VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio), is a measure of how efficiently radio-

frequency power is transmitted from a power source, through a transmission line,

into a load (for example, from a power amplifier through a transmission line, to an
antenna). In an ideal system, 100% of the energy is transmitted.

In radio engineering and telecommunications, standing wave ratio is a measure of

impedance matching of loads to the characteristic impedance of a transmission line
or waveguide. The VSWR is always a real and positive number for antennas. The
smaller the VSWR is, the better the antenna is matched to the transmission line
and the more power is delivered to the antenna. The minimum VSWR is 1.0. In this
case, no power is reflected from the antenna, which is ideal.

VSWR=Vmax/Vmin

VSWR=(Vfwd+Vref )/(Vfwd−Vref)

VSWR=(1+Γ)/(1−Γ), Γ = reflection coefficient It is worth noting that the absolute

value of Γ is used.
P ref
(1+ √ )
P fwd
VSWR=
(
1−√
P ref
P fwd )
VSWR measurements using power from transmitter: These measurements are
made using the power supplied by a transmitter. Typically they are made with a
transmitter operating with a reasonable level of power. The VSWR meters used are
often left in line during normal operation as a monitor of current readings. In this
way they can provide a very useful indication of a fault occurring, or a rise in VSWR
due to another issue during operation.

Test instrument stimulus VSWR measurements: Other tests are achieved using
test instruments that supply a (typically) low power stimulus to the load or system.
These VSWR measurements and tests are normally done during set-up or
development and then only as required. They cannot be left in circuit during normal
operation as they cannot operate with the transmitter in situ and providing its
power.

Offset
Offset is the difference between a radio channels’ receive and transmit frequencies.
Most commonly it refers to the separation between the input frequency and output
frequency of a repeater or other type of full duplex system. This should not be
confused with the trunking offset required when programming certain types of
trunked radio systems in certain scanner models.
For example, a mobile radio receives on 146.94 and transmits on 146.34 in order to
operate on a repeater.
146.94 - 146.34 = 0.6 (0.6 MHz or 600 kHz)
Since in this case the mobile radio transmit frequency (repeater input) is lower than
the mobile radio receive frequency (repeater output), it is said to have a negative
offset of 600 kHz or -600 kHz.
Certain bands and frequency ranges in the United States have standardized offsets.
Standard US Offsets

Band Frequency Range (MHz)Offset Notes

10m Ham (repeater subband) 29.5-29.7 -100 kHz 1
VHF Low Band 30-50 No standard offset
6m Ham 50-54 -500 kHz or -1 MHz 1
VHF High Band 138-174 No standard offset 2
2m Ham 144-148 +600 kHz or -600 kHz 1
220 MHz 220-222 +1 MHz
1.25m Ham 222-225 -1.6 MHz 1
380 MHz Federal LMR 380-400 +10 MHz
Federal UHF 406.1-420 +9 MHz 3
70cm Ham (repeater
440-450 +5 MHz or -5 MHz 1
subband)
UHF Canadian border area 420-430 +5 MHz
UHF 450-470 +5 MHz
UHF T 470-512 +3 MHz 4
Lower 700 MHz 698-746 +30 MHz 5
Upper 700 MHz 746-806 +30 MHz
800 MHz 806-896 -45 MHz
900 MHz 896-940 -39 MHz 6
33cm Ham 902-928 -12 MHz or -25 MHz 1
23cm Ham 1240-1300 -12 MHz or -20 MHz 1
Notes
 1. Ham radio offsets can vary in certain areas of the country. Some repeaters
in some areas may use non standard offsets and are commonly referred to
as odd split repeaters.
 2. There are some paired channels in the VHF high band (marine VHF, paging,
taxi, old RCC mobile phone channels) but no standard offset.
 3. The 406.1-420 MHz federal land mobile band began changing to a +9 MHz
offset a few years ago. Many older systems remain with non-standard offsets.
 4. The UHF T band is only available in certain areas. See Note 1 at Television
Frequencies.
 5. The middle part (716-728 MHz) of the Lower 700 MHz band is unpaired.
 6. Conventional and trunked repeaters between 935-940 MHz have a -39 MHz
offset. There are other paired channels (paging, PCS and Part 101 microwave)
with different offsets in the 896-960 MHz band, and unpaired channels.
dBm definition
dBm or decibel-milliwatt is an electrical power unit in decibels (dB), referenced to 1
milliwatt (mW).
The power in decibel-milliwatts (P(dBm)) is equal to 10 times base 10 logarithm of the
power in milliwatts (P(mW)):
P(dBm) = 10 ⋅ log10( P(mW) / 1mW)

The power in milliwatts (P(mW)) is equal to 1mW times 10 raised by the power in
decibel-milliwatts (P(dBm)) divided by 10:
P(mW) = 1mW ⋅ 10(P(dBm) / 10)

1 milliwatt is equal to 0 dBm:

1mW = 0dBm

1 watt is equal to 30dBm:

1W = 1000mW = 30dBm
dBm to mW to Watt to dBW conversion calculator
Convert decibel-milliwatts to milliwatts, watts, decibel-watts.
How to convert mW to dBm
How to convert power in milliwatts (mW) to dBm.
The power in dBm is equal to the base 10 logarithm of the power in milliwatts
(mW):
P(dBm) = 10 ⋅ log10( P(mW) / 1mW)

For example: what is the power in dBm for power consumption of 100mW?
Solution:
P(dBm) = 10 ⋅ log10( 100mW / 1mW) = 20dBm
How to convert dBm to mW
How to convert power in dBm to milliwatts (mW).
The power in milliwatts (P(mW)) is equal to 10 raised by the power in dBm (P(dBm))
divided by 10?
P(mW) = 1mW ⋅ 10(P(dBm) / 10)

For example: what is the power in milliwatts for power consumption of 20dBm?
Solution:
P(mW) = 1mW ⋅ 10(20dBm / 10) = 100mW
How to convert Watt to dBm
How to convert power in watts (W) to dBm.
The power in dBm is equal to the base 10 logarithm of the power in watts (W) plus
30dB:
P(dBm) = 10 ⋅ log10( P(W) / 1W) + 30

For example: what is the power in dBm for power consumption of 100W?
Solution:
P(dBm) = 10 ⋅ log10( 100W / 1W ) + 30 = 50dBm
How to convert dBm to Watt
How to convert power in dBm to watts (W).
The power in watts (P(W)) is equal to 10 raised by the power in dBm (P(dBm)) minus
30dB divided by 10:
P(W) = 1W ⋅ 10( (P(dBm)- 30) / 10)

For example: what is the power in watts for power consumption of 40dBm?
Solution:
P(W) = 1W ⋅ 10( (40dBm - 30) / 10) = 10W
How to convert dBW to dBm
How to convert power in dBW to dBm.
The power in dBm is equal to the base 10 logarithm of the power in watts (W):
P(dBm) = P(dBW) + 30

For example: what is the power in dBm for power consumption of 20dBW?
Solution:
P(dBm) = 20dBW + 30 = 50dBm
How to convert dBm to dBW
How to convert power in dBm to dBW.
The power in dBW (P(dBW)) is equal to 10 raised by the power in dBm (P(dBm)) divided
by 10:
P(dBW) = P(dBm) - 30

For example: what is the power in watts for power consumption of 40dBm?
Solution:
P(dBW) = 40dBm - 30 = 10dBW
How to convert dB to dBm
dB is a relative unit that describes gain and dBm is an absolute unit referenced to 1
milliwatt (mW).
So you can't convert dB to dBm.
dBm to Watt, mW, dBW conversion table

Power (dBm) Power (dBW) Power (watt) Power (mW)

-100 dBm -130 dBW 0.1 pW 0.0000000001 mW

-90 dBm -120 dBW 1 pW 0.000000001 mW

-80 dBm -110 dBW 10 pW 0.00000001 mW

-70 dBm -100 dBW 100 pW 0.0000001 mW

-60 dBm -90 dBW 1 nW 0.000001 mW

-50 dBm -80 dBW 10 nW 0.00001 mW

-40 dBm -70 dBW 100 nW 0.0001 mW

-30 dBm -60 dBW 1 μW 0.001 mW

-20 dBm -50 dBW 10 μW 0.01 mW

-10 dBm -40 dBW 100 μW 0.1 mW

-1 dBm -31 dBW 794 μW 0.794 mW

0 dBm -30 dBW 1.000 mW 1.000 mW

1 dBm -29 dBW 1.259 mW 1.259 mW

10 dBm -20 dBW 10 mW 10 mW

20 dBm -10 dBW 100 mW 100 mW

30 dBm 0 dBW 1W 1000 mW

40 dBm 10 dBW 10 W 10000 mW

50 dBm 20 dBW 100 W 100000 mW

60 dBm 30 dBW 1 kW 1000000 mW

70 dBm 40 dBW 10 kW 10000000 mW

80 dBm 50 dBW 100 kW 100000000 mW

90 dBm 60 dBW 1 MW 1000000000 mW

100 dBm 70 dBW 10 MW 10000000000 mW

In other words the amplitude modulation index describes the amount by which the
modulated carrier envelope varies about the static level.

This can be expressed in mathematical terms as below:

 Modulation Index, m=M/A

Where:
A=the carrier amplitude.
M = the modulation amplitude and is the peak change in the RF amplitude from its
un-modulated value.
Using the equation above it can be seen that a modulation index of 0.75 means
that the signal will increase by a factor of 0.75 and decrease to 0.25 of its original
level.

A modulation index of 1 is the maximum level of modulation that can normally be

applied and occurs when the envelope increases by a factor of 1, i.e. twice the
steady state value, and falls to zero.

AM modulation depth basics

The amplitude modulation AM modulation depth figure is complementary to the

modulation index.

Typically the modulation depth is the amplitude modulation index expressed as a

percentage.

In this way an AM modulation index of 0.75 would be expressed as a modulation

depth of 75%.

In reality the terms AM modulation index and the AM modulation depth are often
used interchangeably, so there are often no hard and fast rules regarding their use.

AM modulation index examples

It is helpful to see some examples of amplitude modulated waveforms with different

levels of modulation index.

The most widely seen modulation level is for a signal that has 100% modulation.
Under these circumstances the signal level falls to zero and rises to twice the value
with no modulation.

In this case the voltage rises to a maximum of twice the normal level – this means
that the power will be four times that of the quiescent value, i.e. 22 the value of the
no modulation level.

Amplitude modulated signal with 100% modulation

If less than 100% modulation is applied, then the carrier will not fall to zero, no will
it rise to twice the level, but the deviation will be less than this from the quiescent
level.

The diagram below shows a level of 50% modulation, but the principle holds good
for any value between 0 and 100% modulation.
 Amplitude modulated signal with 50%
modulation

Levels greater than 100% modulation

If the level of modulation is raised up above a modulation index of 1, i.e. more than
100% modulation this causes what is termed over-modulation.

The carrier experiences 180° phase reversals where the carrier level would try to go
below the zero point. These phase reversals give rise to additional sidebands
resulting from the phase reversals (phase modulation).

These sideband caused by the phase reversal extend out, in theory to infinity. This
can cause serious interference to other users if not filtered.

Amplitude modulation signal with

more than 100% modulation

Broadcast stations using amplitude modulation take measures to ensure that the
carriers or signals for their transmissions never become over modulated. The
transmitters incorporate limiters to prevent more than 100% modulation.

They also normally incorporate automatic audio gain controls to keep the audio
levels such that near 100% modulation levels are achieved for most of the time. In
this way the signal sounds clearer and stronger when demodulated.

The audio processor may also clip the audio if it becomes very close to the 100%
modulation level. This will ensure that the carrier is not over-modulated.
If an audio clipper is used, then this will need to be followed by an audio filter as
clipping introduces audio harmonics which may fall outside the permitted audio
bandwidth for the transmission.

If the audio went un-filtered, then the high audio frequencies would cause the
overall transmitted signal to have a wide bandwidth as the bandwidth of an
amplitude modulated signal is twice that of the highest audio frequency.

Many stations use very sophisticated audio processors to provide the maximum
level of audio on the carrier, to provide the "loudest" audio without over modulating
the carrier.

Monitoring modulation level

For any transmitting station using amplitude modulation, it is necessary to ensure

that the signal is not over-modulated. This is particularly important for AM
broadcast stations where there will be strict limits on the levels of interference that
are generated. If the modulation levels are too high, then the signal may be over-
modulated and interference caused.

For other forms of radio communication using amplitude modulation such as

aviation communications, the level must also be limited so that the carrier is not
over-modulated causing interference to other users occupying nearby channels.

Regulators for broadcasters take a dim view of stations that might cause high levels
of interference, and users will also suffer.

Even though audio limiters will be incorporated, it is still necessary to be able to

monitor the set-up and ensure that everything is working correctly.

For applications where AM is used for two way radio communications, the walkie-
talkie's are most likely to have been set within manufacture, or the design will
intrinsically limit the modulation level and continuous monitoring will not be
needed.

Even the base radio communications equipment is unlikely to need and setting or
calibration. As power levels are lower the issues are not as crucial as for
broadcasting.

There are several methods that can be used to ensure that the transmitter is
operating correctly:

 Oscilloscope: Using an oscilloscope it is possible to monitor the output

signal. Especially in the case of high power transmitters, the connection
can be made via a special coupler that will sample the outgoing signal, but
at a much reduced level for the oscilloscope. An easy way to obtain a
sample is to wind a pickup loop and connect it to the the vertical input of
the oscilloscope.
Depending on the location of the oscilloscope and the signal levels
present, a short antenna with a tuned circuit may be used. This approach
 works well in the vicinity of the transmitter where radiation levels will be
relatively high.

The envelope can then be monitored to ensure that it does cross the zero
signal line - this is where the phase reversals occur which give rise to
wide-band interference noise.

 Spectrum analyzer: Using a spectrum analyzer to monitor the modulation

index / depth, the analyzer will sample the signal and display its spectrum
on the display. The analyzer will be able to see the signal and monitor
whether any components fall outside the allotted bandwidth for the signal.
Real time spectrum analyzers will be better at monitoring any transient
effects, although they are considerably more costly.

 Modulation meter: For continual monitoring, it is much easier to use a

modulation meter. These meters provide an indication of the modulation
index or modulation depth on a numerical display. They will not provide as
much information, but are often quite adequate for ongoing monitoring.
These different methods can be used as appropriate to monitor continuously or
from time to time as appropriate.

The modulation index and modulation depth figures are widely used when
describing the modulation applied to an amplitude modulated signal. Too little and
the signal will not appear to have sufficiently loud audio. Too much and the signal
will create interference well beyond the channel on which it is operating.