Antenna Fundamentals

TABLE OF CONTENTS
21.1 HF Mobile Antenna Fundamentals

21.1.1 The Equivalent Circuit of a Typical Mobile Antenna
21.1.2 Loading a Short Mobile Antenna
21.1.3 Radiation Resistance of a Short Mobile Antenna
21.1.4 Optimum Loading Coil Inductance and Placement
21.1.5 Radiation Efficiency
21.1.6 Impedance Matching
21.2 HF Mobile Antenna Types

21.2.1 The Screwdriver Antenna
21.2.2 Monoband Antennas
21.2.3 Antenna Mounting
21.2.4 Mobile Antenna Controllers and Tuners
21.3 Bibliography for HF Mobile Antennas
21.4 HF Antennas for Sail and Power Boats

21.4.1 Planning Your Installation
21.4.2 Antenna Options
21.4.3 Antenna Tuners
21.4.4 The Effect of Mast and Rigging
21.4.5 Temporary Antennas
21.4.6 Grounding Systems
21.4.7 Antennas for Power Boats
21.5 Bibliography for HF Maritime Antennas
Antenna Fundamentals 1-1

Chapter 21
Mobile and
Maritime HF Antennas
Mobile antennas are designed for use while in motion. The chapter begins with a discussion of mobile antenna
At the mention of mobile antennas, most amateurs think of fundamentals at HF, updated from previous editions by Alan
a whip antenna mounted on an automobile or other vehicle. Applegate, KØBG. The following sections explain the more
While it is true that most mobile antennas are vertical whips, important attributes of the most popular designs and how to
mobile antennas can also be found in other places. For ex- get the best from them. This will include mounting, imped-
ample, antennas intended for use aboard a boat or ship are ance matching, and other important issues to all types of
usually called marine or maritime antennas. Whip antennas mobile antennas. Several examples of mobile antenna instal-
are common in maritime service, but wire antennas installed lation are provided. Information on constructing a capacitive
on masts are also common. hat-loaded whip and an adjustable “screwdriver” HF mobile
Few amateurs construct their own antennas for HF antenna is included on the CD-ROM accompanying this book.
mobile and maritime use, since safety requirements dictate The second half of the chapter covers maritime HF an-
very sound mechanical construction. Even if commercially tennas for sail and power boats and was updated by Rudy
made antennas are installed, most require some adjustment Severns, N6LF for this edition. The text discusses important
to optimize the particular installation and type of operation issues regarding placement and safety of the maritime HF
desired. The information in this chapter will provide a better system. Several examples of common installation practices
understanding of the requirements for designing and choosing are given, based on antenna designs presented elsewhere in
HF mobile antennas and using them effectively. this book.
21.1 HF Mobile Antenna Fundamentals

High frequency mobile antennas come in every imag- 28 MHz. Antenna size restrictions affect operation some-
inable configuration of efficiency, overall length, quality, what on 7 MHz and much more on 3.5 and 1.8 MHz. From
design, sturdiness, ease of mounting, and selling price. The this perspective, perhaps the optimum band for HF-mobile
design, mounting method employed, and most importantly operation is 7 MHz. The popularity of regional mobile nets
where the antenna is mounted, all have an effect on maximum on 7 MHz is perhaps the best indication of how effective
efficiency — the holy grail of HF mobile operation. The right mobile communication can be on that band.
combination of strengths and weaknesses depends on how If you intend to chase DX, 20 meters and above are
you expect to use the antenna. perhaps the best choices as antennas for those bands offer
Propagation conditions and ignition noise are usu- the best efficiency for a given physical size. For local com-
ally the limiting factors for mobile operation on 10 through munication, 28 MHz is also useful as a full-size whip without
Mobile and Maritime HF Antennas 21-1
efficiency. Bruce Brown, W6TWW, first presented this ap-
proach in The ARRL Antenna Compendium Volume 1. (See
the Bibliography following the sections on mobile antennas.)
21.1.1 THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A

TYPICAL MOBILE ANTENNA
It is customary in solving problems involving electric
and magnetic fields (such as antenna systems) to try to find
an equivalent network with which to replace the antenna for
analysis reasons. In many cases, the network may be an ac-
curate representation over only a limited frequency range.
Fig 21.1 — A
simple HF mo- However, this is often a valuable method in matching the
bile whip can be antenna to the transmission line.
mounted on al- Antenna resonance is defined as the frequency at which
most any ve- the input impedance at the antenna terminals is purely re-
hicle. (NØAX
photo) sistive. The shortest length at which this occurs for a verti-
cal antenna over a ground plane is when the antenna is an
electrical quarter-wavelength at the operating frequency; the
impedance value for this length (neglecting losses) is about
36 W. The idea of resonance can be extended to antennas
shorter (or longer) than a quarter-wave and means only that
the input impedance is purely resistive.
When the frequency of operation is lowered below the
antenna’s resonant frequency, the antenna looks like a se-
ries RC circuit, as shown in Figure 21.2. For the average
8-foot whip, the capacitive reactance may range from about
–150 W at 21 MHz to as high as –8000 W at 1.8 MHz,
while the radiation resistance RR, varies from about 15 W at
21 MHz to as low as 0.1 W at 1.8 MHz.
For an antenna less than 0.1 l long, the approximate
radiation resistance may be determined from the following:
loading coils is not too large for convenient use and is easy to RR = 273 × (l f)2 × 10 –8 (1)
build. In fact, a slightly shortened CB whip works very well.
On the HF bands, the physical size of full-size whips where l is the length of the whip in inches and f is the fre-
becomes a problem and some form of electrical loading is quency in MHz.
usually employed to shorten the antenna. Commonly used
loading techniques consist of placing a coil at the base of the Since the radiation resistance is low, considerable cur-
whip (base loading), or at the center of the whip (center load- rent must flow in the circuit if any appreciable power is to be
ing). Figure 21.1 shows a typical mobile whip installation.
These and other techniques for reducing the physical size of
antennas are discussed in this chapter.
For typical antenna lengths used in mobile operation, the
difficulty in constructing suitable loading coils increases as
the frequency of operation is lowered. Radiation resistance
of the antenna decreases as the antenna becomes electrically
shorter, which is the same as lowering the frequency of op-
eration for a fixed-length antenna. In addition, the required
inductance to resonate the antenna gets larger. The result is
that the fraction of the applied power lost as heating in ohmic Fig 21.2 — At frequencies
losses increases and the antenna becomes less efficient. below resonance, the whip
antenna will show capaci-
Designing short HF mobile antennas requires a careful tive reactance as well as Fig 21.3 — The capacitive
balance of loading coil Q, loading coil position in the an- resistance. RR is the radia- reactance at frequencies
tenna, ground loss resistance, and length-to-diameter ratio tion resistance, and CA below the resonant frequen-
of the antenna. The optimum balance of these parameters represents the antenna cy of the whip can be can-
capacitance. celed by adding an equiva-
can be realized only through a thorough understanding of
lent inductive reactance in
how they interact. This section presents a mathematical ap- the form of a loading coil in
proach to designing mobile antennas for maximum radiation series with the antenna.
21-2 Chapter 21
on a small-diameter solid form of poor quality and enclosed
in a metal protector, may have a Q as low as 50, with a loss
resistance of 50 W or more. High-Q coils require a large con-
ductor, air-wound construction, large spacing between turns,
and the best insulating material available. A diameter not less
than half the length of the coil (not always mechanically fea-
sible) and a minimum of metal in the field of the coil are also
necessities for optimum efficiency. Such a coil may show a
Q of 300 or more at 4 MHz, with a resistance of 12 W or less.
The coil could then be placed at the base of the antenna
in series with the feed line and the antenna to tune out the
unwanted capacitive reactance, as shown in Figure 21.3.
Such a method is often referred to as base-loading, and many
practical mobile antenna systems have been built using this
scheme.
Fig 21.4 — Graph showing the approximate capacitance of Over the years, the question has come up as to whether
short vertical antennas for various diameters and lengths.
These values should be approximately halved for a center- more efficient designs than simple base loading are possible.
loaded antenna. While many ideas have been tried with varying degrees of
success, only a few have been generally accepted and incor-
porated into actual antenna systems. These are center load-
ing, continuous loading, and combinations of the latter with
dissipated in the form of radiation in RR. Yet it is apparent more conventional antennas.
that little current can be made to flow in the circuit as long as
the comparatively high series reactance remains. Base Loading and Center Loading
If a whip antenna is short compared to a wavelength
Antenna Capacitance and the current is uniform along the length l, the electric
Capacitive reactance can be canceled by connecting an field strength E, at a distance d, away from the antenna is
equivalent inductive reactance (coil) in series, as shown in approximately:
Figure 21.3, thus tuning the system to resonance.
The capacitance of a vertical antenna shorter than one- 120 π I l
E= (3)
quarter wavelength is given by: dl
17l where
CA = (2) I = the antenna current in amperes
 24l     fl  
2
  ln  − 1 1 −    l = the wavelength in the same units as d and l.
 D     234  
where A uniform current flowing along the length of the whip
CA = capacitance of antenna in pF is an idealized situation, however, since the current is greatest
l = antenna height in feet at the base of the antenna and goes to a minimum at the top.
D = diameter of radiator in inches In practice, the field strength will be less than that given by
f = operating frequency in MHz the above equation, because it is a function of the current
distribution on the whip.
Figure 21.4 shows the approximate capacitance of whip The reason that the current is not uniform on a whip an-
antennas of various average diameters and lengths. For 1.8, tenna can be seen from the circuit approximation shown in
4 and 7 MHz, the loading coil inductance required (when Figure 21.5. A whip antenna over a ground plane is similar
the loading coil is at the base) would be approximately the in many respects to a tapered coaxial cable where the center
inductance required to resonate in the desired band (with conductor remains the same diameter along its length, but
the whip capacitance taken from the graph). For 10 through with an increasing diameter outer conductor. The inductance
21 MHz, this rough calculation will give more than the re- per unit length of such a cable would increase along the
quired inductance, but it will serve as a starting point for the line, while the capacitance per unit length would decrease.
final experimental adjustment that must always be made. In Figure 21.5 the antenna is represented by a series of LC
circuits in which C1 is greater than C2, which is greater than
21.1.2 LOADING A SHORT C3, and so on. L1 is less than L2, which is less than succeed-
MOBILE ANTENNA ing inductances. The net result is that most of the antenna
To minimize loading coil loss, the coil should have a current returns to ground near the base of the antenna, and
high ratio of reactance-to-resistance (that is, a high unloaded very little near the top.
Q). A loading coil for use at 4 MHz, wound with small wire Two things can be done to improve this distribution and

make the current more uni-
form in order to increase
field strength. One would be
to increase the capacitance
of the top of the antenna to
ground throughthe use of
top loading or a capacitance
hat, as discussed in the
chapter on Single Band MF
and HF Antennas. Unfor-
tunately, the wind resistance
Fig 21.6 — Improved current
of the hat makes it some-
distribution resulting from what unwieldy for mobile
center loading. use. The other method is to
place the loading coil far-
ther up the whip, as shown in Figure 21.6, rather than at the
base. If the coil is resonant (or nearly so) at the frequency of
operation with the capacitance to ground of the section above
the coil, the current distribution is improved as also shown in
Figure 21.6. The result with either top loading and center
loading is that the radiation resistance is increased, offsetting
the effect of losses and making matching easier.
Fig 21.5 — A circuit approximation of a simple whip over a Table 21-1 shows the approximate loading coil induc-
perfectly conducting ground plane. The shunt capacitance tance for the various amateur bands. Also shown in the table
per unit length gets smaller as the height increases, and the are approximate values of radiation resistance to be expected
series inductance per unit length gets larger. Consequently, with an 8-foot whip, and the resistances of loading coils —
most of the antenna current returns to the ground plane
near the base of the antenna, giving the current distribution one group having a Q of 50, the other a Q of 300. A compari-
shown at the right. son of radiation and coil resistances will show the importance
Table 21-1 Table 21-2

Approximate Values for 8-foot Mobile Whip Suggested Loading Coil Dimensions
Loading RC(Q50) RC(Q300) RR Feed R* Matching Req’d Wire Dia. Length
f(MHz) L (mH) (W) (W) (W) (W) L (mH) L (mH) Turns Size (Inches) (Inches)
Base Loading 700 190 22 3 10
1.8 345 77 13 0.1 23 3 345 135 18 3 10
3.8 77 37 6.1 0.35 16 1.2 150 100 16 2.5 10
7.2 20 18 3 1.35 15 0.6 77 75 14 2.5 10
10.1 9.5 12 2 2.8 12 0.4 77 29 12 5 4.25
14.2 4.5 7.7 1.3 5.7 12 0.28 40 28 16 2.5 2
18.1 3.0 5.0 1.0 10.0 14 0.28 40 34 12 2.5 4.25
21.25 1.25 3.4 0.5 14.8 16 0.28 20 17 16 2.5 1.25
24.9 0.9 2.6 — 20.0 22 0.25 20 22 12 2.5 2.75
29.0 — — — — 36 0.23 8.6 16 14 2 2
8.6 15 12 2.5 3
Center Loading 4.5 10 14 2 1.25
1.8 700 158 23 0.2 34 3.7 4.5 12 12 2.5 4
3.8 150 72 12 0.8 22 1.4 2.5 8 12 2 2
7.2 40 36 6 3.0 19 0.7 2.5 8 6 2.375 4.5
10.1 20 22 4.2 5.8 18 0.5 1.25 6 12 1.75 2
14.2 8.6 15 2.5 11.0 19 0.35 1.25 6 6 2.375 4.5
18.1 4.4 9.2 1.5 19.0 22 0.31
21.25 2.5 6.6 1.1 27.0 29 0.29
RC = loading coil resistance; RR = radiation resistance.
*Assuming loading coil Q = 300, and including estimated ground-loss resistance.
21-4 Chapter 21
of reducing the coil resistance to a minimum, especially on
the three lower frequency bands. Table 21-2 shows suggested
loading-coil dimensions for the inductance values given in
Table 21-1.
21.1.3 RADIATION RESISTANCE OF A

SHORT MOBILE ANTENNA
The determination of radiation efficiency requires the
knowledge of resistive power losses and radiation losses.
Radiation loss — the power radiated by the antenna as
electromagnetic energy — is expressed in terms of radia-
tion resistance. Radiation resistance is defined as the resis-
tance that would dissipate the same amount of power as is
radiated by the antenna. The variables used in the equations
that follow are defined once in the text and are summarized
in Table 21-3. Radiation resistance of vertical antennas
shorter than 45 electrical degrees (1⁄8 wavelength) is
approximately:
RR = h2/312 (4)
where
RR = radiation resistance in W
h = antenna length in electrical degrees.
Antenna height in electrical degrees is expressed by:

l
H= × f(MHz) × 360 (5) Fig 21.7 — Relative current distribution on a vertical an-
984
tenna of height h = 90 electrical degrees.
where
l = antenna length in feet
f (MHz) = operating frequency in MHz. End effect is purposely omitted to ensure that an antenna
is electrically long. This is so that resonance at the design
frequency can be obtained easily by removing a turn or two
from the loading coil.
Table 21-3 Eq 4 is valid only for antennas having a sinusoidal cur-
Variables used in Eqs 4 through 20 rent distribution and no reactive loading. However, it can be
A = area in degree-amperes used as a starting point for deriving an equation that is use-
a = antenna radius in English or metric units ful for shortened antennas with other than sinusoidal current
dB = signal loss in decibels distributions.
E = efficiency in percent Refer to Figure 21.7. The current distribution on an an-
f (MHz) = frequency in megahertz
tenna 90° long electrically (1⁄4 wavelength) varies with the
H = height in English or metric units
cosine of the length in electrical degrees. The current distri-
h = height in electrical degrees
h1 = height of base section in electrical degrees bution over the top 30° of the antenna is essentially linear. It
h2 = height of top section in electrical degrees is this linearity that allows for derivation of a simpler, more
I = Ibase = 1 ampere base current useful equation for radiation resistance.
k = 0.0128 The radiation resistance of an electrically-short, base-
km = mean characteristic impedance loaded vertical antenna can be conveniently defined in terms
km1 = mean characteristic impedance of base section of a geometric figure, a triangle, as shown in Figure 21.8.
km2 =mean characteristic impedance of top section The radiation resistance is given by:
L = length or height of the antenna in feet
PI = power fed to the antenna RR = KA2 (6)
PR = power radiated
where
Q = coil figure of merit
K = a constant (to be derived shortly)
RC = coil loss resistance in W
RG = ground loss resistance in W A = area of the triangular current distribution in
RR = radiation resistance in W degree-amperes.
XL = loading-coil inductive reactance
Degree-ampere area is a product of current and electrical
Fig 21.8 — Relative current distribution on a base-loaded Fig 21.9 — Relative current distribution on a center-loaded
vertical antenna of height H = 30 electrical degrees antenna with base and top sections each equal to 15 electri-
(linearized). The base loading coil is not shown here. cal degrees in length. The cross-hatched area shows the
current distribution that would exist in the top 15° of a 90°-
high vertical fed with 1 ampere at the base.
length, calculated for a triangular current distribution as

A = ½ h × IBASE (7)
It is referred to as “area” because it is the area between a designing and constructing models and making measure-
plot of current and the electrical length axis, as shown in Fig- ments to ensure the validity of the design. A faster and more
ures 21.7 and 21.8. More current flowing over a longer elec- reliable way of determining optimum coil location is through
trical distance in degrees results in a higher degree-ampere the use of a personal computer. This approach allows the
area and more power being radiated. variation of any single variable, while observing the cumu-
By combining Eqs 4 and 6 and solving for K, we get lative effects on the system. When plotted graphically, the
data reveals that the placement of the loading coil is critical
h2 if maximum radiation efficiency is to be realized. (See the
K= (8)
312 × A 2 program MOBILE.EXE, which may be downloaded from
www.arrl.org/antenna-book.)
By substituting the values from Figure 21.8 into Eq 8 When the loading coil is moved up the antenna (away
we get from the feed point), the current distribution is modified as
shown in Figure 21.9. The current varies with the cosine of
30 2 the height in electrical degrees at any point in the base sec-
K= = 0.0128
312 × (0.5 × 30 × 1)2 tion. Therefore, the current flowing into the bottom of the
loading coil is less than the current flowing at the base of the
and by substituting the derived value of K into Eq 6 we get antenna.
But what about the current in the top section of the
RR = 0.0128 × A2 (9)
antenna? Because the loading coil is a lumped constant,
Eq 9 is useful for determining the radiation resistance of disregarding losses and radiation from the coil, it maintains
coil-loaded vertical antennas less than 30° in length. The de- the same current flow throughout. As a result, the current at
rived constant differs slightly from that presented by Laport the top of a high-Q coil is essentially the same as that at the
(see Bibliography) as he used a different equation for radia- bottom. This is easily verified by measuring RF current im-
tion resistance than Eq 4. mediately above and below the loading coil in a test antenna.
Thus, the coil “forces” much more current into the top section
21.1.4 OPTIMUM LOADING COIL than would flow in the equivalent section of an antenna that
INDUCTANCE AND PLACEMENT is a full 90° long. This occurs as a result of the extremely
The optimum location for a loading coil in an antenna high voltage that appears at the top of the loading coil. This
can be found experimentally, but it requires many hours of higher current flow results in more radiation than would
21-6 Chapter 21
when the loading coil is at any position other than the base
of the antenna. Radiation resistance has been calculated with
these equations and plotted against loading coil position at
three different frequencies for 8- and 11-foot antennas in
Figure 21.10. Eight feet is a typical length for commercial
antennas, and 11-foot antennas are about the maximum prac-
tical length that can be installed on a vehicle.
In Figure 21.10 the curves reveal that the radiation resis-
tance increases almost linearly as the loading coil is moved
up the antenna. They also show that the radiation resistance
rises rapidly as the frequency is increased. If the analysis
were stopped at this point, one might conclude that the load-
ing coil should be placed at the top of the antenna. This is not
so, and the reason will become apparent shortly.
Required Loading Coil Inductance

Calculation of the loading coil inductance needed to
resonate a short antenna can be done easily and accurately
by using the antenna transmission-line analog described
by Boyer in Ham Radio. For a base-loaded antenna as in
Figure 21.8, the loading coil reactance required to resonate
the antenna is given by
XL = –j Km cot h (11)
where
XL = inductive reactance required
Km = mean characteristic impedance (defined in Eq 12).
Fig 21.10 — Radiation resistance plotted as a function
of loading coil position. The –j term indicates that the antenna presents capacitive
reactance at the feed point. A loading coil must cancel this
reactance.
occur from the equivalent section of a quarter-wave antenna. The mean characteristic impedance of an antenna is ex-
(This is true for conventional coils. However, radiation from pressed by
long thin coils allows coil current to decrease, as in helically
Km = 60 [ ( ln (2H/a) – 1 ] (12)
wound antennas.)
The cross-hatched area in Figure 21.9 shows the current where
that would flow in the equivalent part of a 90° high antenna, H = physical antenna height (excluding the length of the
and reveals that the degree-ampere area of the whip section of loading coil)
the short antenna is greatly increased as a result of the modi- a = radius of the antenna in the same units as H.
fied current distribution. The current flow in the top section
decreases almost linearly to zero at the top. This can be seen From Eq 12 you can see that decreasing the height-to-
in Figure 21.9. diameter ratio of an antenna by increasing the radius results
The degree-ampere area of Figure 21.9 is the sum of the in a decrease in Km. With reference to Eq 11, a decrease in
triangular area represented by the current distribution in the Km decreases the inductive reactance required to resonate
top section, and the nearly trapezoidal current distribution in an antenna. As will be shown later, this will increase radia-
the base section. Radiation from the coil is not included in the tion efficiency. In mobile applications, we quickly run into
degree-ampere area because it is small and difficult to define. wind-loading problems if we attempt to use an antenna that
Any radiation from the coil can be considered a bonus. is physically large in diameter.
The degree-ampere area is expressed by: If the loading coil is moved away from the base of the
antenna, the antenna is divided into a base and top section, as
A = ½ [h1(1 + cos h1) + h2 (cos h1)] (10)
depicted in Figure 21.9. The loading coil reactance required
where to resonate the antenna when the coil is away from the base
h1 = electrical length in degrees of the base section is given by
h2 = electrical height in degrees of the top section.
XL = j Km2 (cot h2) – j Km1 (tan h1) (13)
The degree-ampere area (calculated by substituting In mobile-antenna design and construction, the top sec-
Eq 10 into Eq 9) can be used to determine radiation resistance tion is usually a whip with a much smaller diameter than
the base section. Because of this, it is necessary to compute XL
RC = (14)
separate values of Km for the top and base sections. Km1 and Q
Km2 are the mean characteristic impedances of the base and
top sections, respectively. where
Loading coil reactance curves for the 3.8-MHz anten- RC = loading coil loss resistance in W
nas of Figure 21.10 have been calculated and plotted in Fig- XL = loading coil reactance
ure 21.11. These curves show the influence of the loading Q = coil figure of merit
coil position on the reactance required for resonance. The
curves in Figure 21.11 show that the required reactance de- Inspection of Eq 14 reveals that, for a given value of in-
creases with longer antennas. The curves also reveal that the ductive reactance, loss resistance will be lower for higher Q
required loading coil reactance grows at an increasingly rapid coils. Measurements made with a Q meter show that typical,
rate after the coil passes the center of the antenna. Because commercially manufactured coil stock produces a Q between
the highest possible loading coil Q is needed, and because op- 150 and 160 at 3.8 MHz.
timum Q is attained when the loading coil diameter is twice Higher Q values can be obtained by using larger diam-
the loading coil length, the coil would grow very quickly to eter coils having a diameter-to-length ratio of two, by using
an impractical size above the center of the antenna. It is for larger diameter wire, by using more spacing between turns,
this reason that the highest loading coil position is limited to and by using low-loss polystyrene supporting and enclosure
one foot from the top of the antenna in all computations. materials. In theory, loading coil turns should not be shorted
for tuning purposes because shorted turns somewhat degrade
Loading Coil Resistance Q. Pruning to resonance should be done by removing turns
Loading coil resistance constitutes one of the losses from the coil.
consuming power that could otherwise be radiated by the In fairness, it should be pointed out that many practical
antenna. Heat loss in the loading coil is not of any benefit, so mobile antennas use large-diameter loading coils with shorted
it should be minimized by using the highest possible loading turns to achieve resonance. The popular “Texas Bug Catcher”
coil Q. Loading coil loss resistance is a function of the coil coils come to mind here. (See the section “HF Mobile Antenna
Q and is given by Types.”) Despite general proscriptions against shorting turns,
these systems are often more efficient than antennas with
small, relatively low-Q, fixed loading coils.
21.1.5 RADIATION EFFICIENCY

The ratio of power radiated to power fed to an antenna
determines the radiation efficiency. It is given by:
PR
E= × 100% (15)
PI
where
E = radiation efficiency in percent
PR = power radiated
PI = power fed to the antenna at the feed point.
In a short, coil-loaded mobile antenna, a large portion

of the power fed to the antenna is dissipated in ground and
coil resistances. A relatively insignificant amount of power is
also dissipated in the antenna conductor resistance and in the
leakage resistance of the base insulator. Because these last
two losses are both very small and difficult to estimate, they
are here neglected in calculating radiation efficiency.
Another loss worth noting is matching network loss.
Because we are concerned only with power fed to the an-
tenna in the determination of radiation efficiency, match-
ing network loss is not considered in any of the equations.
Suffice it to say that matching networks should be designed
for minimum loss in order to maximize the transmitter power
Fig 21.11 — Loading coil reactance required for resonance,
available at the antenna.
plotted as a function of coil height above the antenna base. The radiation efficiency equation may be rewritten and
The resonant frequency is 3.9 MHz. expanded as follows:
21-8 Chapter 21
I 2 R R × 100
E= (16)
2
I 2 R R + I 2 R G + ( I cos h1 ) R C
where
I = antenna base current in amperes
RG = ground loss resistance in W
RC = coil loss resistance in W
RR = radiation resistance in W
Each term of Eq 16 represents the power dissipated in its

associated resistance. All the current terms cancel, simplify-
ing this equation to
R R × 100
E= (17)
R R + R G + R C cos2 h1
For base-loaded antennas the term cos2 drops to unity

and may be omitted.
Ground Loss
Eq 14 shows that the total resistive losses in the antenna
system are:
RT = RR + RG + RC (cos2 h1) (18)
where RT is the total resistive loss. Ground loss resistance can
be determined by rearranging Eq 18 as follows:
RG = RT – RR – RC cos2 h1 (19)
Fig 21.12 — Radiation efficiency of 8-foot antennas at 3.9 MHz.
RT may be measured in a test antenna installation on a
vehicle using an R-X noise bridge or an SWR analyzer. You
can then calculate RR and RC.
Ground loss is a function of vehicle size, placement of
the antenna on the vehicle, and conductivity of the ground
over which the vehicle is traveling. It is only feasible to
control the first two variables. Larger vehicles provide better
ground planes than smaller ones. The vehicle ground plane
is only partial, so the result is considerable RF current flow
(and ground loss) in the ground around and under the vehicle.
By raising the antenna base as high as possible on the
vehicle, ground losses are decreased. This results from a de-
crease in antenna capacitance to ground that also increases
the capacitive reactance to ground. This, in turn, reduces
ground currents and ground losses.
This effect has been verified by installing the same an-
tenna at three different locations on two different vehicles,
and by determining the ground loss from Eq 19. In the first
test, the antenna was mounted 6 inches below the top of a
large station wagon, just behind the left rear window. This
placed the antenna base 4 feet 2 inches above the ground, and
resulted in a measured ground loss resistance of 2.5 W. The
second test used the same antenna mounted on the left rear
fender of a mid-sized sedan, just to the left of the trunk lid. In
this test, the measured ground loss resistance was 4 W. The
third test used the same mid-sized car, but the antenna was
mounted on the rear bumper. In this last test, the measured
ground loss resistance was 6 W.
The same antenna therefore sees three different ground Fig 21.13 — Radiation efficiency of 11-foot antennas at 3.9 MHz.

loss resistances as a direct result of the antenna mounting
location and size of the vehicle. It is important to note that
the measured ground loss increases as the antenna base nears
the ground. The importance of minimizing ground losses in
mobile antenna installations cannot be overemphasized.
Efficiency Curves
With the equations defined previously, a computer was
used to calculate the radiation efficiency curves depicted
in Figures 21.12 through 21.15. These curves were calcu-
lated for 80 and 40 meter antennas of 8- and 11-foot lengths.
Several values of loading coil Q were used, for both 2 and
10 W of ground loss resistance. For the calculations, the
base section is 1⁄2-inch diameter electrical EMT which has
an outside diameter of 11⁄16 inch. The top section is fiberglass
bicycle-whip material covered with Belden braid. These are
readily available materials, which can be used by the average
amateur to construct an inexpensive but rugged antenna.
Upon inspection, these radiation-efficiency curves reveal
some significant information:
1) higher coil Q produces higher radiation efficiencies,
2) longer antennas produce higher radiation efficiencies,
3) radiation efficiency increases at high frequencies,
4) lower ground loss resistances produce higher radia-
tion efficiencies,
5) higher ground loss resistances force the loading coil
above the antenna center to reach a peak in the radiation-
efficiency curve, and
6) higher coil Q sharpens the radiation-efficiency curves,
resulting in the coil position being more critical for optimum
Fig 21.14 — Radiation efficiency of 8-foot antennas at
radiation efficiency. 7.225 MHz.
Note that the radiation efficiency curves reach a peak and
then begin to decline as the loading coil is raised farther up
the antenna. This is because of the rapid increase in load-
ing coil reactance required above the antenna center. Refer
to Figure 21.11. The rapid increase in coil size required for
resonance results in the coil loss resistance increasing much
more rapidly than the radiation resistance. This results in de-
creased radiation efficiency, as shown in Figure 21.10.
A slight reverse curvature exists in the curves between
the base-loaded position and the one-foot coil-height posi-
tion. This is caused by a shift in the curve that resulted from
insertion of a base section of larger diameter than the whip
when the coil is above the base.
The curves in Figures 21.12 through 21.15 were calcu-
lated with constant (but not equal) diameter base and whip
sections. Because of wind loading, it is not desirable to in-
crease the diameter of the whip section. However, the base-
section diameter can be increased within reason to further
improve radiation efficiency. Figure 21.16 was calculated
for base-section diameters ranging from 11⁄16 inch to 3 inches.
The curves reveal that a small increase in radiation efficiency
results from larger diameter base sections.
The curves in Figures 21.12 through 21.15 show that
radiation efficiencies can be quite low at 3.9 MHz compared
to 7 MHz. They are lower yet at 1.8 MHz. To gain some Fig 21.15 — Radiation efficiency of 11-foot antennas at
perspective on what these low efficiencies mean in terms of 7.225 MHz.
21-10 Chapter 21
signal strength, Figure 21.17 was calculated using the follow-
ing equation:
100
dB = log (20)
E
where
dB = signal loss in decibels
E = efficiency in percent.
The curve in Figure 21.17 reveals that an antenna hav-

ing 25% efficiency has a signal loss of 6 dB (approximately
one S unit) below a quarter-wave vertical antenna over perfect
ground. An antenna efficiency in the neighborhood of 6% will
produce a signal strength on the order of two S units or about
12 dB below the same quarter-wave reference vertical. By care-
ful optimization of mobile-antenna design, signal strengths
from mobiles can be made fairly competitive with those from
fixed stations using comparable power. Additional improve-
ment can be obtained by operating in an open area and over
or near good ground, such as wetlands and fresh or saltwater.
21.1.6 IMPEDANCE MATCHING

The input impedance of short, high-Q coil-loaded anten-
nas is quite low. For example, an 8-foot antenna optimized for
3.9 MHz with an unloaded coil Q of 300 and a ground-loss
resistance of 2 W has a base input impedance of about 13 W.
This low impedance value causes a standing wave ratio of 4:1
in 50-W coax at resonance. This high SWR is not compatible
with the requirements of solid-state transmitters. Also, the
bandwidth of shortened vertical antennas is very narrow. This
Fig 21.16 — Radiation efficiency plotted as a function of
base section diameter. Frequency = 3.9 MHz, ground loss
severely limits the capability to maintain transmitter loading
resistance = 2 W, and whip section = 1/4-inch diameter. over even a small frequency range.
Impedance matching can be accomplished by means of
L networks or impedance-matching transformers, but the nar-
row bandwidth limitation remains. A more elegant solution to
the impedance matching and narrow bandwidth problem is
to install an automatic tuner at the antenna base. Such a device
matches the antenna and feed line automatically, and permits
operation over a wide frequency range.
The tools are now available to tailor a mobile antenna de-
sign to produce maximum radiation efficiency. Mathematical
modeling with a personal computer reveals that loading coil
Q factor and ground loss resistance greatly influence the op-
timum loading coil position in a short vertical antenna. It also
shows that longer antennas, higher coil Q, and higher operat-
ing frequencies produce higher radiation efficiencies.
End effect has not been included in any of the equations
to assure that the loading coil will be slightly larger than nec-
essary. Pruning the antenna to resonance should be done by
removing coil turns, rather than by shorting turns or shorten-
ing the whip section excessively. Shortening the whip reduces
radiation efficiency, by both shortening the antenna and mov-
ing the optimum coil position. Shorting turns in the loading
coil degrades the Q of the coil.
Matching to the Transmitter

Fig 21.17 — Mobile antenna signal loss as a function of
radiation efficiency, compared to a quarter-wave vertical Most modern transmitters require a 50-W load and be-
antenna over perfect ground. cause the feed point impedance of a mobile whip is quite low, a
matching network is usually necessary. Although calculations
are helpful in the initial design, considerable experimenting
is often necessary in final tune-up. This is particularly true
for the lower bands, where the antenna is electrically short
compared with a quarter-wave whip. The reason is that the
loading coil is required to tune out a very large capacitive
reactance, and even small changes in component values result
in large reactance variations. Since the feed point resistance
is low to begin with, the problem is even more aggravated.
You can transform the low resistance of the whip to a
value suitable for a 50-W system with an RF transformer or
with a shunt-feed arrangement, such as an L network. The
latter may only require a shunt coil or shunt capacitor at the
base of the whip since the net series capacitive or inductive
reactance of the antenna and its loading coil may be used as
part of the network. The following example illustrates the
calculations involved.
Fig 21.18 — Admittance diagram of the RLC circuit consist-
Assume that a center-loaded whip antenna, 8.5 feet in ing of the whip capacitance, radiation resistance and load-
overall length, is to be used on 7.2 MHz. From Table 21-1 ing coil discussed in text. The horizontal axis represents
earlier in this chapter we see that the feed point resistance conductance, and the vertical axis susceptance. The point
of the antenna will be approximately 19 W and from Fig- P0 is the input admittance with no whip loading inductance.
Points P1 and P2 are described in the text. The conductance
ure 21.4 that the capacitance of the whip, as seen at its base, equals the reciprocal of the resistance, if no reactive com-
is approximately 24 pF. Since the antenna is to be center ponents are present. For a series RX circuit, the conduc-
loaded, the capacitance value of the section above the coil tance is given by
will be cut approximately in half, to 12 pF. From this, it may R
be calculated that a center-loading inductor of 40.7 mH is re- G=
R2 + X 2
quired to resonate the antenna by canceling out the capacitive
reactance. (This figure agrees with the approximate value of and the susceptance is given by
40 mH shown in Table 21-1. The resulting feed point imped-
ance would then be 19 + j 0 W.) −X
B=
Solution: The antenna can be matched to a 52-W line R + X2
2
such as RG-8 by tuning it either above or below resonance Consequently, a parallel equivalent G-B circuit to the series
and then canceling out the undesired component with an ap- RX circuit can be found that makes computations easier.
propriate shunt element, capacitive or inductive. The way in This is because conductances and susceptances add in par-
which the impedance is transformed up can be seen by plot- allel the same way resistances and reactances add in series.
ting the admittance of the series RLC circuit made up of the
loading coil, antenna capacitance, and feed point resistance.
Such a plot is shown in Figure 21.18 for a constant feed point
resistance of 19 W. There are two points of interest, P1 and an inductive shunt matching element would then be required.
P2, where the input conductance is 19.2 millisiemens, cor- To arrive at point P2, the center loading coil should be more
responding to 52 W. The undesired susceptance is shown as inductive than required for resonance, and the shunt element
1/XP and –1/XP , which must be canceled with a shunt ele- would need to be capacitive. The value of the center loading
ment of the opposite sign but with the same magnitude. The coil required for the shunt-matched and resonated condition
value of the canceling shunt reactance, XP , may be found may be determined from the equation:
from the formula:
R f Z0 106 XS
XP = (21) L= ± (22)
2 2
4π f C 2 πf
R f ( Z0 − R f )
where addition is performed if a capacitive shunt is to be used
where XP is the reactance in W, Rf is the feed point resis- and subtraction performed if the shunt is inductive, and where
tance, and Z0 is the feed line impedance. For Z0 = 52 W and L is in mH, f is the frequency in MHz, C is the capacitance of
Rf = 19 W, XP = ±39.5 W. A coil or good quality mica ca- the antenna section being matched in pF, and
pacitor may be used as the shunt element. With the tune-up
procedure described later, the value is not critical and a fixed- XS = R f ( Z 0 − R f ) (23)
value component may be used.
To arrive at point P1, the value of the center loading-coil For the example given, where Z0 = 52 W, Rf = 19 W,
inductance would be less than that required for resonance. f = 7.2 MHz , and C = 12 pF, XS is found to be 25.0 W.
The feed point impedance would then appear capacitive, and The required antenna loading inductance is either 40.2 mH or
21-12 Chapter 21
Shunt Coil Matching
The use of a shunt coil is the preferred matching
methodology for two reasons. First, it provides a dc
ground for the antenna which helps control static buildup.
Second, once adjusted, no further adjustment is needed
to cover all of the HF bands between 80 and 10 meters.
Thus it is an ideal matching scenario for remotely-con-
trolled (tuned) antennas. Capacitive matching, on the
other hand, requires changing capacitance for every
band, and sometimes within a band. It should be noted
that any HF mobile antenna for bands at frequencies
below 20 MHz that do not require matching to obtain a
Fig 21.19 — At A, a whip antenna that is resonated with a low SWR are less than optimal performers.
center loading coil. At B and C, the value of the loading coil
has been altered slightly to make the feed point impedance
appear reactive, and a matching component is added in
shunt to cancel the reactance. This provides an impedance
transformation to match the Z0 of the feed line. An equally
acceptable procedure, rather than altering the loading coil
inductance, is to adjust the length of the top section above frequency variations is also quite critical, and an excursion
the loading coil for the best match, as described in the around practically the entire circle in Figure 21.18 may rep-
tune-up section of the text. resent only 600 kHz, centered around 7.2 MHz, for the above
example. This is why tuning up a mobile antenna can be very
frustrating unless a systematic procedure is followed.
41.3 mH, depending on the type of shunt. Various matching
possibilities for this example are shown in Figure 21.19. Tune-Up
At A, the antenna is shown as tuned to resonance with LL, Assume that inductive shunt matching is to be used with
a 40.7 mH coil, but with no provisions included for match- the antenna in the previous example, Figure 21.19B, where
ing the resulting 19-W impedance to the 52-W line. At B, LL 39.5 W is needed for LM. This means that at 7.2 MHz, a coil
has been reduced to 40.2 mH to make the antenna appear net of 0.87 mH will be needed across the whip feed point terminal
capacitive, and LM, having a reactance of 39.5 W, is added to ground. With a 40-mH loading coil in place, the adjustable
in shunt to cancel the capacitive reactance and transform whip section above the loading coil should be set for mini-
the feed point impedance to 50 W. The arrangement at C is mum height. Signals in the receiver will sound weak and the
similar to that at B except that LL has been increased to 41.3 whip should be lengthened a bit at a time until signals start
mH, and CM (a shunt capacitor having a negative reactance to peak. Turn the transmitter on and check the SWR at a few
of 39.5 W) is added, which also results in a 52-W nonreactive frequencies to find where a minimum occurs. If it is below
termination for the feed line. the desired frequency, shorten the whip slightly and check
The values determined for the loading coil in the above again. It should be moved approximately 1⁄4 inch at a time
example point out an important consideration concerning the until the SWR reaches a minimum at the center of the desired
matching of short antennas — relatively small changes in val- range. If the frequency where the minimum SWR occurs is
ues of the loading components will have a greatly magnified above the desired frequency, repeat the procedure above, but
effect on the matching requirements. A change of less than lengthen the whip only slightly.
3% in the loading coil inductance value necessitates a com- If a shunt capacitance is to be used, as in Figure 21.19C,
pletely different matching network! Likewise, calculations a value of 560 pF would correspond to the required –39.5 W
show that a 3% change in antenna capacitance will give simi- of reactance at 7.2 MHz. With a capacitive shunt, start with
lar results, and the value of the precautions mentioned earlier the whip in its longest position and shorten it until signals
becomes clear. The sensitivity of the circuit with regard to peak up.

21.2 HF Mobile Antenna Types
21.2.1 THE SCREWDRIVER ANTENNA
No doubt the biggest change in HF mobile operation has
been brought about by the screwdriver antenna. Originally
conceived by Don Johnson, W6AAQ (SK), the basic design
has become ubiquitous, available from many different manu-
facturers. They consist of a large, hollow lower mast, an ex-
tendable coil assembly, and a whip, typically 60 to 96 inches
long.
The unused portion of the coil is stored in the mast of the
antenna. Finger stock at the top of the mast makes contact
with the coil. A dc motor, controlled remotely, drives a screw
arrangement that extends or retracts the coil to tune lower or
higher in frequency, respectively. That tuning can be done
while in motion is an attractive feature, hence their popularity.
A decent quality, high-Q, screwdriver antenna is not in-
expensive and can cost upward of $1000, although most are
about half this amount. They’re relatively heavy and require
both a feed line (coax), and a motor control lead. Some variet-
ies also use a reed switch to count the turns of the screw (see
the “Mobile Antenna Controllers and Tuners” section).
Shortened versions of the screwdriver are available from
several manufacturers and have become very popular. Their Fig 21.20 — A “bug catcher” style antenna showing the
light weight, short length, and ease of mounting, account large, air-wound center-loading coil.
for their popularity. However, because of their short overall
length and low-Q coils, they take a big hit in performance
over their full-sized cousins, especially when mounted on
lip mounts. They also require some special considerations requiring heavy-duty mounting and base springs — even
when coupled to automatic antenna controllers, as covered guys to keep them stable at highway speeds.
later.
It should be noted that not all models use the same Helical-Wound Antennas
mounting scheme. Some use standard 3⁄8-24 bolts, and at least These lightweight antennas are commonly referred to as
one uses a 3⁄4-inch bolt. Some form of base insulator is also “ham-sticks,” but the name Ham Stick is actually a registered
required in most cases. trademark of the Lakewood Company (www.hamstick.com).
If you wish to build your own screwdriver antenna, plans They are quite popular due to their low cost and reasonable
for doing so are included on the CD-ROM supplied with this performance. They look similar to the continuously loaded
Antenna Book. antennas covered below except they use a single, fixed-value
loading coil.
21.2.2 MONOBAND ANTENNAS The antenna itself is basically a fiberglass tube or rod
There are several types of monoband antennas, includ- with a small-gauge wire wound around it. Toward the top of
ing the “bug catcher”, linear-loaded varieties, and the ever- the tube, the wire is close-wound in a loading coil and the
popular Hustler series. antenna is topped off with a short, adjustable-length whip,
The bug catcher shown in Figure 21.20 can be the most commonly referred to as a stinger.
efficient of all of the mobile antenna types, if mounted cor- Due to their light weight, a mag-mount, angle, or trunk
rectly. (The name derives from the tendency of the coil to lip mount may be used with surprisingly good results con-
“catch bugs” while driving.) However, it has several draw- sidering their low Q, and relatively short length (≈7 feet).
backs, not the least of which is wind-loading, especially when Changing bands requires changing the complete antenna, but
equipped with a capacitive top-hat, which is discussed later. most models have quick disconnects available making the
Bug catcher antennas, in which a large air-wound load- task quicker and easier. As a general rule, they don’t require
ing coil is used for center loading, are monoband by nature impedance matching, as their overall losses bring the input
but can be made multiband. The usual practice is to make impedance very close to 50 W.
the coil large enough in reactance to resonant the antenna on
80 meters. Then a jumper wire is used to short coil turns to Continuously-Loaded Antennas
resonate the antenna on the higher bands. However, shorting There are several manufacturers of both monoband and
turns reduces coil Q and lowers efficiency. multiband antennas that could be described as continuously-
They tend to be heavier than other monoband antennas, loaded. (Sometimes referred to as “linear-loaded,” this is
21-14 Chapter 21
it increases radiation resistance as well as the feed point in-
Extending Bandwidth put impedance, efficiency remains largely the same because
Monoband antennas have a finite bandwidth. ground loss has been replaced with the second antenna’s loss
Depending on the band and installation parameters, the of about the same magnitude. Gain claims are often exagger-
2:1 bandwidth may be as little as 12 kHz on 80 meters to ated, as well. A full-size, lossless dipole in free space has a
as much as 1 MHz or more on 10 meters. Since modern maximum theoretical gain of 2.15 dBi — higher values as-
solid state transceivers start to reduce on their output at sume the presence of ground reflections and antenna heights
SWR above 2:1, it would be convenient to extend the
bandwidth. of 1⁄2 wavelength or more which are impractical at best for a
One way to do this is to use an internal (or external) mobile station.
auto-coupler (antenna tuner or ATU for short). The tech-
nique works well, as long as we don’t try to match an Stainless Steel Whips
antenna on a band it is not resonant on as this greatly Almost without exception, most whips referred to as “CB
increases the overall losses. However, few if any made- whips” are made from 17-7 stainless steel wire. Their overall
for-mobile transceivers have built in ATUs. Using an ex- length is 102 inches but at one time 108- and 120-inch ver-
ternal unit will certainly suffice if you’re willing to put up
with the added complexity. sions were available. They are made from wire about 0.220 to
As we learned in the “HF Mobile Antenna Funda- 0.250 inch in diameter that is straightened and ground down
mentals” section, we can use a shunt element to match to an OD of 0.200 inch. Beginning at about 60 inches above
the antenna’s input impedance to 50-W feed line. If we the base, they’re tapered down to 0.100 inch OD at the tip.
substitute a 1⁄4-wave shorted coaxial stub for the fixed- The whip is finished off with a swaged-on 3⁄8-24 threaded
value shunt element, we can effectively increase the brass base fitting and a small corona ball added at the tip.
bandwidth in the process. This is possible because the Stainless steel isn’t the best of RF conductors, especially
shorted stub’s reactance swing is opposite that of the
antenna’s as we change frequencies — the 1⁄4-wave on the lower HF bands. When compared to an aluminum
stub’s reactance will become more capacitive above res- conductor of the same size, the additional resistive losses
onance as the antenna’s feed point reactance becomes may reduce the ERP (effective radiated power) by ≈3 dB on
more inductive. 160 meters, depending on the overall length of the whip in
Typically, the useable SWR bandwidth will increase use.
from 30% to as much as 50%, again based on the fre- The unfortunate truth is, there is no viable alternative
quency and installation parameters. The drawback is that with the strength and flexibility of 17-7 stainless steel! Whips
we have to use a different stub for each band of
operation. can be copper plated (a costly step) but the improvement is
minimal. Covering the whip with silver-plated copper braid
is easy to do, but again, the ERP improvement versus the
additional wind loading might not be worth the effort.
not the linear-loading technique used to shorten dipoles and Corona Balls
beam antennas.) For these antennas, loading is done using The small corona balls supplied atop standard CB whips
multiple fixed-value inductors spaced over the length of the provide a slight amount of eye protection but their effect on
antenna or winding a continuous coil with a large pitch (ratio reducing corona is questionable. What is corona and how
of turn length to turn diameter) along the antenna. does a corona ball prevent it?
The multiband versions use what is commonly called a As we learned in the HF Mobile Antenna Fundamentals
“flying lead” connected at the base, which in turn connects section, the highest RF voltage occurs at the very top of the
to taps along the coil making up the body of the antenna to whip. Under the right weather conditions, it is possible to
select the band. see the corona discharge from the end of a pointed whip
Proponents incorrectly argue that the large length-to- even when running modest power levels. Corona discharge
diameter, up to 25 to 1, allows the coil to radiate, thus in- is caused by the small radius of the whip’s tip creating large
creasing efficiency. However, what little advantage this form differences in voltage that exceed the breakdown voltage of
of loading has, it is more than offset by the low coil Q, and air across small distances. This causes the air to ionize and
short overall length (4 to 7 feet). conduct. The discharge then extends away from the antenna
These antennas typically do not require matching but a as “streamers” until voltage is reduced below the level of
few models exhibit input impedances of greater than 100 W ionization. Static discharges from the pointed tip can also
and thus need to be matched. become a problem on receive.
The solution is to replace the pointed end with a
Shortened Dipoles smoother, larger surface. The corona ball’s smooth, round
A few amateurs opt to purchase two identical mobile an- surface creates reduces voltage changes with distance that
tennas, and mount them in a V configuration. Knowing that cause corona discharge. The corona ball must be large enough
ground loss is the dominate factor in determining antenna to be effective — at least 0.5 inch in diameter and preferably
efficiency, they reason that replacing the ground loss with a 1 inch — and are available from several QST advertisers.
second antenna is a viable solution. While they’re correct that Above 1 inch, wind loading becomes a problem.

Capacitance hats, or cap-hats or top-hats for short, are a No matter where the hat is located, the added capacitance
method of increasing the efficiency of HF mobile antennas will be the same. However, if placed too close to the coil,
at the expense of complexity and higher wind loading. They the added capacitance will decrease efficiency rather than
increase efficiency by adding capacitance to that portion of improve it. The most effective position is at the very top of
the antenna above the loading coil, effectively increasing the the antenna. At a minimum, hats should be placed at least
overall electrical length. half their diameter above the coil (Figure 21.21 shows the
They may consist of a single stiff wire, two or more hat in the center of the whip) and as far away from vehicle
wires, a disc made up of several more wires like the spokes sheet metal as possible. These facts require robust antenna
of a wheel, a set of loops, or wire arranged as the spokes of construction and mounting techniques but the increase in
a wheel as shown in Figure 21.21. The larger the hat (physi- performance is worth the effort.
cally), the greater the capacitance and the greater the effec- Plans for a capacitive hat hub designed and made by
tive increase in electrical length. Since less inductance is then Ken Muggli, KØHL are provided on the included CD-ROM
required to resonate the electrically longer antenna, coil Q including where to buy materials. The supporting whip in this
losses will also decrease. case is a 102-inch CB whip that has been cut down to 60
inches.
As described and when mounted atop a Scorpion 680
screwdriver antenna, 80 through 17 meter operation is pos-
sible. Measured field strength improvement over an unloaded
102-inch whip is between 3 dB, and 6 dB, depending on the
band.
21.2.3 ANTENNA MOUNTING

Antenna mounts come in so many different styles that
it is difficult to decide which is best for any specific installa-
tion. Ball mounts, clip mounts, bracket mounts, stake pocket
mounts, trailer hitch mounts, and even “mag” (magnet)
mounts are popular. Which mount you pick and where you
install it depends on many factors. Among them are weight,
overall length, frequency of operation, the vehicle in ques-
tion, and personal preferences.
Weight may be a few ounces for a UHF antenna to as
much as 20 pounds for a full-sized, high Q, “bug catcher”
antenna. The length may be a few inches for a UHF antenna,
to as much as 13 feet or more for an HF one.
Some vehicles lend themselves to antenna mounting and
some don’t. In general, pickup trucks make better antenna
platforms than vans and SUVs. No doubt the biggest decision
for many hams is whether or not to drill holes in body sheet
metal.
Another often-overlooked requirement is deciding on
which side of the vehicle the antenna should be mounted. For
rear-mounted antennas, the driver’s side of the vehicle is pre-
ferred. This can be very important if you live in an area with
Fig 21.21 — A capaci- low bridges and overhanging trees as there is typically more
tance hat can be used clearance toward the center of the street. Further, it is easier to
to improve the perfor- see the antenna in the side mirrors if they are on the driver’s
mance of base- or
center-loaded whips.
side. If you’ve chosen front mounting, common when pulling
Loops or spokes can a trailer or RV, then it should be mounted to the right in order
be used in place of to avoid distraction or obstruction of your vision.
the wheel-type disc Whatever method you choose for mounting your anten-
shown here.
na, it must be sturdy enough to hold the weight and withstand
the wind loading imposed by the antenna without too much
flexing. It should be attached in such a way to maximize what
little ground plane a vehicle represents. The key phrase for
mounting the antenna is: It is the metal mass directly under
the antenna, not what’s alongside, that counts the most! Keep
in mind, no matter what the antenna, permanent and secure
mounting maximizes performance and safety.
21-16 Chapter 21
HF Mobile Antenna Mounts
Figure 21.22 shows a typical center-loaded, remote-con-
trolled, 80 through 10 meter screwdriver antenna, a Scorpion
Antennas SA-680. This homebrew mount was made by Joe
McEneaney, KG6PCI. The 18-pound antenna is supported by
a steel mast welded to a frame extension. There is a stainless
steel plate at the top of the mast, bolted to the top of the bed
rail, that secures the antenna and reduces ground losses. A
quick disconnect at the base of the antenna facilitates removal
when desired.
Because of the difficulty in designing and finding some-
one to weld a special mount, most mobile operators opt for
a commercial trailer hitch mount from one of the many QST
advertisers. While secure, trailer hitch mounting schemes
increase ground losses, and should be avoided if possible.
If you drive a pickup truck, mounts in the top of the bed
rail or in the bed offer more efficient operation. A stake pock-
et mount like the Breedlove model shown in Figure 21.23 is
a good, no-holes choice. Its offset design allows it to extend
from beneath most bed covers.
3/8-Inch Threaded Mounts

Most monoband, a few screwdriver types, and some VHF
antennas mount via a male or female 3⁄8-24 threaded stud. Ball
mounts, clip and lip mounts, and mag mounts are frequently
supplied with this type of threaded base. Mounts so equipped
often require base insulators to isolate the antenna from the Figure 21.22 — A Scorpion 680
mounting hardware. Feed line connections may be simple screwdriver antenna mounted on the
wire lugs, an SO-239 connector, or a coaxial cable pigtail truck of KG6PCI. (Photo courtesy of
with or without a female RF connector installed. Alan Applegate, KØBG and Ron
Douglass, NI7J)
The studs themselves are often stainless steel, but some
are mild steel or brass. If the antenna in question is a heavy
bug-catcher, a strong stud is in order. A replacement stud can Fig 21.23 — Stake-
be easily made from a 2-inch, class-8 bolt by cutting off and pocket mounts are
designed to fit into the
redressing the threaded portion. The resulting stud has over square holes in the
twice the tensile strength of the stainless steel version. walls of a pickup
truck’s bed. An offset
Ball Mounts mount as shown in the
photo will also clear
Ball mounts like the one shown in Figure 21.24 aren’t most bed covers.
used much anymore as late-model automotive sheet metal
isn’t as strong as it once was or has been replaced by plastic
or composite materials. Further, most hams don’t have the
necessary tools to fabricate heavy-duty insulators and large
backing plates to overcome the thin sheet metal problem for
the larger, heavier antennas. However, for ham-sticks and
Fig 21.24 — A ball mount
shortened CB whips, ball mounts are more than adequate, is attached to a vertical
even on lighter sheet metal. or nearly-vertical vehicle
panel and can be adjust-
Clip or Lip Mounts ed so that the antenna is
vertical. The spring
Clip mounts are a mixed bag of tricks. Most are quite shown in this photo may
adaptable to any surface angle including those offered by or may not be included
trunk lids, rear hatches, and even side doors. For light-duty with the mount. The
VHF and UHF antennas, they offer a convenient mount- length of the spring must
be included in the an-
ing method. If you’re careful in closing the door or hatch tenna’s total length.
they’re attached to, they work quite well. Clearance between
the mount and the vehicle body structure should be checked
before purchase, however.
Typical clip mounts are secured by setscrews. The
folded-over sheet metal of the car body to which the set High ground loss and common-mode currents on the
screws make contact is often jagged and thus offers a less than coax shield can be a problem when using mag mounts, as
secure electrical connection. Even modest and lightweight they rely on capacitive coupling to the vehicle body for RF
antennas tend to stress the connection. When the connection return current. Installing a ground strap to the nearest chassis
loosens, intermittent SWR and RFI problems are often the hard point is often recommended but does little to solve these
result. Therefore, as a general rule, clip mounts should be problems.
restricted to antennas weighing less than 2 pounds. (Larger
antennas can be used if guyed or otherwise stabilized above 21.2.4 MOBILE ANTENNA
the mount.) CONTROLLERS AND TUNERS
All modern vehicles are dipped in a zinc compound be- Screwdriver antennas have become very popular in part
fore final assembly and painting. When exposed to air, zinc because their operating frequency can be changed while in
rapidly oxidizes but in this case the oxidation is a good thing! motion. Most manufacturers offer some form of manual con-
When a piece of road debris nicks the paint down to the zinc trol box as an option. However, manual controllers require the
layer, it quickly oxidizes, and protects the base metal under- operator to watch either an internal or external SWR indicator
neath. Do not remove this zinc coating to bare metal! This during tuning, which isn’t safe while in motion. Fortunately,
removes the protective coating, allowing the underlying steel there is a solution — the automatic antenna controller.
to rust and creates an intermittent connection. There are two basic types with several variations, SWR
All lip mounts bring the coax cable into the trunk or pas- sensing and turn counters. Both types require special atten-
senger cabin through the weather seal potentially allowing tion with respect to RF on the antenna’s control leads and
water to enter. The problem is often exacerbated by the larger we’ll cover that issue, as well. Most have a built-in park fea-
control cable most screwdriver antennas require. Take care to ture which retracts the coil all the way into the mast. If you
dress the cables and seals to direct water toward a drain hole have garage or carport clearance issues, this is a nice feature.
or other exit.
SWR Sensing Controllers
Angle Brackets The BetterRF 7000 screwdriver controller shown in
Angle brackets come in a variety of sizes, shapes, angles, Figure 21.25 is a typical example. It reads SWR as data
hole size, attachment style, strength, and colors. They’re great directly from a mating ICOM IC-7000 via the CI-V data
for lightweight antennas like ham-sticks and VHF antennas, port. Other types read SWR with a separate sensing unit by
but shouldn’t be used for heavier ones. There are special hood activating a Tune function on a transceiver after a basic setup
seam versions for some models of trucks and other vehicles. routine is completed. Afterward, all that is needed to QSY is
They require holes for attachment screws. Some mounts can to change bands on your transceiver, push the radio’s Tune
be clamped on mirror arms or other tubes and struts. button, and let the controller do all of the work.
One clear advantage of most SWR sensing controllers is
Magnet “Mag” Mounts
Lots of folks use mag mounts with good success for both
HF and VHF antennas. Models are available that can secure
just about any size antenna. In fact, some VHF antennas come
preassembled with mag mounts. Although they’re meant for
temporary mounting, it is common for them to be used as per-
manent mounts as a way to avoid drilling holes. Mag mounts
have several drawbacks that tend to limit them to temporary
installation.
Coax routing is always a problem if for no other reason
than weather sealing. The magnet tends to collect road debris,
primarily metallic brake dust that eventually gets under the
magnet and rusts or scratches the vehicle’s finish.
Regardless of the number or size of the magnets, the ulti-
mate holding power relies on the metal surface. For example,
some newer vehicles use steel-reinforced composite materi-
als and although the magnets stick to the surface, the force
with which they do so is less than on an all-steel surface. In
these cases, mag mounts should not be used.
For larger antennas mounts are available with from three
to five large magnets. These mounts tend to be very heavy
and are difficult to install and remove. When used with large
Fig 21.25 — An SWR-sensing controller adjusts
antennas, even large mag mounts should be securely tethered the length of the screwdriver coil for minimum
and/or guyed to keep them in place for very obvious reasons. SWR automatically.
21-18 Chapter 21
that they store the previous operating frequency. Therefore, typically carry more common-mode current than body-
when you change frequency, the controller always moves the mounted antennas.
antenna in the correct direction, saving wear and tear on the Because of the potential for RFI from common-mode
motor assembly. currents, it is prudent to add RF chokes to reduce common-
mode currents in a mobile installation, even though there may
Turn Counter Controllers be no direct indication of a problem. The best place to install
Most screwdriver antennas come equipped with a turns a common-mode RF choke is near the base of the antenna
counter, usually in the form of a magnet attached to the drive where the feed line is connected and not inside the vehicle.
assembly that closes a magnetic reed switch. As the motor The most convenient way to create an RF choke is to use
turns, the switch opens and closes once or twice every 360°. the “split bead” or “split core” ferrite cores. A mix 31, 3⁄4-inch
The controller counts the closures and moves the antenna to a ID split bead may be utilized with great effect. Depending on
predetermined resonance point. Figure 21.26, an Ameritron the coax size, between five and seven turns of either RG-58
SDC-102, is an example of this type of turns-counting con- or RG-8X can be wound through that size bead as shown
troller. “Jog” buttons are included to touch up the SWR once in Figure 21.27A. The impedance will be somewhat greater
the predetermined point is reached. than 1.8 kW at 10 MHz which is adequate in most cases. If
Like some SWR type controllers, turn counters are prone not, a second split bead can be used effectively doubling the
to RF currents on their control leads, so proper RF choking impedance. Take care not to bend the coaxial cable too sharply
is essential. in making the choke, particularly for foam-insulation cables,
as the center conductor can be forced through the insulation
Common-Mode Current Problems over time, creating a short circuit. For more information on
In an ideal world, RF flows down the outer surface of ferrite common-mode chokes, see the Transmission Line
the center conductor of coaxial cable and returns on the in- Coupling and Impedance Matching chapter.
ner surface of the coax shield. In the real world, RF current
will flow on the outside of the coax shield, completely inde- Control Lead RF Chokes
pendently of the currents inside. The skin effect electrically All screwdriver antennas have one thing in common:
separates the inside and outside of the shield. This creates Their control motor and any reed switches are housed inside
a “third wire” — the outside of the shield — that is often the antenna. Therefore, the control leads will be “hot” with
connected directly to one side of an antenna. For mobile an- RF during transmissions. This RF must be prevented from
tennas, the outside of the shield is usually connected to the reaching the controller or erratic operation may result. This
vehicle body. In addition, if the coax is not itself shielded is especially important when utilizing short antennas on clip
from the antenna’s radiated field, the outside of the shield will mounts with their inherent ground losses.
pick up RF energy radiated by the antenna. This unbalanced Figure 21.27B shows a motor lead choke utilizing a
RF current is called “common-mode current” as opposed to 3
⁄4-inch ID, mix 31 split bead. These specific split beads are
the balanced differential-mode currents inside the coax. The available from a variety of QST advertisers. The one shown is
common-mode RF current can radiate a signal of its own, just
like from any antenna carrying RF, and it can also cause RFI
to your radio and to the vehicle’s electronic systems. (A)
In the case of HF mobile antennas, the magnitude of
common-mode current on feed lines and other cables in- Fig 21.27 — At A,
creases as ground impedance increases which also increases dc power leads
ground losses. As a result the coax and control cables run- are wound
ning to clamp or lip-mount and mag-mount antennas will around a split
ferrite bead to
form an RF
choke. B shows
how coaxial cable
can be wound on
a split ferrite
bead to form an
RF choke on the
Fig 21.26 — A outside of the
turns-counting cable shield.
controller keeps Wind coax loose-
track of coil posi- ly to avoid forcing
tion by counting the center con-
switch closures ductor through
from a reed the center
switch mounted insulation.
on the antenna.
(B)

wound with 13 turns of #18, nylon insulated wire with an OD effective impedance. In this case, the choke presents approxi-
of 0.068 inches. Larger diameter wire will not allow enough mately 10 kW of impedance at 10 MHz, an amount adequate
turns to be wound on the core. It is important that the turns in all but the most severe cases. If a reed switch is employed,
not be overlapped or twisted as this will reduce the choke’s it must have its own separate choke.
21.3 Bibliography for HF Mobile Antennas

Source material and more extended discussions of topics B. F. Brown, “Optimum Design of Short Coil-Loaded High-
covered in this chapter can be found in the references given Frequency Mobile Antennas,” ARRL Antenna
below and in the textbooks listed at the end of the Antenna Compendium Volume 1 (Newington: ARRL, 1985),
Fundamentals chapter. p 108.
J. S. Belrose, “Short Antennas for Mobile Operation,” QST, C.W. Frazell and T.D. Allison, “Another Look at an Old
Sep 1953, pp 30-35. Subject: The Bug Catcher,” QST, Dec 1980, pp 30-32.
J. M. Boyer, “Antenna-Transmission Line Analog,” Ham E. A. Laport, Radio Antenna Engineering (New York:
Radio, April 1977, pp 52-58 and May 1977, pp 29-39. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1952), p 23.
B. F. Brown, “Tennamatic: An Auto-Tuning Mobile C. E. Smith and E. M. Johnson, “Performance of Short
Antenna System,” 73, Jul 1979, p 132. Antennas,” Proceedings of the IRE, Oct 1947.
F. E. Terman, Radio Engineering Handbook, 3rd edition
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1947), p 74.
21.4 HF Antennas For Sail and Power Boats

21.4.1 PLANNING YOUR INSTALLATION of the rigging on a particular vessel. The performance of
Many of the mobile antennas discussed earlier in this a given antenna can vary widely on different boats, due to
chapter can be applied to sailboats. (For readers who might differences in dimensions and arrangement of the rigging.
not be fully conversant with nautical jargon, the Wikipedia’s  Even though you may be floating on a sea of saltwater,
online glossary of nautical terms at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ grounding still requires careful attention!
Glossary_of_nautical_terms will help you keep port and  The radio will typically be an HF transceiver with an out-
starboard straight.) However, the presence of the mast and put power of 100 W. This low power operation means you
rigging, plus the prevalence of nonconducting fiberglass hulls must pay careful attention to the efficiency of the
complicates the issue: “antenna system” and take into account the radiation
pattern which will normally be asymmetric with signifi-
 On most boats the spars, standing rigging and some run- cant signal reduction in some directions.
ning rigging will be conductors. Stainless steel wire is
usually used for rigging and aluminum for spars. The First Step
 Topping lifts, running backstays, jackstays, etc may also be An effective antenna system for a sailboat can require
made from conducting materials on occasion and often a good deal of effort and some expense. It may be neces-
change position while the boat is underway. This changes sary for example, to modify the rigging and do considerable
the configuration of the rigging and may affect radiation work inside the hull to install a grounding system. For this
patterns and feed point impedances. For example, when reason it is important at the beginning to define your goals:
tacking you may discover that the SWR on starboard tack Do you simply want to have a little fun at anchor on a summer
is quite different from that on port tack. A conducting vacation or are you planning to go blue water cruising and
topping lift can do this as well as running backstays. perhaps need to communicate back home from the middle of
 The antennas on a boat will always be close (in terms of the Indian Ocean? Is the installation primarily for emergen-
wavelength) to the mast and rigging. Some antennas may cies to summon assistance or will you want to have daily
in fact be part of the rigging. This means very tight elec- communications with other boats and shore stations? Or do
trical coupling between the antenna and the rigging. you want all these plus lots of time for just DXing or chatting
 The feed point impedance, SWR and radiation pattern can with friends back home?
be strongly influenced by the presence of spars and You need to think about what bands you want to op-
rigging. erate on. As we’ll see shortly, multiband operation poses
 The behavior of a given antenna will depend on the details some problems. Your intended use for Amateur Radio will
21-20 Chapter 21
determine the time, effort and money you have to invest in your designs out at the dock. For example, suppose you want
the antenna system and it will also directly impact your final to insulate part of your backstay and use it as your primary
choice of antenna. antenna. Temporarily you could replace the backstay with a
Note the use of the words “antenna system” above. This stout Dacron line and use wire and inexpensive insulators for
includes not only the antenna itself but the grounding system, the initial tests to determine the antenna final dimensions.
the feed arrangements and very possibly an antenna tuner. All Then finalize the backstay in stainless wire and swaged insu-
of these components interact and affect the final result. lators. This approach can save a lot of money and aggravation.
Antenna Modeling A Safety Note

Because of the strong interaction between the rigging Ungrounded rigging near deck level can have high RF
and the antenna, accurate prediction of radiation patterns and potentials when you transmit. For example, the shrouds on
a reasonable guess at feed point impedances requires that you a fiberglass boat connect to chainplates that are bolted to the
model both the antenna and the rigging with CAD software. hull, but may not be grounded. The lower ends of the shrouds
Fortunately easy-to-use antenna modeling software is avail- can inflict painful RF burns on the unwary, even while op-
able at low cost or even free.1,2 Unless you accurately model erating at low power. This is not hypothetical! As a general
the system, considerable cut-and-try may be needed and rule all rigging, spars and lifelines near deck level should
even then you won’t have any real idea of how your system is be grounded. This also makes good sense for lightning pro-
performing. Cut-and-try can be expensive when it has to be tection. For antennas with parts near deck level that can be
done in 1 × 19 stainless steel wire with $300 swaged insulator touched, a sleeve of schedule 80 PVC pipe can be placed
fittings! over the lower end as a protective shield. It’s not uncommon
Modeling allows you to try a number of different ideas to stand at the stern with a hand grasping the backstay. You
and see which approach works best for your installation. don’t want to be able to grasp the backstay above the insula-
While the software is very helpful, it has to be used with tor without an insulating shield over it! Many commercial
some caution: verticals for marine use are insulated.
1) You will need a reasonably accurate model using the As shown in the chapter Effects of Ground, it is possible
physical dimensions of the spars and rigging unique to your to determine in advance the potentials that may exist on a
boat. Take the time to carefully measure the dimensions and given system using the near-field calculations provided by
create a model that includes all the spars and conductive most software combined with some simple calculations using
rigging. a spreadsheet.
2) The connections between the spars and rigging will
have many small intersection angles and radically different 21.4.2 ANTENNA OPTIONS
conductor diameters — this can cause problems for NEC There are a number of possibilities for antennas on a
and MININEC programs. In general, sufficient accuracy can sailboat. One of the simplest is to install a separate vertical as
be obtained by using the same diameter for all the parts of shown in Figure 21.28. An alternative is to insulate a portion
the NEC model including the spars. Make all the conductors
0.25 inch which is typical for standing rigging.
3) Be careful to make the segment lengths at a junction
the same for each wire connected to that junction.
4) For more information on antenna modeling, see the
Antenna Modeling chapter.
From NEC modeling, you can expect the predicted radia-
tion patterns to be close to reality but the feed point impedance
predictions will be approximate. Some final adjustment will
usually be required. Because of the wide variation between
boats, even those of the same class, each new installation is
unique and should be analyzed separately.
NEC modeling will be used for much of the following
discussion.3 The model uses the dimensions and rigging ar-
rangements for a Crealock 37 sailboat. The author (N6LF)
and his wife lived aboard this boat for many years and cruised
off-shore extensively. Some of the ideas shown are taken di-
rectly from experience on this boat, other boats he has owned
and boats belonging to fellow cruisers.
A Suggestion
Fig 21.28 — An example of a 20 meter l/4 whip mounted on
When the antenna is going to be integrated into the the transom. A local ground system must also be provided,
standing rigging, it’s a very good idea (after modeling) to try as described in the section on grounding.

Fig 21.29 — An example of a backstay vertical fed at deck
level. A local ground point must be established on the tran- Fig 21.30 — An insulated stay 40 meter half-sloper fed at the
som next to the base of the backstay. masthead.
of the backstay and use that as a vertical as shown in Fig- supporting dipole at the masthead as shown in Figure 21.31.
ures 21.29 and 21.30. The backstay vertical can be fed at The antenna shown was fabricated from a pair of 12 foot fi-
deck level or at the masthead. berglass fly-fishing rod blanks (with a copper wire inside!)
This is the same idea as the l/4-sloper discussed in the that were attached to 3⁄4 inch by 6 foot aluminum tubes.
chapter on Single-Band MF and HF Antennas. One prob- Although it looks a bit ungainly this antenna survived several
lem with this antenna is that the lower end of the antenna is years of cruising and two 24 day passages in the north Pacific
a very high potential point. You don’t want the lower end of including the long beat back from Hawaii. The antenna was
the sloper to be anywhere it could be reached from the deck. very effective for the 20 meter maritime nets. A 15 meter
Another possibility is to place a self-supporting dipole at the version of this antenna was installed on another boat for a
masthead as shown in Figure 21.31. passage from Australia back to the US via South Africa. With
These basic antennas can be applied in a number of ways: this masthead dipole they were able to work back to the US
1) For single-band operation you can make the vertical regularly from the Indian Ocean. One half of this antenna
shown in Figure 21.28 l/4 resonant or insulate a portion of would make a good homebrew vertical on the transom.
the backstay that is l/4 resonant (Figure 21.29 or 21.30). If 3) For multiband operation it is possible to build or
the length of the backstay or the vertical is not long enough purchase multiband antennas, some of which are intended
to reach resonance on the desired band you can use the load- for mobile operation (see the Multiband HF Antennas
ing techniques described earlier in this chapter for mobile chapter and material on mobile antennas earlier in this chap-
antennas and there is also some useful information regarding ter). These come in many forms: multiple traps, replaceable
loading in the chapter Single-Band MF and HF Antennas. upper sections, interchangeable loading coils for each band
2) Another single-band option is the use of a self- or motorized tuning of a loading coil. Unfortunately most
21-22 Chapter 21
tuning unit for operation on 80 meters. The antenna control-
ler comes with pre-programmed length settings for the ama-
teur bands but these can be custom adjusted to compensate
for the interaction with the rigging. These antennas can be
quite efficient and a tuner is not needed in most installations.
5) A common solution for multiband operation is to use
a fixed length antenna, such as a vertical mounted on the tran-
som or integrated into the backstay, combined with a tuner to
provide a match to the transmitter.
6) It is also possible to use more than one antenna. For
example, you could use an insulated backstay resonant on
40 meters combined with a shorter transom vertical for the
higher bands.
21.4.3 ANTENNA TUNERS

Before examining some of these options in detail we
need to talk a bit about tuners. Tuners are capable of provid-
ing a low SWR load for the transmitter over a wide range of
HF frequencies and they can be very useful in an antenna
system expanding the number of usable antenna configura-
tions. But they have some limitations. There will be a limited
range of impedances that the tuner can deal with. In general,
very low and very high impedances lead to higher voltages
and/or currents in the tuner components, which can lead to
much lower tuner efficiency. The worst case is usually when
the resistive component at the feed point is very low and the
reactive component is high. This happens when antennas are
used at frequencies below l/4 resonance (see Table 21-1 for
examples of feed point resistance as an 8 foot whip is excited
at lower frequencies). As the antenna is made longer and ap-
proaches l/2 resonance, the resistive part of Zin can become
very large, >1,000 W. From the point of view of tuner ef-
ficiency and the ability to provide a match, the antenna feed
point impedance should be kept above 10 W and lower than
500 W if possible.
The tuner should be placed physically as close to the
antenna feed point as possible. The best design is to have
a good ground connection immediately adjacent to the feed
point with the tuner right there. Running an insulated wire
from the feed point back through the boat to a tuner collo-
cated with the transceiver is a very bad practice. There is
Fig 21.31 — A rigid dipole can be made from aluminum
tubing, fiberglass poles or a combination of these and at-
the danger of exposure to high potentials on the wire and
tached to the mast such as is visible in the photo at the top the probability of RF coupling to the boat’s wiring and other
of the mast. electronics. DO NOT DO THIS! If you have a good ground
connection next to the feed point and another at the transmit-
ter, it is possible to use a length of coaxial cable to bring the
commercial products of this type are not intended for a ma- feed point to the tuner, allowing you to use a conventional
rine environment. In addition, close proximity to the rigging manual tuner collocated with the transceiver. However, the
can have a strong effect on multiband trap verticals, prevent- coax is a transmission line and it will transform the feed point
ing them from being tuned properly. impedance to some new value that may or may not be better
4) Another option for multiband operation is the SteppIR for the tuner. (See the Transmission Lines chapter for more
family of self-adjusting verticals.4 The antenna consists of a on impedance transformation by feed lines.) In addition there
fiberglass tube, 18 feet or 34 feet long, inside of which is a can be very high voltages on the transmission line. The best
variable length of conductive metal tape. The tape is motor general advice is to locate the tuner as close as possible to the
driven so that its length can be adjusted to be resonant at antenna feed point!
any frequency from 40 or 20 meters (depending on the tube Locating the tuner close to the feed point may have
length) through 6 meters. It is even possible to purchase a disadvantages however. Typically the tuner may need to be

installed in a locker near the stern that may not be completely the profound effect the mast and rigging can have on an an-
shielded from the weather so you have to use a weather-tight tenna installed on a sailboat.
tuner. Also such a location makes it difficult to use a manual What if we chose a length other than 23 feet for either
tuner since you may have to reach into the locker to adjust the the vertical or an insulated backstay? Is there a better choice?
tuner for a new band. Typically weather resistant automatic Figure 21.34 shows Zin for various vertical lengths from 15
tuners are chosen for this application. to 40 feet on 40, 20 and 15 meters. For a backstay vertical it
The chapter Transmission Line Coupling and Impe- would be common to set L=33 feet which gives a good match
dance Matching has information on tuners you can build on 40 and 15 meters. Usually no tuner would be needed or at
yourself and the ARRL has published a guide to tuners by least the internal tuner found in most transceivers would have
Joel Hallas, W1ZR.5 little difficulty matching those bands. However, L=33 feet is
a very poor length for 20 meters — the impedance is very
21.4.4 THE EFFECT OF MAST AND RIGGING
A vertical can be placed on the transom as shown in
Figure 21.28. (Note that the vertical is offset a short distance
from the backstay to reduce coupling to the rigging slightly).
This vertical could be a mobile whip, a fixed length com-
mercial marine vertical or an insulated section of backstay. It
turns out that the length of the antenna and whether it’s part
of the backstay or separate has only a modest effect on the
radiation pattern so we will use 23 foot independent vertical
that will give us a general idea what to expect from verticals
of other lengths. Figure 21.32 shows the radiation patterns
for this antenna at 7.2, 14.2 and 21.25 MHz.
Unlike a vertical standing alone, this antenna doesn’t
have an omnidirectional pattern. It is asymmetrical, with pat-
tern distortion of 8-10 dB depending on the band. Further, the
pattern is offset in the direction the antenna is placed on the
transom. With the backstay vertical that offset is absent. The
pattern distortion shown in Figure 21.32 is very typical for a
wide range of boats. The directive gain can be useful but only
if you point the boat in the right direction! Otherwise you
may have significant reduction in your signal.
Figure 21.33 shows Smith chart graphs for the feed point
impedance at the base of a 23 foot vertical with and without
the rig. Figures 21.32 and 21.33 are very good examples of
Fig 21.32 — Azimuth radiation pattern of a vertical at 15° Fig 21.33 — Feed point impedance of a 23 foot free-standing
elevation at 7.2, 14.2 and 21.2 MHz. vertical with the mast and rigging present. (Z0 = 50 W)
21-24 Chapter 21
Fig 21.35 — A dipole can be taped to a wood or bamboo
Fig 21.34 — Feed point impedance as a function of vertical pole and hoisted to the masthead with the main halyard
length at 7.150, 14.175 and 21.250 MHz. (Z0 = 50 W) while at anchor. It is possible to make this a multiband
dipole.
high and even the best tuner might have difficulty match-
ing to that load. Instead of 33 feet you could set L=17 feet
which will have Zin = 11 –j384 W at 7.15 MHz, 36 + j8 W at
14.175 MHz and 220 + j451 W at 21.25 MHz. On 20 meters a
tuner is not required and the impedances on 40 and 15 meters
are reasonable for an automatic tuner.
Common lengths for commercial marine antennas in-
tended for HF SSB service are 23 feet and 28 feet. From
Figure 21.34 we can see these lengths have impedances that
are a bit high (though not impossible) for many automatic
tuners. A better choice would be 26 feet. However, this ob-
servation applies only to this particular example, on this boat!
Other boats, with different rigging dimensions might be bet-
ter (or worse) with a given vertical length. That is why it is a
good idea to model each boat individually before choosing an
antenna. Each installation will be unique!
The message here is that some lengths are better than
others for verticals or insulated backstay antennas and these
lengths may not be resonant on any of the bands. The choice
of length will depend on the specifics of the boat, the desired
operating bands and whether a tuner is used.
21.4.5 TEMPORARY ANTENNAS

Fig 21.36 — The flag halyard can be used to hoist the center
Not everyone needs permanent antennas. A variety of of an inverted V to the spreaders, or alternatively, the main
temporary antennas can be arranged. A few of these are halyard can be used to hoist the center of the antenna to the
shown in Figures 21.35 through 21.37. All of these options masthead. Interaction between the rigging and the antenna
will be strongly affected by their close proximity to the rig- will be very pronounced and the length of the antenna will
have to be adjusted on a cut-and-try basis.
ging but by employing a tuner, they may work well for tem-
porary operation. You can also try altering the wire lengths to
get a better match.
21.4.6 GROUNDING SYSTEMS on each side, connecting the forestay, lifeline stanchions,
You may be sitting in the middle of a thousand miles of chainplates, bow and stern pulpits and the backstay. Other
saltwater. This is great for propagation but you will still have bonding wires are run from the bow, stern and chainplates on
to connect to that ground if you want to use a vertical. There both sides to a common connection at the base of the mast.
are many possibilities, but the scheme shown in Figure 21.38 The fore-and-aft bonding can be attached to the engine and
is representative. First a bonding wire, or better yet a copper to the keel bolts. The figure indicates the use of 2-4 inch
strap (it can be very thin!), is connected from bow-to-stern wide copper strap for the connections. This is to provide low
Fig 21.38 — A typical sailboat grounding scheme.
insulators and will not work as a counterpoise. (On the other

hand, metal-hulled power boats can provide nearly ideal
grounding!)
2) A height restriction on automotive mobile whips is
imposed by clearance limits on highway overpasses and also
by the need to sustain wind speeds of up to 80+ miles per
hour on the highway. Hopefully your vessel will not experi-
ence these wind speeds!
3) In general, powerboats can have much taller antennas
that can be lowered for the occasional low bridge.
4) The motion on a powerboat, especially in rough seas,
Fig 21.37 — One end of dipole can be attached to the main can be quite severe. This places additional mechanical strain
halyard and pulled up to the masthead. The bottom end of on the antennas.
the dipole should be pulled out away from the rigging as
much as possible to reduce the impact of the rigging on the 5) On both powerboats and sailboats, operation in a
impedance. saltwater marine environment is common. This means that a
careful choice of materials must be made for the antennas to
reduce corrosion and premature failure.
The problem of a ground plane for vertical antennas can
impedance grounding but that material may not always be be handled in much the same manner as shown in Figure
readily available. It turns out that a pair of parallel wires (say 21.38 for sailboats. Since there will most likely not be a large
#12) spaced a few inches apart will have an impedance simi- keel structure to connect to and provide a large surface area,
lar to a wide copper strap and may be easier to install. additional copper foil can be added inside the hull to increase
The question arises: “What about electrolysis between the counterpoise area. Because of the small area of the pro-
the keel and propeller if you bond them together?” This has peller, it may be better not to connect to the engine, but to rely
to be dealt with on a case-by-case basis. If your protective instead on increasing the area of the counterpoise and operate
zincs are depleting more rapidly after you install a grounding it as a true counterpoise — that is, isolated from ground.
system, change it by disconnecting something — the engine- Sometimes a number of radial wires are used for a verti-
shaft-propeller, for example. cal, much like that for a ground-plane antenna. This is not a
Grounding will vary in every installation and has to be very good idea unless the “wires” are actually wide copper-
customized to each vessel. However, just as on shore, the foil strips that can lower the Q substantially. The problem is
better the ground system, the better the performance of the the high voltage present at the ends of normal ground-plane
vertical! antenna radials. For a boat these radials are likely to be in
close proximity to the cabin, which in turn contains both
21.4.7 ANTENNAS FOR POWER BOATS people and electronic equipment. The high potential at the
Power boaters are not usually faced with the problems ends of the radials is both a safety hazard and can result in
and opportunities created by the mast and rigging on a sail- RF coupling back into the equipment, including ham gear,
boat. A powerboat may have a small mast, but usually not on navigational instruments and entertainment devices. The
the same scale as a sailboat. Antennas for power boats have cook is not likely to be happy if he or she gets an RF burn
much more in common with automotive mobile operation, after touching the galley stove! Decoupling the counter-
but with some important exceptions: poise from the transmission line, as discussed in the chapter
1) In an automobile, the body is usually metal and it pro- Effects of Ground, can be very helpful to keep RF out of
vides a ground plane for a whip antenna. Most modern pow- other equipment.
erboats, however, have fiberglass hulls. These are basically One way to avoid many of the problems associated with
21-26 Chapter 21
grounding is to use a rigid dipole antenna as suggested in a vertical. It is not uncommon for large powerboats to have
Figure 21.31. For short-range communication, a low dipole a two or three-element multiband Yagi installed on a short
over saltwater can be effective. However, if long-range com- mast. While these can be effective, if they are not mounted
munication is needed, then a well-designed vertical, operat- high (> l/2) they may be disappointing for longer-range
ing over seawater, will work much better. For these to work, communication. Over saltwater, vertical polarization is very
of course, you must have the ground system associated with effective for longer distances. A simpler, but well-designed,
vertical system on a boat may outperform a low Yagi.
21.5 Bibliography for HF Maritime Antennas

Source material and more extended discussions of topics also the free version of EZNEC-ARRL supplied on the
covered in this chapter can be found in the references given CD-ROM included with this book
below, in the references listed at the end of the mobile an- 2. 4NEC2 by Ari Voors, home.ict.nl/~arivoors
tennas material, and in the textbooks listed at the end of the 3. EZNEC-Pro/4, Version 5.0 (see reference 1)
Antenna Fundamentals chapter. 4. SteppIR Antennas, www.steppir.com
5. Joel Hallas, W1ZR, The ARRL Guide to Antenna Tuners
1. EZNEC by Roy Lewallen, W7EL, www.eznec.com, see (Newington: ARRL, 2010).

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

21.1 HF Mobile Antenna Fundamentals

21.2 HF Mobile Antenna Types

21.3 Bibliography for HF Mobile Antennas

21.4 HF Antennas for Sail and Power Boats

21.5 Bibliography for HF Maritime Antennas