface of a body of water break when this dimensionless amplitude exceeds 1,
resulting in a foam on the surface and turbulent mixing.
Waves in Matter
The waves in the picture above are examples of mechanical waves. A
mechanical wave is a disturbance in matter that transfers energy through the matter. A
mechanical wave starts when matter is disturbed. A source of energy is needed to
disturb matter and start a mechanical wave.

The Medium

46
 The energy of a mechanical wave can travel only through matter. The matter
through which the wave travels is called the medium (plural, media). The medium in the
water wave pictured above is water, a liquid. But the medium of a mechanical wave can
be any state of matter, even a solid.

Types of mechanical waves

Transverse wave
A transverse wave is the form of a wave in which particles of medium vibrate
about their mean position perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the wave.
To see an example, move an end of a Slinky (whose other end is fixed) to the
left-and-right of the Slinky, as opposed to to-and-fro. Light also has properties of a
transverse wave, although it is an electromagnetic wave.

Longitudinal wave
Longitudinal waves cause the medium to vibrate parallel to the direction of the
wave. It consists of multiple compressions and rarefactions. The rarefaction is the
farthest distance apart in the longitudinal wave and the compression is the closest
distance together. The speed of the longitudinal wave is increased in higher index of
refraction, due to the closer proximity of the atoms in the medium that is being
compressed. Sound is a longitudinal wave.

47
Surface waves
This type of wave travels along the surface or interface between two media. An
example of a surface wave would be waves in a pool, or in an ocean, lake, or any other
type of water body. There are two types of surface waves, namely Rayleigh waves and
Love waves.
Rayleigh waves, also known as ground roll, are waves that travel as ripples with
motion similar to those of waves on the surface of water. Such waves are much slower
than body waves, at roughly 90% of the velocity of bulk waves[clarify] for a typical
homogeneous elastic medium. Rayleigh waves have energy losses only in two
dimensions and are hence more destructive in earthquakes than conventional bulk
waves, such as P-waves and S-waves, which lose energy in all three directions.
A Love wave is a surface wave having horizontal waves that are shear or
transverse to the direction of propagation. They usually travel slightly faster than
Rayleigh waves, at about 90% of the body wave velocity, and have the largest
amplitude.

48
Summary

● A mechanical wave is a disturbance in matter that transfers energy through

the matter.
● The matter through which a mechanical wave travels is called the medium
(plural, media).
● There are three types of mechanical waves: transverse, longitudinal, and
surface waves. They differ in how particles of the medium move when the
energy of the wave passes through.

Sound
Sound waves
The pattern of disruption by the flow of energy even though it perpetuates away
from the direction of the sound across a medium called sound waves. The propagation
medium can be solid, liquid or gas.
Sound waves are classified as mechanical waves because they pass through a
physical medium such as air, liquid, or metals like silver. Sound wave’s frequency is
defined as the number of rarefactions and compressions per unit of time. The fact that
mechanical waves must propagate through a physical medium such as air, water or
metal defines it. The propagation of sound waves necessitates the use of a medium.
A mechanical wave of vibration that travels through a medium is referred to as
sound.

49
Special Theory of Relativity. Galileo's Principle of Relativity. Galileo and Lorentz
Transformations.

11

Special Theory of Relativity

The Special Theory of Relativity is one of two Einstein theories, which dates from
1905. According to this theory the laws of physics are identical for all non-accelerating
observers, and the speed of light in a vacuum is independent of the motion of all
observers. Special relativity is an explanation of how speed affects mass, time and
space. The theory includes a way for the speed of light (c) to define the relationship
between energy and matter — small amounts of mass (m) can be interchangeable with
2
enormous amounts of energy (E), as defined by the classic equation 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 .

50
 Galileo's Principle of Relativity

Galileo's principle of relativity states : "It is impossible by mechanical means to say

whether we are moving or staying at rest". All physical laws are the same in all
coordinate systems moving at constant velocities which are called inertial reference
frames. Galileo Galilei first described this principle using the example of a ship travelling
at constant velocity on a smooth sea: any observer doing experiments below the deck
would not be able to tell whether the ship was moving or not.

Galileo and Lorentz Transformations

Galilean Transformations are employed in Newtonian Physics. In Newtonian physics,

it is assumed that there exists a universal entity called ‘time’ which is independent of the
observer. Assume that there are two frames of references S(x, y, z, t)and S’ (x’, y’, z’,
t’)out of which S is at rest and S’ is moving with constant velocity v along the direction of
the x-axis of the frame S. Now assume that an event occurs at the point P which at the
space-time coordinate (x,y,z,t) with respect to the frame S. Then the Galilean transform
gives the position of the event as observed by an observer in frame S’. Assume the
space-time coordinate with respect to S’ is (x’,y’,z’,t’) then x’=x – vt, y’=y, z’=z and t’=t.
This is the Galilean Transformation.
Differentiating these with respect to t’ the Galilean velocity transformation equations are
obtained. If u = (ux,uy,uz) is the velocity of an object as observed by an observer in S
then the velocity of the same object as observed by an observer in S’ is given by u’=
(ux’,uy’,uz’) where ux’ = ux– v, uy’ = uy and uz’= uz. It is interesting to note that under
Galilean transformations, the acceleration is invariant; i.e. the acceleration of an object
is observed to be the same by all the observers.

51
Lorentz Transformations are employed in special relativity and relativistic dynamics.
Galilean transformations do not predict accurate results when bodies move with speeds
closer to the speed of light. Hence, Lorentz transformations are used when bodies travel
at such speeds.

Now consider the two frames in the previous section. The Lorentz transformation
equations for the two observers are x’=γ (x– vt), y’=y, z’=z and t’=γ(t – vx/c2) where c is
the speed of light and γ = 1/√(1 – v2/c2). Observe that according to this transformation,
there is no universal quantity as time, as it depends on the observer’s speed. As a
consequence of this, observers travelling at different speeds will measure different
distances, different time intervals and observe different ordering of events.

52
What is the difference between Galilean and Lorentz Transformations?
• Galilean transformations are approximations of Lorentz transformations for speeds
very lower than the speed of light.

• Lorentz transformations are valid for any speed whereas Galilean transformations are
not.

• According to Galilean transformations time is universal and independent of the

observer but according to Lorentz transformations time is relative.

53
 Electricity

12

Electricity, Basic laws of Electricity. Coulomb's Law. Electric Charge. Charge Interactions. Law of
Conservation of Charge.

Electricity
Electricity is a form of energy that results from the flow of charged particles. Electricity
being the flow of moving electrons, it should be known this produces a resultant called
electrical current. This current allows objects to work in tangent with each other by
flowing through conducting materials connecting them. The path that the electrons flow
through is called a circuit. Circuits connect all of our electronic devices allowing us to
live the way we do today.

Basic laws of Electricity

Ohm’s law is related to the three basic electrical quantities such as electric current,
potential difference (or voltage), and resistance.

Ohm’s law is stated as,

An electric current (I) passes through the conductor are directly proportional to the
applied voltage (V) between the two terminal of conductor, if physical conditions remain
constant.

[Potential Difference (V) / Electric current (I)] = Resistance (R)

The forcing quantities (V) is directly proportional to the flowing qunantities if the
opposing quantities (R) is constant.

Joule’s Law of Heating

Joule’s law is a mathematical description of the rate at which resistance in a circuit
converts electric energy into heat energy.

54
Joule’s first law

The joule’s first law shows the relationship between heat produced by flowing electric
current through a conductor.
Q = I2 R T
Where,
● Q indicates the amount of heat
● I show electric current
● R is the amount of electric resistance in the conductor
● T denotes time

Coulomb's Law

According to Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged
bodies is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. It acts along the line joining the two
charges considered to be point charges.

where,

55
 ● ε is absolute permittivity,
● K or εr is the relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity
● ε0 is the permittivity of free space.
● K or εr is also called a dielectric constant of the medium in which the two charges
are placed

Electric Charge

Electric Charge is a fundamental property of matter and never found free. There are
two kinds of electric charges namely positive and negative charges. If a body has an
excess of electrons, it is said to be negatively charged and if it is deficient in electrons, it
is said to be positively charged.

The process of making a neutral body into a charged body is known as electrification.

The electricity (i.e. transfer of electrons) that is produced due to friction is called
frictional electricity.

Charge Interactions
The three rules for charge interactions are: oppositely-charged objects attract each
other, like-charged objects repel each other, and a neutral and a charged object attract
each other.

Law of conservation of charge

Law of conservation of charge says that the net charge of an isolated system will
always remain constant. This means that any system that is not exchanging mass or
energy with its surroundings will never have a different total charge at any two times.
For example, if two objects in an isolated system have a net charge of zero, and one
object exchanges one million electrons to the other, the object with the excess electrons
will be negatively charged and the object with the reduced number of electrons will have
a positive charge of the same magnitude. The total charge of the system has not and
will never change.

Electrostatics. Electric field. The laws of direct Current. Electrostatic Potential. Potential
difference. Voltage.

56
13

Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the study of forces between charges, as described by Coulomb's
Law. We develop the concept of an electric field surrounding charges. We work through
examples of the electric field near a line, and near a plane, and develop formal
definitions of both electric potential and voltage

.
Electrostatics Examples
● The attraction of the plastic wrap to your hand after you remove it from a
package.
● The attraction of paper to a charged scale.
● The spontaneous explosion of grain silos.
● The damage to electronic components during manufacturing.
● Photocopier and laser printer operation.

Electric field

Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field
is taken to be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive test charge. The
electric field is radially outward from a positive charge and radially in toward a negative
point charge.

57
 The laws of direct Current

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points.
The major use of Direct Current is to supply power to electrical devices and also to
charge batteries. Example: mobile phone batteries, flashlights, flat-screen
television and electric vehicles.

58
 Potential difference

The electric potential is defined as the amount of work energy needed to move a unit of
electric charge from a reference point to a specific point in an electric field. More
precisely, it is the energy per unit charge for a test charge that is so small that the
disturbance of the field under consideration is negligible.

Voltage

Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes
charged electrons (current) through a conducting loop, enabling them to do work
such as illuminating light. In brief, voltage = pressure, and it is measured in volts (V).

59
14
Current strength, Current density. Kirchhoff's Law.
Answer:

Current strength
Current strength is a quantity in physics for the number of electrons that flow through a
specific cross-sectional area of an electric conductor within one second. (You can
imagine this as a gate that counts the electrons which pass a specific spot in the
conductor). The current strength is abbreviated by the formula symbol I. The formula
symbol I is derived from the word intensity. The purpose is to describe how strong the
electric current is. Intensity helps do understand that the amperage is high if an
especially great number of electrons flow through the cross-sectional area within a
certain period of time.

The current strength is stated in the unit Ampere. It owes its name to the French
physicist André-Marie Ampère, who lived from 1775 to 1836 in France. A current
strength of one Ampere will be achieved, if 6,24 quintillions
(6.240.000.000.000.000.000) of elektrons pass through a conductor cross-section within
one second.

The electric current strength is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) which has
crossed a sectional area in a certain period of time (t). It is described by the following
formula:

(A quick reminder: Q is the symbol for charge and t thy symbol for time.)

These models of a conductor help you to understand what a high or a low amperage
means. The higher the amperage, the more electrons flow through the conductor within
a certain period of time:

High amperage; many electrons per period of time:

Low amperage; a few electrons per period of time:

Note: In a real conductor the electrons don't move that straightforward; they rather move
in a zig-zag-course.

60
Here are some examples for current strenghts from your daily life:

light bulb about 0,4 Ampere

torch light up to 0,6 Ampere

toaster about 5,2 Ampere

baking oven up to 12 Ampere

electric apbo 150 Ampere

locomotive ut

lightning up to 1.000.000
Ampere

Defining Current
Current is the flow of electrons from
an electrically abundant source to an electrically deficit destination. We use
the symbol I to denote current, whereas ampere is the standard
unit for measuring the same.

Current always follows in a specific

direction of flow. Thus, you will find current flowing from a positive to a
negative point.

Current Density
Current Density Definition
Current density is referred to as the
total amount of current which is flowing through one unit value of a
cross-sectional area. If this is of uniform current flow, then the amount of
current which is flowing through a specific conductor is the same at all points
of the conductor, even if the conductor area differs.

61
Current density formula can help to
determine the amount of current in a specific portion of the conductor.

What is the Current Density Formula?

Current Density (J) = I/A

In this equation, ‘I’ is the amount of

current in Amperes while ‘A’ is the cross-section area in sq. meters.

Current Density Example

Now that you are aware of the formula
for calculation, take a look at the example below to get a clearer idea.

Example – A 10mm 2 of copper wire

conducts a current flow of 2mA. Determine this current density using the
current density formula.

Solution – In this example,

current (I) = 2 x 10-3

A = 10 x 10 -3

Thus, current density (J) = 2 x 10-3/10 x 10-3

J = 0.20 A/m 2

What is the Unit of Current Density?

The SI unit of current density is
Ampere/meter2. This unit also helps you remember the formula for calculation of
such a density. Since Ampere is the unit of current and meter2 is the unit for
measuring cross-sectional area, one can easily derive the formula for current
density. It is the current flow divided by the area of the cross section.

62
 Kirchhoff’s Laws

● Kirchhoff’s Current Law goes by several names: Kirchhoff’s First Law and
Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule. According to the Junction rule, the total of the currents
in a junction is equal to the sum of currents outside the junction in a circuit.
● Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law goes by several names: Kirchhoff’s Second Law and
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule. According to the loop rule, the sum of the voltages around
the closed loop is equal to null.

Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Current Law

According to Kirchhoff’s Current Law,

The total current entering a junction or a node is equal to the charge leaving the node
as no charge is lost.

Put differently, the algebraic sum of every current entering and leaving the node has to
be null. This property of Kirchhoff law is commonly called Conservation of charge
wherein, I(exit) + I(enter) = 0.

63
In the above figure, the currents I1, I2 and I3 entering the node is considered positive,
likewise, the currents I4 and I5 exiting the nodes is considered negative in values. This
can be expressed in the form of an equation:
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
A node refers to a junction connecting two or more current-carrying routes like cables
and other components. Kirchhoff’s current law can also be applied to analyse parallel
circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

According to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,

The voltage around a loop equals the sum of every voltage drop in the same loop for
any closed network and equals zero.

Put differently, the algebraic sum of every voltage in the loop has to be equal to zero
and this property of Kirchhoff’s law is called conservation of energy.

64
When you begin at any point of the loop and continue in the same direction, note the
voltage drops in all the negative or positive directions and returns to the same point. It is
essential to maintain the direction either counterclockwise or clockwise; otherwise, the
final voltage value will not be zero. The voltage law can also be applied in analyzing
circuits in series.
When either AC circuits or DC circuits are analysed based on Kirchhoff’s circuit laws,
you need to be clear with all the terminologies and definitions that describe the circuit
components like paths, nodes, meshes, and loops.

15

The main elements of chain connecting and their connection. An Electrical Circuit.

Electric circuits
An electric circuit is a closed path in which electrons move to produce electric currents.
Indeed, all the simple modern marvels are a consequence of this scientific principle.
Read on to understand more on the components, types, and other concepts related to
electric circuits.

65
The first component in an electric circuit is the source of electrical energy that allows
electrons to move. This source could be a battery, a solar cell, or a hydroelectric
plant—a place where there’s a positive terminal and a negative terminal and from where
charge could flow from one to the other. This push of electric charge is called voltage
whose potential is measured in volts.

· Electric circuits are made up of electrical components

· These components must be joined together without any gap in between to form a
closed circuit.

Note:

Components refer to the light bulb, wires, battery

Incomplete circuits are called open circuits.

66
AN E L E C T R I C C U R R E N T F L O W S O N LY WHEN

T H E R E IS:

a source of electrical energy

and

a closed circuit

P.S. An electric current is a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions,

moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is measured as the net rate of flow
of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume.

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT IS A CONTINUOUS AND CLOSED

PATH OFAN ELECTRIC CURRENT

A schematic diagram of an electric circuit comprising of a cell, electric bulb,

ammeter and plug key

67
Symbols of components used in electric circuits

How to draw circuit diagrams?

Symbols are used to represent the various electrical components in circuits.

68
Switches

It is used to open or close a circuit.

69
What is Electromotive Force?

Electromotive force is defined as the electric potential produced by either

electrochemical cell or by changing the magnetic field. EMF is the commonly used
acronym for electromotive force.
A generator or a battery is used for the conversion of energy from one form to another.
In these devices, one terminal becomes positively charged while the other becomes
negatively charged. Therefore, an electromotive force is a work done on a unit electric
charge.
Electromotive force is used in the electromagnetic flowmeter which is an application of
Faraday’s law.

Symbol for Electromotive Force

The electromotive force symbol is ε.

What is Electromotive Force Formula?

Following is the formula for electromotive force:

ε = V + Ir

Where,

● V is the voltage of the cell

● I is the current across the circuit
● r is the internal resistance of the cell
● ε is the electromotive force

What is the unit of EMF?

70
The unit for electromotive force is Volt.
EMF is numerically expressed as the number of Joules of energy given by the source
divided by each Coulomb to enable a unit electric charge to move across the circuit.

Volts=JoulesCoulombs

Dimension of Electromotive Force

EMF is given as the ratio of work done on a unit charge which is represented as follows:

EMF=JoulesCoulombs

Therefore, EMF dimension is given as M1L2T-3I-1

Difference between Electromotive Force and Potential Difference

Electromotive Force Potential Difference

EMF is defined as the work Potential difference is defined as the energy

done on a unit charge which is dissipated as the unit charge pass
through the components

EMF remains constant Potential difference is not constant

EMF is independent of circuit The potential difference depends on the

resistance resistance between the two points during the
measurement

Due to EMF, electric, magnetic, Due to the potential difference, the only electric
and the gravitational field is field is induced
caused

71
 It is represented by E It is represented by V

Can electromotive force be negative?

Yes, the electromotive force can be negative. Consider an example where an inductor is
generating the EMF such that it is opposing the incoming power. Then the produced
EMF is taken as negative as the direction of flow is opposite to the real power.
Therefore, the electromotive force can be negative.

What is the difference between terminal voltage and EMF?

Following are the difference between terminal voltage and EMF:

● Terminal voltage is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a

load when the circuit is on. While EMF is defined as the maximum potential
difference that is delivered by the battery when there is no flow of current.
● A voltmeter is used for measuring the terminal voltage whereas a potentiometer
is used for measuring the EMF.

Potential Difference

Potential difference is the difference in the amount of energy that charge carriers have
between two points in a circuit.

Measured in Volts: Potential difference (p.d.) is measured in volts (V) and is also called
voltage. The energy is transferred to the electrical components in a circuit when the
charge carriers pass through them. We use a voltmeter to measure potential difference
(or voltage).

Potential Difference formula: V = I x R

The potential difference (which is the same as voltage) is equal to the amount of current
multiplied by the resistance. A potential difference of one Volt is equal to one Joule of
energy being used by one Coulomb of charge when it flows between two points in a
circuit.

Measurements in Circuits

Ammeters: An ammeter measures the flow of current that passes through it. Ammeters
have to be connected in series (in the same loop of the circuit) with the electrical
component whose current you are measuring. For example component X above.

72
Voltmeters: Voltmeters measure the potential difference (voltage) between two points in
a circuit. For example between two points either side of component X above. Voltmeters
must always be connected in parallel (on a separate branch of the circuit) with the two
points being measured.

Current vs potential difference: The current is a flow of charge. Current is measured

through a component. Potential difference is the energy used between two points in a
circuit, therefore it is measured between two points either side of a component. We
describe this as the potential difference measured across a component.

This diagram shows that an ammeter must be connected in series with the components
you want to measure and a voltmeter must be connected in parallel.

16

Series and Parallel Connection of Transmitters. Ohm's Law. Joule-Lenz Law.

73
 Series and Parallel Connection of Transmitters
When there are two or more electrical devices in a circuit with an energy source, there
are a couple of basic ways by which we connect them. They can either be connected in
series or in parallel combinations.

Series circuit is a circuit where the components are connected end-to-end (It connects
the components one after the other).

Parallel circuit is a circuit where all components are connected across each other’s
leads (It divides into two or more branches).

74
 Ohm's Law
Ohm's Law is one of the fundamental laws in physics that governs electrical and
electronic circuits. Ohm’s law is known to be the relation between voltage and current.

The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential

difference between its ends provided all the physical conditions remain the same.

I=U/R

The S.I. unit of current is Ampere

The S.I. unit of voltage is Volts.

The S.I. unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω)

In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalisations of

the law; for example, the vector form of the law used in electromagnetics and

material science:

J=σE

75
where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the

electric field at that location, and σ (sigma) is a material-dependent parameter

called the conductivity.

Joule-Lenz Law
According to Joule-Lenz Law the amount of heat that is released in the conductor will be
directly proportional to the square of the electric current that passes through the
conductor, its resistance and the time during which the electric current is maintained
unchanged in the conductor.

Q = kl²Rt

Where Q - the amount of heat released, l - current, R - conductor resistance, t - time;

The quantity k is called the thermal equivalent of the work. The numerical value of this
quantity depends on the choice of units in which the remaining quantities in the formula
are measured. If the amount of heat is measured in calories, the current in amperes, the
resistance in Ohms, and the time in seconds, then k is numerically 0.24.

In the system of SI units, energy, heat quantity and work are measured by units - joules.
Therefore, the proportionality coefficient in the Joule-Lenz law is unity. In this system,
the Joule-Lenz formula has the form:

Q = l²Rt.

76
16

lectromagnetic Waves. Maxwell's Equations, their physical interpretation.

Answer:

Introduction to electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic radiation is one of the many ways that energy travels through space.
The heat from a burning fire, the light from the sun, the X-rays used by your doctor, as
well as the energy used to cook food in a microwave are all forms of electromagnetic
radiation. While these forms of energy might seem quite different from one another, they
are related in that they all exhibit wavelike properties.

Waves are simply disturbances in a particular physical medium or a field, resulting in a

vibration or oscillation. The swell of a wave in the ocean, and the subsequent dip that
follows, is simply a vibration or oscillation of the water at the ocean’s surface.
Electromagnetic waves are similar, but they are also distinct in that they actually consist
of 22 waves oscillating perpendicular to one another. One of the waves is an oscillating
magnetic field; the other is an oscillating electric field. This can be visualized as follows:

77
 Electromagnetic radiation can be drawn as an oscilating electric field (oscilating in the
plane of the page/computer screen), and a perpendicular (in this case, oscillating in and
out of the page) magnetic field. The Y axis is amplitude, and the X axis is distance in
space.

Electromagnetic waves consist of an oscillating electric field with a perpendicular

oscillating magnetic field.

Basic properties of waves: Amplitude, wavelength, and frequency

As you might already know, a wave has a trough (lowest point) and a crest(highest
point). The vertical distance between the tip of a crest and the wave’s central axis is
known as its amplitude. This is the property associated with the brightness, or intensity,
of the wave. The horizontal distance between two consecutive troughs or crests is
known as the wavelength of the wave. These lengths can be visualized as follows:

A two-dimensional representation of a wave. The amplitude is the distance from its

central axis (indicated by the red line) to the tip of a crest. The wavelength is the
distance from crest to crest, or from trough to trough.

78
Period

The last quantity we will consider is the period of a wave. A wave’s period is the length
of time it takes for one wavelength to pass by a given point in space. Mathematically,
the period T, equals, start fraction, 1, divided by, f, end fraction

Now that we have an understanding of some basic properties of waves, we’ll look at the
different types of electromagnetic radiation.

The electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic waves can be classified and arranged according to their various

wavelengths/frequencies; this classification is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.

Physical Significance of Maxwell’s Equations

By means of Gauss and Stoke’s theorem we can put the field equations in integral form
of hence obtain their physical significance

1. Maxwell’s first equation is ∇. D = ρ.

Integrating this over an arbitrary volume V we get

∫v ∇.D dV = ∫v ρ dV.

But from Gauss Theorem, we get

∫s D.dS = ∫v ρ dV = q

Here, q is the net charge contained in volume V. S is the surface bounding volume V.
Therefore, Maxwell’s first equation signifies that:

79
The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a volume is equal to the
total charge within the volume.

2. Maxwell’s second equations is ∇.B = 0

Integrating this over an arbitrary volume V, we get

∫v ∇.B = 0.

Using Gauss divergence theorem to change volume integral into surface integral, we
get

∫s B.dS = 0.

Maxwell’s second equation signifies that:

The total outward flux of magnetic induction B through any closed surface S is equal to
zero.

3. Maxwell’s third equation is ∇ x E = - ∂B/∂t . dS

Converting the surface integral of left hand side into line integral by Stoke’s theorem, we
get

Φc E. dI = - ∫s ∂B/∂t. dS.

Maxwell’s third equation signifies that:

The electromotive force (e.m.f. e = ∫C E.dI) around a closed path is equal to negative
rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the path (since magnetic flux Φ = ∫s B.dS).

80
4. Maxwell’s fourth equation is

∇ x H = J + ∂D/∂t

Taking surface integral over surface S bounded by curve C, we obtain

∫s ∇ x H. dS = ∫s (J + ∂D/∂t) dS

Using Stoke’s theorem to convert surface integral on L.H.S. of above equation into line
integral, we get

Φc H.dI = ∫s (J + ∂D/∂t).dS

Maxwell’s fourth equation signifies that:

The magneto motive force (m.m.f. = Φc H. dI) around a closed path is equal to the
conduction current plus displacement current through any surface bounded by the path.

17

Classification of materials according to electrical properties of Conductors,

Semiconductors,Dielectrics./Transmitters, Semiconductors and Insulators/.

Classification of materials according to electrical properties of Conductors

81
Depending on the conductivity, materials are classified as conductors, insulators and
superconductors.
Conductors:- These are those materials whose electrical conductivity is very high.
Conductors conduct charges very easily . For super-conductor , the value of electrical
conductivity is infinite. Examples. Copper,Silver.Aluminum,Tungsten etc.

Semiconductors:- They are those materials whose electrical conductivity lies in

between insulators and conductors . Semiconductors can conduct charges but not so
easily as in case of conductivity.

Examples. Germanium.Silicon etc

Insulators:- These are those materials whose electrical conductivity is either very very
small or nil. Insulators do not conduct charges.

Examples. Glass,Rubber,Wood etc.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are substances with properties somewhere between them.
ICs(integrated circuits) and electronic discrete components such as diodes and
transistors are made of semiconductors.

82
 A widely known semiconductor is silicon. Electronic components using semiconductors
are called semiconductor devices, including the IC, which is an integrated circuit of
transistors. Semiconductor devices mounted inside many electronics appliances are
important electronic components that support our everyday live.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is
made up of only a single type of element.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a small
number of suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The process of adding
impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor is called DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in 107
is replaced by a dopant atom in the doped semiconductor. An extrinsic semiconductor
can be further classified into:
● N-type Semiconductor
● P-type Semiconductor

Dielectrics
Dielectrics are materials that don’t allow current to flow. They are more often called
insulators because they are the exact opposite of conductors. But usually when people
call insulators “dielectrics,” it’s because they want to draw attention to a special property
shared by all insulators: polarizability

83
When a battery is connected to a conductor, the potential difference of the two poles of
the battery pushes on all the charges in the conductor, which in turn causes them to drift
slowly through the material—creating a current through the conductor. This happens
because the outer electrons in a conductor are not attached to particular nuclei; they
can wander freely throughout the entire material. In a dielectric, the charges are valence
electrons that are stuck inside atoms of a crystal or polymer, and so current doesn’t flow
at all. The electric field, however, still exerts a force on the charges. While the individual
electrons remain tied to their parent atoms, they prefer to stay on the side of the atom
that’s closer to the positive terminal. You can imagine the electrons wanting to jump off
their parent atoms, but instead remaining leashed to them by the electrostatic forces
that bind valence electrons to the nucleus

18
Mixed Conductivity of Semiconductors. Electron Cavity (p-n) Junction. Electricity, Capacitor.

Mixed Conductivity of Semiconductors

Semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity is between that of a conductor

and an insulator. The elements most commonly used in semiconducting devices are
silicon and germanium.

Electron Cavity (p-n) Junction

PN junction can be fabricated by implanting or diffusing donors into a P-type substrate
such that a layer of semiconductor is converted into N type. Converting a layer of an
N-type semiconductor into P type with acceptors would also create a PN junction. A PN

84
junction has rectifying current–voltage characteristics. As a device, it is called a rectifier
or a diode. The PN junction is the basic structure of solar cell, light-emitting diode, and
diode laser, and is present in all types of transistors. In addition, PN junction is a vehicle
for studying the theory.

Electricity
A basic definition of electricity is a form of energy that results from the flow of charged
particles. Electricity being the flow of moving electrons, it should be known this
produces a resultant called electrical current. This current allows objects to work in
tangent with each other by flowing through conducting materials connecting them. The
path that the electrons flow through is called a circuit. Circuits connect all of our
electronic devices allowing us to live the way we do today.

Capacitor
capacitor, device for storing electrical energy, consisting of two conductors in close
proximity and insulated from each other. A simple example of such a storage device is

85
the parallel-plate capacitor. If positive charges with total charge +Q are deposited on
one of the conductors and an equal amount of negative charge −Q is deposited on the
second conductor, the capacitor is said to have a charge Q.
Capacitors have many important applications. They are used, for example, in digital
circuits so that information stored in large computer memories is not lost during a
momentary electric power failure; the electric energy stored in such capacitors
maintains the information during the temporary loss of power. Capacitors play an even
more important role as filters to divert spuriou electric signals and thereby prevent
damage to sensitive components and circuits caused by electric surges.

19
Electromagnetic field. Transformer.

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 Electromagnetic field
Electromagnetic field, a property of space caused by the motion of an electric
charge. A stationary charge will produce only an electric field in the surrounding space.
If the charge is moving, a magnetic field is also produced. An electric field can be
produced also by a changing magnetic field. The mutual interaction of electric and
magnetic fields produces an electromagnetic field, which is considered as having its
own existence in space apart from the charges or currents (a stream of moving
charges) with which it may be related. Under certain circumstances, this
electromagnetic field can be described as a wave transporting electromagnetic energy.

Sources of Electromagnetic Fields:

Natural Sources:

The electromagnetic field can be seen everywhere in the surrounding area, but it
is invisible to the human eye. The electric fields are produced by the electric charges
that are present in the environment associated with thunderstorms. While the magnetic
field of the earth causes the compass needle to move in a North-South Direction. This is
used as navigation for fish and birds.
Man-Made Sources:

Apart from the natural sources, the electromagnetic field also includes the energy
generated by man-made sources. Few human-made electromagnetic field sources are

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x-rays, electricity passing through the power socket and more. It depends on the
frequency of radio waves and how they are associated. For example, high frequency
waves are used for broadcasting information through radio stations, television antennas,
and mobile networks.

Transformer

An electric transformer is a device that uses electromagnetic induction to

change the voltage of electric current. Electromagnetic induction is the process of
generating current with a magnetic field. It occurs when a magnetic field and electric
conductor, such as a coil of wire, move relative to one another. A transformer may either
increase or decrease voltage. You can see the basic components of an electric
transformer in the Figure below.

The transformer in the diagram consists of two wire coils wrapped around an iron
core. Each coil is part of a different circuit. When alternating current passes through coil
P, it magnetises the iron core. Because the current is alternating, the magnetic field of
the iron core keeps reversing. This is where electromagnetic induction comes in. The
changing magnetic field induces alternating current in coil S of the other circuit.

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Stepping Up or Stepping Down

Notice that coil P and coil S in the Figure above have the same number of turns
of wire. In this case, the voltages of the primary and secondary currents are the same.
Usually, the two coils of a transformer have different numbers of turns. In that case, the
voltages of the two currents are different.

● When coil S has more turns than coil P, the voltage in the secondary current is
greater than the voltage in the primary current (see Figure below). This type
of transformer is called a step-up transformer. That’s because it steps up, or
increases, the voltage.

● When coil S has fewer turns of wire than coil P, the voltage in the secondary
current is less than the voltage in the primary current (see Figure below). This
type of transformer is called a step-down transformer because it steps down,
or decreases, the voltage.

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Summary

● An electric transformer is a device that uses electromagnetic induction to

change the voltage of an electric current.
● A step-up transformer increases voltage. A step-down transformer decreases
voltage.

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