ELECTRICAL QUESTION BANK

POWER GENERATION AND DISTRUBUTION

Owner:
SATISH PANCHAL
([email protected])
1. What do you understand by electro static discharge?
Ans-The process of electron transfer as a result of two object at different potential coming into contact
with each other is called electrostatic discharge.
Static Electric Charge - Static Electric Charge build up occurs on an imbalance of electrons on the
surface of the materials. OR The electric charge at rest on the surface of an insulator body.

2. How would you ensure that bolts have been tightened sufficiently on busbar?
Ans-For the busbar bolt tightness Torque ranch spanner is used. Set the actual required torque setting
on Torque ranch and tight the bolt. When torque ranch spanner movement feels free that is sufficient
bolt tightness.

3. What is a PI test When would you carry it out.

Ans- Polarization Index is define as a ratio of 10 min resistance to 1 min insulation resistance. The
recommended polarization index value for clean, dry m/c winding are for class A insulation is 1.5 or
more and for class B insulation is 2.0 or more. It used to assess the degree of dryness of windings. For
old insulation initially free ions will be more depends on age and material and hence resistance will be
less. So the PI value for new insulation will be more and for old insulation it will be less. PI is give
information about the Insulation with respect to moisture dirt and other contaminations. It is carried
out during factory test or commissioning or if the insulation value (Megger) found very low or newly
rewinding m/c.

4. What happen if secondary circuit of current transformer is open circuited.

Ans-Very high voltage will be induced in secondary due to less back emf resulting in the failure of the
insulation. (CT secondary is more turn and Primary is only 1 turn.)

5. What classification most electrical / electronic equipments to be used zonal 1 or

hazardous area.
Ans-Following are the classification of Hazardous area. (As per Indian IEC Standard)
Zone 0 – Area where flammable atmosphere is continuously present or present for long time. Confined
space / vapor space, process vessel, storage tank.
Electrical Equipment not used in Zone-0 area.
Zone 1 – Area where flammable atmosphere is likely to occurs periodically or occasionally during
normal operation. Area surround zone 0 or area surround drain, equipment discharge.
Zone 2 – Area where flammable atmosphere is not likely occurs in normal operation and or if it does it
is for short time. Area surrounding flanged gasket, area surrounding zone 0 and zone 1.

Flam Proof (EX Code-d) - Motor, Lighting, Junction Box – For Zone 1.
Encapsulated (EX Code-m) - Electronic equipment (No heat) – For Zone 0.
Oil Filled (EX Code-o) - Heavy Current Equipments -Zone 2 or 1.
Increased Safety (EX Code-e) – Motor, Junction Box -
Pressurized/Purged (Ex Code-p)–Motor control box, computer, analyzer-Zone 1.
Special Protection Ex Code-s) - Depends upon manufactures certificates-Zone-1
Motors- Ex d, Ex p Intrinsically Safe (Ex i )
Transformers & Capacitors - Ex d Flameproof (EX d)
Control & Instrument Transformers - Ex I Increased Safety (Ex e )
Lighting Fitting - Ex d Non-Sparking (Ex n )
Switch Gear & Control Gear - Ex d Pressurization (Ex p )
Communication/ Telephone equipment/Meters - Ex i
Portable Hand Lamps- Ex I For symbol of fire hazards:
Class –A = <23˚C flash point R = Fire Hazard
Class –B = 65˚C <class B> 23˚C B = Health Hazard
Class –C = 93˚C <class C> 65˚C C = Reactive Hazard
For Numerical 4=max hazard and 0=least hazard
Gas Group and Temp Class for Hazardous Area:-

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 1

• Gas Group:- As per IS : 9570-1980
All gases and vapours can be classified in to 4 major gas groups. The classification criteria are based
upon laboratory tests to determine the maximum Experimental Safe Gap (MESG) and the Minimum
Ignition Current (MIC). Each chemical gas or vapour used on the refinery or chemical works comes
under a certain gas group. Gas group classification for typical gases will be below: - For Reliance
industry there are three:
Propane : Representative gas for group IIA.
Ethylene : Representative gas for group IIB.
Hydrogen/acetylene :Representative gas for group IIC.

Group Representative Gases and Minimum Ignition Energy

I All Underground Coal Mining. Firedamp (methane) - 280 Joules energy req.
IIA Industrial methane, propane, petrol etc. industrial gases- 260 Joules
IIB Ethylene, coke oven gas and other industrial gases - 85 Joules
IIC Hydrogen, acetylene, carbon disulphide - 19 Joules

If a piece of equipment has just II and no A, B, or C after then it is suitable for any gas group. A list
must be drawn up of every chemical gas or vapour that is on the refinery /chemical complex and
included in the site plan of the classified areas. The above groups are formed in order of how volatile
the gas or vapour would be if it was ignited, IIC being the most volatile and IIA being the least. The
groups also indicate how much energy is required to ignite the gas by spark ignition, Group IIA
requiring the most energy and IIC the least.

• Hazardous Material Classification :

The NEC (National Electrical Council) has classified all materials capable of forming an explosive
atmosphere into three major classes:
Class 1 - A Class 1 atmosphere hazard is an area consisting of gases and liquids, which have been
further, divided into four groups.
Group A (Acetylene) = IIC
Group B (Hydrogen) = IIC
Group C (Ethylene) = IIB
Group D (Methane), Propane = I, IIA
Class 2 - A class 2 hazard covers 3 different groups of combustibles dusts based upon their resistivity.
Group E (Medal dust)
Group F (Coal dust)
Group G (Grain dust)
Class 3 - A class 3 hazards covers location where combustible fibres or lying are presents. -- No
sub groups.

• Temperature Class :
Besides the danger of explosion caused by an electrical spark or arc, there is also a danger of ignition
at a hot surface exposed to a flammable atmosphere. The maximum surface temperature of any
unprotected surface of electrical equipment should not exceed the ignition of the gas or vapour.
Flammable gases and vapours fall into fairly well defined groups when classified with reference to
their ignition temperature. To simplify the manufacture of apparatus therefore the permitted
maximum surface temperature have been classified in IS:8239-1976 as follows:---
Temp Class – Min Surface Temp. Temp Class – Min Surface Temp.
T1 - 450˚C T4 - 135˚C
T2 - 300˚C T5 - 100˚C
T3 - 200˚C T6 - 85˚C
For example electrical equipment with a T5 rating can be used in all areas where gases have a
temperature rating from T1 to T5 but not T6 classification.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 2

6. What are the difference between between an increased safety motor and a motor used in
safe area?
Ans- Increased safety motor means motor has increased safety (Ex e) protection and it is used in
hazardous area zone 1 & 2. Motor used in safe area means motor used in non hazardous area or out
side of zone 0, 1 and 2 area where flammable atmosphere is not available or present in any case.

7. What is the concept of an explosion proof junction box & what symbol does it tell so?
Ans-Junction boxes are used for carrying and distributing electrical power in hazardous areas (zone 1
& zone2. Explosion protection to CENELEC, IEC For use in Zone 1 and Zone 2, Enclosure in glass fiber
reinforced polyester resin Degree of protection IP 66. An explosion-proof and corrosion resistant
junction box for electrical connection junctures and the like including a cap portion having a downwardly
extending external screw portion.

8. Residual Voltage & Residual Current used in which protection?

Ans-Residual Voltage & Residual Current used in Directional O/C and E/F protection. Residual voltage
used in 59TEX-Homopolar protection (Zero Seq. Over Volt) and Residual current used in Earth Fault and
negative phase sequence protection.
Dist Prot setting: V/I = 0.5 to 5 ohm / phase and time setting: 0.5 to 5 sec.

9. What is a static switch? And what is the purpose of it in an UPS.

Ans- A static switch is an electronic switch that is usually built using silicon controlled rectifiers or SCRs.
Static switch is used in UPS to provide an automatic transfer (High Speed Transfer) to bypass supply in
case of overload of UPS or inverter failure. Also, the static switch is used to bypass the UPS for
maintenance purpose.

10. What is the difference between float Voltage & boost charger?
Ans-Float voltage charging is a low rate voltage & current charging. Voltage is constant & initial charging
current is higher then final charging. Flat voltage charging is continue charging method. Boost voltage
charging is a high rate charging. Voltage & current both are higher then float charging. It is able to
charge the battery apto full charge. It is used for first time charging of newly battery and if the battery
is fully discharged condition or after maintenance or battery discharge test.
11. Draw a Single Line Diagram of UPS with bypass system.

12. What should be the specific gravity of the electrolyte fully charged lead acid battery?
Ans-Sp. Gravity in Lead Acid Battery = 1.28 & Ni Cadmium battery is = 1.20

13. What is the difference between lead acid battery and Ni Cadmium Battery?
Ans-Lead Acid Battery -Ni Cadmium battery
-Electrolyte: Sulphuric acid - Electrolyte: Potassium Hydroxide
-Sulphation effect occurs - no Sulphation effect
- Acidic & shorter life - Basic & longer life
- High rate charge/discharge not possible - High rate charge/discharge possible
-Anode: Peroxide PBO2 - Anode: Nickel Oxide
-Cathode: Sponge Lead Pb - Cathode: Cadmium
-Full Charge 2.5V, discharge 1.75VDC - Full Charge 1.4V, discharge 1.1 VDC
-Automobiles vehicle & UPS, emg power -Emg. power, Ind. power, Comm equip.

14. What is the electrolyte used in alkaline batteries.

Ans-Alkaly electrolyte - Potassium Hydroxide used in alkaline battery.

15. Temperature Class of Insulation.

Ans- Y = 90˚C, B =130˚C,
A =105˚C, F=155˚C
E =120˚C, H=180˚C and C = >180˚C

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 3

16. What is the mining (term) of brushless refer to when referring to on alternator?
Ans-Brushless excitation system has no brushes/slip rings/commutators. The AC exciter rotor and
rotating diode Rectifier Bridge are mounted on generator shaft. The diode assembly receive 3 ph inputs
from Ac exciter rotor and give DC output to alternator field. The AC exciter stator has DC which receive
power from PMG through AVR. Brushless Exciter system is preferred where sparking at brushes or
commutators is not permissible due to chemical explosive environment.

17. What parameters must be satisfied before synchronizing a generator?

Ans-Voltage, Frequency & Phase Angle (Phase Sequence)

18. What is meant by droop of generator?

Ans-Droop is the mode of operation in which the machine will react to the load variation by changing
its speed. It is utilized when multiple machine run in parallel so that load is shared between the
machines. For this sharing to be equal the machine need to have same droop characteristic. Typically
if a machine has droop of 4% it means for a change of 1% in rated speed the machine takes 25% of its
rated load. This is also referred to as load control mode of operation.
Droop- Freq droop is usually expressed as the percentage change in frequency from no load freq as
real load varies over the full load change.

19. What is the rotor speed of 2 pole 50Hz synchronous generator?

Ans-3000 RPM

20. What is the definition of a knee point of a CT excitation curve?

Ans- 1. When the primary of a CT is open circuited and supply (variable) of system
frequency is given to secondary, then a 10% increase in voltage constitutes 50%
increase in current. That voltage is the knee point voltage.
2. EMF applied to secondary of current transformer (CT) which, when increased by
10% of voltage causes the excitation current by 50%.
3. Knee point is the region, where 10% increase in flux (Volt) cause 50% increased in exciting
current.

21. What is the difference between restricted earth fault & non restricted earth fault relay?
Ans-Restricted E/F Protection operates only in certain selected zone and it is unit protection. Non
restricted E/F operates on outside or inside E/F in all circuit.

22. What is the negative phase sequence protection on generator?

Ans-If there is unbalance in current vector in generator due to unbalance loading or fault in any phase
it will be induce double freq eddy current in rotor. Negative phase sequence protection used to protect
the generator rotor from damage and serious over heating.

23. What is IP code & what is the mining of IP54.

Ans-The IP codes gives an indication of the equipments ability to keep out unwanted solid and liquid.
First 5 is degree protection against (Solid) harmful amount of dust talcum powder and 4 is against for
(Liquid) splashes of water.
For Solid object :- For Liquid-Water :-
1 = Greater then 50mm diameter. 1 = water drop falling vertical.
2 = Greater then 12.5mm diameter. 2 =water drop falling 15deg vertical.
3 = Greater then 2.5mm diameter. 3 = Rain water.
4 = Greater then 1.0mm diameter. 4 = Splashes of water.
5 = Harmful amount of dust talcum powder. 5 = Jets of water.
6 = Totally dust / talcum powder protected. 6 = Strong jets of water.
7 = Temporary immersion in water 15cm depth.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 4

24. Draw a discharge curve for Ni Cadmium and lead acid batteries.

Ans-

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 5

25. What is Skin effect?
Ans-The effect of electricity (AC) flowing (pass) through the peripheral surface (Mostly near the outer
surface) of the conductor is known as skin effect.

26. What is partial discharge?

Ans-The partial discharge current, also known as corona current is caused by ionization of air due to
high-test voltage. This current is not desirable and same is normally controlled by providing semi-
conducting tape to separate the conductor from insulation to prevent possible damage of the insulation
from the corona and ionization.

27. What is corona effect?

Ans-A bluish flame and hissing sound appeared on outer conductor of a transmission line due to
atmospheric moisture is termed as corona. OR When a high or extra high voltage transmitted in a
transmission line, due to magnetic effect on the core of the conductor all most all electrons pass on the
surface of the conductor. So the air outside the conductor surface becomes conducive and looks bluish
and due to dielectric breakdown of air a hissing noise comes from surrounding, called as corona ! Due
to corona 0 ZONE formation on the outside surface of the conductor. The effect of this to the power
system is called
as corona effect.

28. What is magnetic locking or cogging effect of induction motor?

Ans-In squirrel cage induction motor some times the rotor and stator care teeth or slots are comes face
to face or parallel at stationary condition. If we are starting the motor at this condition the motor get
hesitated to start or run due to the attraction developed between those rotor and stator teeth or slots.
This is known as the magnetic locking or cogging effect of a squirrel cage induction motor. This type of
magnetic locking in squirrel cage induction motor can be avoided either by skewing the rotor slot or by
selecting the rotor slot, such that there is no common factor between the rotor slot and stator slots.

29. What is the function of Lightning Arrester & Wavetrap in Power system?
Ans- Wave Trap : This is varying the impedance...
The Application of wavetrap is in PLCC (power line career communication)
Lightening Arrester : This is grounding the surge voltage.

30. What is the different between EARTH, GROUND AND NEUTRAL.

Ans- Neutral is used to make the circuit complete. Earth is used to protect the instruments or whatever
,from electrical shock.
Ground is used to bypass the electrical leakages

31. Why Power generation in India is at 50Hz while in America its 60Hz so is there any
advantage/Disadvantage of this ?
Ans- in US the frequency is 60hz and 110v supply. but in india is about 240v,50hz supply. for a particular
load say 100kw the current will be 0.416A. but in US the same load will consume about 0.9A. here the
thing is the heat produced in the cable bcoz of the flow of current will be large in US compare to india.
since US is a cold country they can use this level but not by india.

32. Why Human body feel Electric shock? and in an Electric train during running , We didn’t
feel any Shock ? Why…
Ans- Unfortunately our body is a pretty good conductor of electricity, The golden rule is Current takes
the lowest resistant path if you have insulation to our feet as the circuit is not complete(wearing rubber
footwear which doingsome repairs is advisable as our footwear is a high resistance path not much
current flows through our body)The electric train is well insulated from its electrical system.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 6

33. Why a Transformer Noise during its running condition?
Ans-Transformer noise is caused by a phenomenon called magnetostriction. In very simple terms this
means that if a piece of magnetic sheet steel is magnetized it will extend itself. When the magnetization
is taken away. It goes back to its original condition. A transformer is magnetically excited by an
alternating voltage and current so that it becomes extended and contracted twice during a full cycle of
magnetization. Transformer laminated core vibrate due to less load and magnetostriction effect.

34. What is pole slip?

Ans- In synchronous machine there are a interlock between rotor and stator poles. If sudden load
change then the locking mismatch is called pole slip.

35. Why P.F. of the system decreases when it is connecting across induction motor? & how
to maintain the PF of system to unity?
Ans- induction motor is an inductive device and we know that in inductive circuit current lags behind
voltage due to the inductive reactance of the motor. so that the phase angle between voltage and
current will increase. and the cosine angle i.e. P.F. will decreases.to improve the p.f we have to supply
leading Kvar to the system. it is possible by different way. either use capacitor bank which will supply
leading kvar to the system and overall lagging kvar will decreases and if we see the power triangle then
the angle between KW and KVA will decrease so that the p.f. will improve. second method is to run
synchronous motor on leading p.f. in parallel with the system.

36. what is a lightning arrester?

Ans-lightning arrester is metallic device which is capable of conducting electricity, which is placed above
the multi storeyed buildings and transformers and other receiving stations, sub stations. The main
purpose of lightning arrester is to protect the buildings and equipments from thunder &lightning during
rainy seasons. this device will be connected to the earth from the top of the building through a wire,
which is capable of sending high voltage into earth

37.What is phase voltage? what is line voltage?

Ans- Voltage across any two line in a multiphase system is line voltage. where as voltage across a line
and a neutral is phase voltage.

38. What is arc and what is spark?

Ans- Spark - the heat produced that ignites, due to the rubbing of two metals is called the spark. Arc
– the electrical discharge between two electrodes is called the arc. Arc is the self-sustained discharge
of electricity between electrodes in a gas or vapors, which
has a high voltage discharge at the cathode.

39. What you mean by +Ve sequence, -Ve seq. and zero sequence of voltage?
Positive phase sequence
A system of vectors is said to have positive sequence if they are all of equal
magnitude and are displaced by 120° with same time interval to arrive at fixed axis
of reference as that of generated voltage. The positive phase sequence is represented
below and the vectors arrive along X-axis in order 1, 2, 3 and conscript P has been
used to designate as positive sequence.
Negative phase sequence
A system of vectors is said to have a negative phase sequence if they are of equal
magnitude displaced at an angle of 120° but arrive at the axis of reference at the
regular interval same as that of positive phase sequence but in order of 1, 3, 2. That
is the order is reversed.
Zero sequence
A system of vectors in a phase system is said to have zero phase sequence if all the
three vectors are not displaced from each other and there will be no phase sequence
in such cases. The current or voltages in the 3-phase circuit vary simultaneously in
all the 3- phases. Such phase sequence is zero phase sequence.
40.What is the difference b/w winding insulation class and winding temperature class?

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 7

Ans- winding insulation class is related to the capability of short ckt of winding with other conducting
part like stator.and wndg temp class is related to ability of conducting without melting or loose of
insulation.
41. Why a starter is used for a motor?
Ans- starter used to reduce the starting current of the motor. and to safe the motor winding in the high
starting current.different type of starter used to the motor. i.e, 3 point starter, 4 point starter
used to d.c and a.c motors.

42. Which transmission is easy and cost effective AC or DC.

Ans-Transmission of dc power is easier due to many reasons
....it requires only 2 conductors,....no inductance,cap.,phase disp. and surge problem,
....no skin effect,....charging current eliminated,....less corona and reducd interference with
communication ckts etc.

43.What is ment by KVAR & what are the advantage & disadvantages of KVAR
Ans- KVAR - Reactive Power
It's Present only in Inductive load, i.e. X-mer, Motor, X-mission Line..etc And This power is required for
generating Magnetic field in inductive load. Here, i want to explain some formuls KVA = Sqrt((kw)^2
+ (Kvar)^2)
Where , KVA = Apparant Power,KW= Actual Power, Kvar= Reactive Power,
PF=KW/Kva = KW/(KW+Kvar) = COS$
1. If the value of kvar is more. it means PF is Less.
2. If the value of Kvar is zero. It means Unity PF (PF=1). it means Apparant Power is Maxi. and over
KW Loading is Maxi.
--> Practically PF is not Unity (PF=1). its near about One.
For Reducing Kvar Demand We install Capacitor In Ckt.
Dis-Advantage (If Kvar is More)
1. less KW Loading(Low load Allow) in system.
2.Power Factor will Poor.
3.High current in system so Conductor & Cable size increase.
4.Electricity bill will more (Money Loss)

44. What is AVR? Explain the function AVR?

Ans- AVR-means automatic voltage regulator AVR regulates the voltage of a generator. when voltage
drops, due to load increase, AVR gives voltage to exciter
and exciter more excites the alternator and voltage improve.

45. What is resistance?

Ans-Resistance is the property of a substance, which gives opposition to flow of electrons through itself.
Its measuring unit is ohm and measured by ohmmeter, multi meter, wheat stone bridge, and post office
box. There are two types of resistances and they are fixed resistance and variable resistance.
46. What is ampere?
Ans-The international ampere is defined as that steady current which, flowing through a solution of
silver nitrate, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 gm/sec.

47. What is volt?

Ans-The international volt is defined as 1/1.0183 of the emf of a Weston cadmium cell. It is that
difference of potential which, when applied to a conductor whose resistance is
1 (one) international ohm, will cause a current of 1 (one) international ampere to flow.

48. What are the classifications of voltages?

a. Low voltage: Voltage not exceeding 250V. That is 0 – 250V.
b. Medium voltage: Voltage above 250V upto 650V comes under medium voltage.
c. High voltage: Voltage above 650V upto 33 kV comes under high voltage.
d. Extra high voltage: Above 33 kV voltages are extra high voltages.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 8

49. Why tap changer kept at neutral end?
Ans- a) To reduce the insulation cost of tap changer
b) But reactance tap changeover the tap range increases.

50. Why guard wire is given for megger?

Ans- For true measurement of IR value of HV to earth of transformer, connect line to HV, earth
to transformer tank and guard to LV. Therefore leakage current from HV to LV is not included.

51. Why Neutrals are solid grounded above 33KV?

Ans- a) Less transient over voltage due to arcing ground.
b) Voltage of X’mer are limited to ph to ground voltage. (No Neutral shifting)
c) Allows graded insulation of transformer (Low Cost)
d) Fast Earth Fault Protection.

52. Why Neutrals are solid grounded below 600V?

Ans- a) Human safety.
b) permit enough E/F current because ground resi. is large in less then 415V.
c) Equipment safety against over voltage. d) Fast Fault clearance.

53.Why Resistance grounding is prefer for less then 33KV & more then 415V?
Ans- a) To limit the earth fault current for equipment safety else, high short ckt forces dislocate in
windings/ busbar etc.
b) Over voltage due to arcing ground reduce.
c) Permit E/F protection (not possible in ungrounded system)

54. why 6.6KV Transformer Neutral is grounded through Resistance ?

Fault MVA = MVA / % impedance of transformer
Fault Current = fault MVA / √3 x Voltage
In HT system fault current is very high but HT (above 33KV) system having a high capacitance (Ph to
E). In faulty condition capacitive current flows opposite direction of fault current. So that in HT system
transformer neutral is solid grounded. Also in LT system (415V) having a low fault current so that LT
Transformer solidly grounded. But in 3.3KV to 33KV side fault current is very high so neutral is grounded
through resistance to limit the fault current and provide E/F protection. NGR Value = 5 to 15Ω.

55. What are the advantages of ungrounded system?

Ans- Supply is maintain even with fault on one line. Less interface to communication lines because of
zero sequence currents.

56. What is meant by Over Fluxing of transformer?

Ans- When the voltage is increased and the frequency is decreased the transformer will draw high
magnetizing current. Due to this higher core loss and subsequent heating of core and ultimate failure
of X’mer. Hence over fluxing protection is provided in X’mer.

57. Why the tap changer is always connected in HV of transformer?

Ans- During tap changing action the load current has to be shifted from one tap to another tap. In case
HV winding the load current will be less. Hence lesser arcing will take place.

58. Why Neutral is earthed through earthing resistance?

Ans- This is done to limit the Earth fault current.

59. How 6.6KV supply was chosen?

Ans- 11KV was rejected due to high insulation cost of 11KV motor. 3.3KV was rejected for bus size
limited for 2.0MW. 6.6KV we can start up to 5 MW size of motor.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 9

60. Why ICT (Inter posing CT) used?
Ans- To correct the system primary CT error in case of high current faults out side CT zone (ICT’s
primary CT is 800/1, but in fault current may go to thousands of amps. ICT will take care of those
errors. a)matching the ratio. b)matching the Ph angle difference. (Ratio Error + Phase angle error =
Composite Error.)

61. How CT is connected in circuit?

Ans- If the primary of CT is delta connected load the CT will be in start connected and vice versa. This
is because to have square root 3 times compensation. (For Ph angle compensation & Zero sequence
component)

62. What are the types of bushing used in Transformer?

Ans- Condenser type bushing and Porcelain type bushing.

63. Recommended or permissible values for 220KV Switch Yard.

1. Rated voltage of equipment = 220 (normal system volt) x 1.1 = 245KV
2. Permissible duration of short circuit in network 220KV normal voltage = 180ms.
3. Permissible over voltage factors for 220KV nominal voltage system
= (220 x 6.5)/3 = 825 KV (approx)
And power freq flash over (wet) voltage = (220 x 3.0)/√3 = 380KV (approx)

64. What do you mean by the term 5P10?

Ans- This indicates the type of relay, Its % error and accuracy limit factor.
5 – composite error (Phase angle error + ratio error) 5%.
P – Protection CT.
10 – Accuracy limit factor.

65. What are the methods of charging of battery.

Mainly there are three types of charging of battery.
a. Constant current charging system.
In this system the charging current is kept to constant by varying the supplied DC
voltage by the help of rheostat or filament lamps in series with the battery, so as to
over come the increased back emf of the battery or of the cell.
Charging current = V – Eb / R + r amps.
b. Constant voltage or potential charging.
In this system the voltage is kept to constant, so the charging current in the
beginning will be high when the back emf or counter emf of the battery is low and
current will be small when the back or counter emf increases as the battery gets
charge.
c. Trickle charging system.
The continuous charging of a battery at a very low rate for keeping the battery
ready in good working condition is called the trickle charging. This is to maintain
the losses occurring at the idle period. The value of the trickle charging current is
approximately 2% of the full charging current of the battery.

66. What is armature reaction?

Armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux.
The effects of armature reaction are follows.
a. Armature reaction destroys (cross magnetizes) and weakens the main field flux
produced by the main pole.
b. It causes to reduce the induced emf in the armature.
c. It causes to reduce the efficiency of machine.
d. It causes to produce sparking at the brushes due to the shifting of M.N.A
(magnetic neutral axis).
e. At short-circuited loads or at very heavy loads, in case of self-excited generators
de-magnetising of pole cores (wiping of residual magnetism) may takes place.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 10

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 11
67. What is commutation?
Usually the width of the brush is equal to the two segments of the commutator.
Whenever a brush contacts two or more commutator segments, the connected to
those segments are short-circuited. After the period of short-circuiting the current on
those coils changes their current direction in it. The change that takes place in the
coil after the period of short-circuiting of that coil is called commutation.
When that changes take place slowly, that commutation is known as smooth
commutation and when that changes take place suddenly, that commutation is known
as rough commutation. If the commutation is not smooth, the spark may be more and that will
damage the commutator surface, commutator segments and so the winding.
The remedies for rough commutation are resistance commutation method and emf
commutation method..

68. What are the factors on which the capacity of the battery depends?
The capacity of the battery is measured in ampere-hour. The capacity of the battery
depends upon the following factors.
a. Number and area of the positive plate.
b. Discharge voltage. A cell should not be discharged below 1.8 V. If it is
discharged below 1.8 V it may cause to reduce the capacity.
c. Discharge rate. Capacity decreases with increase rate of discharge.
d. Specific gravity of electrolyte. With rapid rate of discharge causes to weaken
the electrolyte so the chemical action also weakens and there by the capacity
decreases. When the specific gravity increases the capacity of the battery
increases.
e. Quantity of electrolyte. Electrolyte level should be at the top plate level.
f. The design of separator. The design of the separator should be thin.
g. Temperature. When the temperature increases the resistance of the battery
decreases and the capacity increases.

69. What is inductance and inductive reactance?

Inductance
A coil carrying alternating current produces an alternating flux, which causes to
link with same coil and produces an emf in the coil, which opposes the applied
emf. This property is known as inductance. The unit for measurement is henry.
Inductive reactance
The opposition or the reactance offered by the property of inductance in the circuit
is known as inductive reactance and denoted by the letter XL. The unit for
measurement is ohm.

70. What is capacitance and capacitive reactance?

Capacitance
The property of a capacitor to store electrical energy in it, when it is connected to
an electric supply is called capacitance. Unit for measurement is farad. Capacitor
store an electric energy in the unit of charge and the unit of charge is coulomb.
Capacitive reactance
The opposition due to capacitance of capacitor in an electric circuit is called
capacitive reactance & it denoted by the letter XC. The unit for measurement is ohm.

71. What is ohm’s law for AC circuit?

I = V/Z amps.
Z = V/I ohms.
V = I * Z volts.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 12

72. What is the current and power in an AC circuit?
Ans-Current :AC circuit contains resistance ‘R’ and reactance ‘X’.
In resistive circuit IR = I cosϕ. Because resistance current (IR) is in-phase with
voltage (ER).
In reactance circuit IX = I sinϕ. Because reactance current will lead or lag the
voltage (ER) by 90°.
So the resultant current (I) is the vector sum of I cosϕ and I sinϕ. So that circuit
current I = √ (I cosϕ)2 + (I sinϕ)2 amps.
I cosϕ is some times known as power component of current or the power current or
energy current and the I sinϕ is known as reactive component of current or wattless
current. Because I sinϕ is not taking any energy from the circuit.
Power
Power in watts = terminal voltage * power component of current.
a. True power = E * I * cosϕ watts.
This true power is some times known as energy component or active
component or watt-full component. Because this is the power used to produce
torque in motor and supplies heat, light etc. or this true power is the power
consumption of all source of electric circuit.
b. Reactive power = E * I * sinϕ watts.
This reactive power is some times known as reactive or in-active component or
watt less component or VARS.
c. Apparent power = E * I watts.
The terminal voltage multiplied by the actual resultant current (I) is called the
apparent power or volt-ampere or VA.

73. What is power factor?

Ans-So from the above power explanation,
Cosϕ = true power / apparent power = E * I * cosϕ / E * I.
So that power factor is equal to
a. Cosine of angle of lead and lag of the resultant current with the applied voltage.
b. The ratio of R/Z. PF = KW/KVA If KV increased MVA increased.
c. The ratio of true power to the apparent power. If KV increased PF Decreased

74. Explain with simple diagram the core balance CT.

Ans-In core balance CT all the three phases go through the core and the resultant
magnetic flux is zero. Because the flux of three phases cancel each other. So the
secondary output of CT is zero and the relay will not energize. When there is a earth fault in one of the
phase the fluxes cannot balance each other and there is a voltage induced in secondary of the CT and
the relay is energized to trip the circuit. Saturation is no problem because the core size is very big.

75. How to know the Insulation Resistance?

Ans- At 25˚C R≥ 20*Volt / {1000 + (2 * KW)}= ……………..M Ω
For Exp….10KW motor Resistance = 8.137 M Ω
R = 20*415 / {1000 + (2*10)}
= (8300 / 1020)
= 8.137 M Ω

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 13

Battery & Battery Charger: ---

Electrolyte solution used in Lead acid battery is Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)

Specific gravity measured by Hydrometer. Discharge cell SG is 1.15 to 1.18 & Volt 1.8
In constant voltage charging method, charging voltage is constant but rate of initial charging current is
high then final charging current (Float charging).
Alkaline cell is consisting of Alkaline Electrolyte.
Nickel cadmium cell is an Alkaline cell in which active materials are nickel-hydroxide & cadmium.
Electrolyte – Potassium hydroxide.
In full charge condition SG of lead acid batt. is 1.28 & Ni. cadmium battery is 1.20
What are the merits of alkaline cell w.r.t. lead acid cell?
Alkaline cell can with stand heavy current rate discharging.
It is light weight & mechanically rigid.
It is no sulphation defect.
Most suitable for electric operated vehicle.
What is sulphation – The deposition of the hard layer of lead sulphate on the plat of lead acid cell is
called sulphation. To avoid this battery should not left idle.
What is corrosion – The formation of insulating layer on the battery terminals is called corrosion. It
is routine defect & it can be reduce by cleaning & greasing of terminal.
Trickle charging – Sulphyte Battery get discharge its own because internal discharging current due to
impurities in electrolyte. Small charging current at all times to offset local discharging is called
trickle charging.
What will happen if one or more diode fails in Rectifier Bridge of BC?
Ans- Output ripples will increased and and output DC Voltage will also reduce.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 14

Earthing:
What is meant by Earthing: Earth is a large conductor for the flow of electric current and its potential
is consider to zero. Any conductor having a voltage of any magnitude which comes to contact of
good earth point, will reach at zero.

Equipment Earthing: - is connecting non current carrying metallic parts of electric plant to station
earth (earth electrode or earth mat). It is mandatory as per safety rules. It prevents several electric
shocks & protection of equipment from earth leakage current, discharge of earth leakage current
and capacitive charging current. Safe to touch the equipment.

Neutral Earthing: -Connecting the Neutral point of Three phase AC system to earth (Earthing electrode
or earthing mesh) by low resistance conductor is called neutral earthing or system neutral earthing.
It is done to limit the earth fault current. It is earthed in order to obtain a balance voltage from each
phase. Easy for earth fault protection. In single earth fault the voltage of two healthy phase with
respect ground raise to √3 times normal phase voltage to ground volt. Such sustained over voltage
is harmful for insulation of motor in this case neutral earthing is required. Any types (switching or
lightning) over voltage easily dissipated to earth.

Copper or iron plate buried at the depth of 2.5 to 3 mtrs act as a good earthig.

Earth resistance should be less then <1 ohm, In domestic low voltage: 3 ohm, In low /medium voltage
substation: 0.5 ohm and for 220KV & 400KV substation below 0.1 ohm. If it is more the add charcoal,
Sault and pour sufficient water in earth pit.

Touch Potential (potential diff between raise finger & the feet) & Step Potential (potential diff b’ween
two step of person standing on ground) should be below 45V.

Protection against Lightning strokes on overhead transmission line.

Overhead shielding wires (earthed) of transmission & distribution lines.(Zone of protection 45 degree
on both side w.r.t vertical line / plane.
Overhead shielding mesh for outdoor substation (Zone of prot.45 deg. On bothside)
Earthing of overhead shielding, overhead earth wires tower, poles.
Earthing masts, lightning spikes in substations & tall buildings, (Zone of protection 45 deg.)
Surge Arrestor / Lightning arrestors connected phase to ground on transmission tower, distribution
pole, substation & power station to discharge lightning surge.
Switching Surges : Over voltage produces during opening or closing the breakers are called switching
over voltage (surge).(time dura. of surge is 100 to 3000 mic.sec)

What is Floating Neutral?

Ans-Floating neutral means that the grounded conductor is not bonded to the frame at the particular
point on the system. OR (Electricity) Neutral conductor whose voltage to ground is free to very when
circuit condition change. OR System does not have a main or system bounding jumper.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 15

220KV Switch Yard….

Transformer water Spray System = Mulsifier Protection.

1. What is meant by Dielectric strength?
Ans-The maximum electrical potential gradient that a material can withstand without
rupture usually specified in volts/millimeter of thickness. This also has known as
Electric strength.

2. What is the purpose of the CVT (capacitance voltage transformer?

Ans- To provide synchronizing signal
To provide voltage indication
To facilitate the carrier communication
To provide protection & Measurement

3. What is the purpose of wave trap?

Ans-Carrier communication signals are sent through the lines. These are high frequency signals. This
signal should be prevented from entering the switchyard. The wave trap is LC ckt, which is tuned for 50
Hz. Since it is connected in series with the line it will effectively block the carrier signal entering into
the switchyard.

4. What is the purpose of lightning arrestor?

Ans-Due to lightning and switching surges high voltages are induced in the lines. If
equipment’s. Connected is subjected to this high voltage the insulation will fail. In
order to avoid the failure of insulation the LA is used. When the la is subjected to
high voltage it will conduct and discharge the current to the earth.
(It will divert the over voltages to earth and protect the substation)

5. What is meant by restriking voltage?

Ans- The high voltage that will appear across the contact just after the quenching of the arc is called
restriking voltage.

6. What does switching surges mean?

Ans- When a line is switched on high voltage will appear on the line due to its inductance and
capacitance. This voltage is known as switching surges.

7. What is the purpose of ground switch?

Ans- To discharge the trapped electrical charges to ground to give complete isolation.
(To discharge the residual potential)

8. What is the type of Lightning Arrestor?

Station type, heavy duty, gap less zinc oxide. Station Class.

9. What is the purpose of grading ring?

This assembly is provided to have uniform voltage gradient.

10. What are the protections for BUSBAR?

Ans- Instantaneous over current protection
Bus bar differential protection
Local breaker back up protection

11. What are the protections for HT transmission line?

Ans- Directional earth fault protection
Directional over current protection
Local breaker back up protection
Line Differential Protection
Main protection (Distance protection)

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 16

12. List out the components of station output system.
Ans-Main Generator, Generator transformer, PT, CT, CVT, lightning arrestor, wave trap, main 220 kV
bus, SF6 circuit breakers and isolators, line protection scheme, GT and Generator protection scheme,
bus bar protection scheme etc.

13. Why earth switches are provided in 220 kV bays?

Ans- When bay CB trips, both end (station and grid) CB will trip. The earth switches are provided
because the grid will always be alive so to prevent any shocks to the
operator or maintenance personnel who is working on the line or bay due to
accidental energizing of the bus.

14. What is the purpose of tan-delta measurement?

Ans-Insulation in electrical system has parameters such as Capacitance, Die-electric loss, and Power
factor. By detecting the changes in these parameters failures can be
revealed. In this tan-delta test measured quantities are dissipation factor, power factor, capacitance
and dielectric power loss. The very purpose of this test is to detect moisture content in the insulation.
This detects moisture and void (gap) in the insulation. This indicates amount of ionization

15. What are the protections provided for 220 kV lines and bus bars?
Ans- a. Bus bar differential protection.
b. Distance protection.
c. Over current protection.
d. Earth fault protection.

16. Recommended or permissible values for 220KV Switch Yard.

1. Rated voltage of equipment = 220 (normal system volt) x 1.1 = 245KV
2. Permissible duration of short circuit in network 220KV normal voltage = 180ms.
3. Permissible over voltage factors for 220KV nominal voltage system
= (220 x 6.5)/3 = 825 KV (approx)
And power freq flash over (wet) voltage = (220 x 3.0)/√3 = 380KV (approx)

17. What is Creepage distance and what is its significant?

Ans- Shortest distance between two conducting parts along the surface of the insulating material. It is
required depends upon rated ph to ground voltage and degree of atmospheric pollution. Creepage
distance as below:-
For industrial area = 22 mm/KV & in highly polluted & coastal area = 25mm/KV.

18. Explain the use of silicon grease on insulator?

Ans- During periodic maintenance the insulator are washed by water spray. (In both online washing &
substation de-energize condition.) In very heavy polluted area, the insulator surface have provided with
special silicon grease.

19. Standard clearance for 220KV system. (For Effectively earth system)
Ans- For 900KV Impulse withstand:
Minimum phase to earth = 178 cms
Minimum clearance between phase in air = 225 cms
For 1050KV Impulse withstand:
Minimum phase to earth = 207 cms
Minimum clearance between phase in air = 252 cms
Phase to Phase = 2.5 mts. And Ph to earth = 2.0 mtr.

20. Explain the types of Busbar.

Ans- Non Segregated bus duct: The conductors of three phases are in common metal enclosure
without any barrier between them.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 17

 Segregated bus duct: The conductors of three phases are in common metal enclosure with
metal / insulator barrier between them. Isolated Phase bus duct: The each conductor is enclosed
in separate metal enclosure. Positive Inst. Air pressure (Dry Air) 50-150 MM water colom.

21. What is the function of Lightning Arrester & Wave trap in Power system?
Ans-Wave Trap: This is varying the impedance...
The Application of wavetrap is in PLCC (power line career communication)
Lightening Arrester: This is grounding the surge voltage. (Gapless Zinc Oxide)

22. In 220 kV SWYD why lightning arrestor should be properly grounded?

Ans- a. During lightning, surges should be discharged to ground, otherwise it will
Puncture the equipment insulation and it is possible only when lightning arrestor
is grounded properly.
b. In order to make it effective, the ground terminal of lighting arrestor should be connected
direct to the tank of transformer. This will eliminate voltage build up due to earth resistance. For
example for each ohm of earth resistance the voltage build up for 5000 Amps discharge current is 5 kV.
Soil resistively a should be minimum and may be it is 3.5 ohm per meter.

23. What type of protection and safety req. in the 220kv substation and area around the
substation?
Ans-(I) always wear industrial safety hamlet. (II)Don't raise hands & don’t use ladder.
(III) Don’t use umbrella in rainy days. (IV) Always go with one collogue.
(V)Don’t walk on trenches.(VI) Never operate Iso.& E/S without wearing hand gloves.

24. Condition Monitoring of 220KV Switchyard & Transformer:--

o Check the healthiness & visual inspection of Busbar, conductor, Breaker, Isolator, CT, PT, CVT,
Insulator, LA, Earth switch and busbar joints etc, for tightness, Mechanically strength, and cleaning.
o Check abnormal sound, vibration and heating of Breaker, Busbar, Transformer, Isolator, CT/PT/CVT,
BPI, and Earth switch.
o Check breaker spring charging status, SF6 gas pressure, ON/OFF indication and flag, Indication
lamp, cleaning and if any abnormality.
o Check Isolator proper closing and male/female contact status, operating mechanism, all moving
parts and bolt tightness. Also check E/S status and position.
o Check LA counter meter reading, leakage current, proper connection and cleaning.
o Check CT/PT/CVT connection, oil level & oil leakage and cleaning of insulator.
o Check oil leakage from transformer body & joints, radiator fins, sample/drain valves, buchholz relay,
oil level glass, and conservator tank.
o Check for cleaning of transformer body.
o Check for oil level, oil leakage and cleaning of transformer LT/HT bushing.
o Check for conservator oil level and oil level glass status.
o Check for Breather Silica gel status, oil level in oil cup, and buchholz relay status.
o Check for winding & oil temperature gauge and reading note down.
o Check for cooling fan condition and running status.
o Check for OLTC panel, OLTC mechanism and tap position.

25. Switch Yard Isolator Details & Testing Value:

Ans- 1250A Post Rotating Center Break Isolator.
Testing: 1. Manual operation check
2. Motor operation check (kw: 0.37, 1.2A, 1365rpm, 415V)
3. NO/NC Contact change over check
4. Mechanical interlock check
5. IR test of motor should be Mega ohm. (actual 1000MΩ)
6. Winding Resistance of motor = 51Ω
7. Motor/Isolator open time= 8.5sec & close time 8.3sec (with 0.7A)
8. Contact Resistance (CR) = Mail to Femal: 35 to 40µ Ω (Micro ohm)
Pole to Pole: 140 to 170µ Ω (Micro ohm)

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 18

Above 220Kv “Moose” Conductor, 132-220Kv “ACSR Zebra” Conductor and 66-132KV
Panther / Dog Conductor used in HT lines.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 19

26. 220KV Cable Test and details:
220KV Carbon Graphite Coating FRLS, XLPE 400Sqmm, Single Core, Copper cable.
IR with 10KV Megger: <1.5GΩ, Leakage Volt=215V, Leakage Current=9to12 MicroA.
For Megger Remove Graphite Coating. Apply 10KV Copper conductor and Removing nail which is
injected on removing Graphite top surface of cable.

27. 220KV Breaker Data and Testing:

Ans- 3150A, 245Kv, 40KA/3Sec, Siemens make, SF6 Breaker.
SF6 Gas Press 35°C : Normal = 6.4 Bar, Low Alarm=5.5 Bar, SF6 Lock Out= 5.2 Bar
1. Check NO/NC Contact change over
2. Manual/Remote operation check, and Close/Open time for all Pole
3. Megger (IR) Test, Aux contact change over,
4. Spring charging operation check = 11sec time for spring charge
5. Breaker contact operation, and Anti Pumping operation
6. PDR (Pole Discrepancy circuit operation)
7. Single phase tripping and trip Synch Operation check
8. Breaker Operation time: Close Time= 62-68 Milisec, Trip=32-40 Milisec.
9. Breaker Contact Resistance : 32 to 36 Micro ohm
10. Trip / Close coil Resistance measurement = 210 Ω.

28. CVT Data and Testing: Areva meke Hermetically sealed

Ans-220KV/√3/110V/√3, 100VA, 3P class core-1, 0.5 class core-2.
Insulation Resistance (IR) Test : Pri-E=50GΩ, Sec-E=1GΩ, Pri-Sec- 1GΩ
Polarity Test
Ratio Test: apply 1000V to 2750V, Measure in Core1 & 2 = 0.5 to 1.37V.
Ten Delta Test- For capacitance loss measurement & check insulation level.

30. CT Data and Testing: Areva meke Hermetically sealed (Post Type)
Ans-For BB Diff-core 5,6 = 2500/1A, Metering-core3=600/1A, Prot.Core1,2,4=600/1A
IR Test = 1GΩ, 2. Wdg resi=5Ω, 3. Continuity test,
4. Polarity test, 5. Ratio Test 6. Megnetiging Curve test (Knee point)

31. LA Testing : Ans-198KV (72+120), Counter meter test, Megger (IR) test =1GΩ

32. What is Ferranti Effect?

Ans-A long transmission line draws a high quantity of charging current. If transmission line is open
circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving end, the voltage at receiving end may become greater
than voltage at sending end is known as Ferranti Effect. And this is due to the voltage drop across the
line inductance (due to charging current) being in phase with the sending end voltages. Therefore both
capacitance and inductance is responsible to produce this phenomenon. The capacitance (and charging
current) is negligible in short line but significant in medium line and appreciable (Very High) in long
line. Therefore this phenomenon occurs in medium and long lines. Due to high capacitance, the Ferranti
Effect is much more pronounced in underground cables, even in short lengths.

33. What is GIS S/S & how it operate? Where these type of S/S installed?
Ans-GIS means gas insulated substations. SF6 Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) are preferred for voltage
ratings of 72.5 kV, 145 kV, 300 kV and 420 kV and above. In such a substation, the various equipments
like Circuit Breakers, Bus-Bars. Isolators, Load Break Switches, Current Transformers, Voltage
Transformers Earthing Switches, etc. are housed in metal enclosed modules filled with SF6 gas.
The SF6 gas provides the phase to ground insulation. As the dielectric strength of SF6 gas provides the
phase to ground insulation. As the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is higher than air, the clearances
required are smaller. Hence, the overall size of each equipment and the complete substation is reduced
to about 10 % of conventional Air-insulated substations. As a rule GIS are installed indoor. However
outdoor GIS have also been installed earlier

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 20

 TRANSFORMER
1. What is transformer?
Transformer is a static device by which AC power at one voltage in one circuit will be transformed into
AC power of same frequency at another (decreased or increased voltage) or same voltage to an
another circuit, which is in mutual inductive influence with the previous circuit and it is based on
mutual electro magnetic induction.

2. What is the working principle of transformer?

A transformer works under the principle of mutual electro magnetic induction (Faraday’s laws of
Electro-magnetic induction). It says that, when ever a changing flux links with a coil an emf is induced
in it and this induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux and the number of turns in the
coils linking the flux.

3. What are the types of transformer core?

a. Core type transformer core.
b. Shell type transformer core.
c. Berry type transformer core.
d. Spiral type transformer core.

4. What is the transformation ratio in transformer?

Equation for transformation ratio is,
E2/E1 = N2/N1 = k
k = >1 in step up transformer, where secondary turns are more and thus voltage is more to reduce
the transmission current.
k = <1 in step down transformer, where secondary turns are less than primary and low voltage for
consumer use. If we include the current in transformation ration the equation is, E2/E1 = N2/N1 =
I1/I2 = k

5. What is the use of conservator in the transformer?

It is a drum type cylinder mounted on the top of the transformer through a small pipe of the
conservator is kept empty. To indicate the level of oil in the transformer an indicator is fixed.
Conservator will help the oil inside the tank by providing sufficient space to expand and to contract as
its temperature varies without exposing much surface area. That is it limits the air with oil due to its
less surface area.

6. What is the use of breather in the transformer?

Breather is a bottle shaped steel tube, which is attached to one side of conservator to allow the air to
pass in and out of the tank or conservator through the calcium chloride and silica gel, which is filled in
it to absorb the moisture contained in the air. When the silica gel absorb the moisture its colour
changes from blue to pink.

7. What is the use of buchholz relay in the transformer?

It’s a protection relay used in oil immersed transformer to protect the transformer from insulation
failure, core heating or any other type of internal faults, which may cause the heating of winding
beyond the specified temperature. This relay is placed in between the pipe connecting the conservator
and the tank. Generally used in power transformer of above 500 kVA. It consists of two operating
floats and is operated by two mercury switches separately provided for the alarm and trip. Due to
internal fault (collection of gases) or leakage of oil if the oil level comes down the alarm relay first
operates and then the trip relay operates to isolate the transformer from the circuit.

8. What is the use of explosion vent in the transformer?

It is also a safety device of a transformer, which protects the transformer tank from the high
consequences of the high-pressure gases induced or developed by any type of short circuit in the
transformer by allowing the gas to escape by puncturing the diaphragm.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 21

9. What is the emf equation for transformer?
Always maximum flux reaches from zero to maximum in one quarter of the cycle. That is in … of
second. That is equal to 1/200 second.
Average rate of change of flux = Qm / … f. = Qm * 4 * f.
= 4 f Qm Weber / second.
As the coil has N turns the average emf induced in the coil = 4 f Qm N volts.
But the rms. Value = average value * form factor.
∴ rms. Value of emf = 1.11 * 4 f Qm N volts.
= 4.44 f Qm N volts.

10. What are the losses in transformer?

Ans-In transformer there are losses due to,
1. Resistance of the winding (copper losses).
2. Eddy current and Hysterisis in the iron parts and core (core and iron losses)
3. Losses due to leakage reactance (leakage flux).
At No load the copper losses and leakage flux losses are negligible due to the very less primary current.
At loaded condition copper losses and leakage flux losses will exist in considerable manner.
Copper losses are variable & can be calculated by Ip 2*rp and Is 2*rs.

11. State the type transformers?

Transformers can be classified into different groups and types based on the
following factors.
1. Type of core.
a. Core type transformer core.
b. Shell type transformer core.
c. Berry type transformer core.
d. Spiral type transformer core.
2. Method of cooling.
a. Natural cooling transformer.
b. Artificial cooling transformer.
c. Artificial cooling (water) transformer.
d. Mixed cooling transformer.
3. As per transformer ratio.
a. One to one transformer.
b. Step down transformer. c. Step up transformer.
4. Based on number of phases.
a. Single-phase transformer.
b. Two-phase transformer.
c. Three phase transformer.
5. As per winding connection.
a. Star-star connected.
b. Star-delta connected.
c. Delta-delta connected.
d. Delta-star connected.
e. Open delta connected.
f. Scott connected.
6. As per the size of the transformer.
a. Distribution transformer (upto 500 kVA).
b. Power transformer (above 500 kVA).
7. Based on function and utilization.
a. Auto transformer.
b. Potential transformer (instrument transformer).
c. Current transformer (instrument transformer).

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 22

12. What is the humming of transformer?
Humming is a sound, which is produced due to the vibration of the cores in the transformer. The
vibrations are produced due to the change in polarity of an alternating current or voltage and by the
loose of lamination of the core. Both can be minimized by tightening the core of the transformer.

13. What is the static pressure of diaphragm in the transformer explosion vent? 5 psi.
14. In buchholz relay how the top and bottom mercury switches are connected? Top mercury
switch is connected for alarm and bottom switch for trip.

15. What are the losses in a power transformer and mention how these losses can be
minimized?
There are two losses in a transformer.
a. Iron losses.
b. Copper losses.
Iron losses – Iron losses constitutes of two losses.
a. Eddy current losses, these are due to the induced emf in the core, which
constitutes a current in the core. These will heats up the core.
Eddy current losses can be minimized by using laminated core immersed in
varnish. This provides a high resistance between the laminations and thus eddy current in reduced.
b. Hysterisis losses, these are due to the magnetic reversal of current by which there is friction between
molecules of core and heat is generated.
Hysterisis losses can be minimized by selecting proper magnetic material, like silicon steel.
Copper losses – these losses are due to the resistance of the winding, which is equal to I2rt (calories).
These losses are depends on load. That is the losses are increased to the square of the load current
I – current through winding.
r – resistance of winding.
t – time duration.

16. Define the percentage voltage regulation and efficiency of a power transformer.
Voltage regulation is the difference between no load voltage and full load voltage by no load voltage.
Voltage regulation = No load voltage – Full load voltage / No load voltage.
Voltage regulation is mentioned in % (percentage).
% Voltage regulation = No load voltage – Full load voltage * 100 / No load voltage.
Efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of output in watts and input in watts.
Efficiency = Output in watts / Input in watts.
% Efficiency = Output in watts * 100 / Input in watts.
% Efficiency = Output in watts * 100 / Output in watts + losses.

17. How explosion vent works?

Explosion vent is provided on the transformer tank to relieve pressure if the pressure in the transformer
exceeds 5 psi. It is swan neck shaped having two Bakelite diaphragms. One at top and another at
bottom. These break if the static pressure increases to 5 psi. Wire meshes are provided below the
bottom diaphragm and above the top diaphragm. When there is any breakage due to excess pressure
the bottom wire mesh prevents broken pieces from entering transformer tank and the wire mesh
provided above the top diaphragm protects the diaphragm from any external damage. There is an oil
level indicator provided above the bottom diaphragm. It indicates the level of oil in the vent if the
bottom diaphragm ruptures. A ruptured diaphragm must be immediately replaced. Also we should check
the top diaphragm for any external damage.

18. Explain the operation of silica gel breather.

Silica gel breather is used in a transformer to provide dry atmospheric air to the conservator when
transformer breathes. The breather consists of an inner container and outer container. The inner
container contains silica gel, which absorbs moisture. An oil bath in provided at the bottom of breather
so that the silica gel will not be in direct contact with the atmosphere. Also it will trap dust and dirt
entering the breather. Dry silica gel will be deep blue in colour. After it gets saturated with moisture it

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 23

will turn into white pink. The change of colour silica gel can be viewed externally through transparent
viewer provided on the breather. When the silica gel is saturated with moisture it must be replaced or
regenerated or recharged. Silica gel is recharged by heating it to a temperature of 250º F to 300º F till
the deep blue colour of silica gel is got back.

19. Why all the transformers are having different vector group?
UT and SUT are getting paralleled at 6.6 kV bus. Hence they should have voltage of same phase
relationship. This is achieved by assigning different vector group to the transformers.

20. What are the built in protections for transformers?

a) Buchholz relay
b) Explosion vent or relief valve
c) Gas operated relay for on load tap changers.

21. What is meant by over fluxing of transformer?

When the voltage is increased and the frequency is reduced the transformer will draw high magnetizing
current. This will result in higher core loss and subsequent heating of core and ultimate failure of
transformer. Hence over fluxing protection is provided for the transformer.

22. What is oil reclaiming and reconditioning?

In reclaiming process the oil treated to remove all its impurities like acidity, sludge, sediments, moisture
etc. The treated oil will be in par with the new oil. In reconditioning process (filtering of oil) only moisture
and suspended impurities and sediments are removed.

23. Why there is no mixing of oil of tap changer and transformer?

When the tap changing takes place arc is struck between the contacts. Due to this the oil inside the tap
changer will be highly carbonized. If both oil get mixed up the quality of transformer tank oil will come
down. This is not advisable. Hence both oils are kept separately.

24.Why Tap changers are always connected to HV side of the transformer?

During tap changing action the load current has to be shifted from one tap to another tap. In case HV
winding the loadcurrent will be less. Hence lesser arcing will take place.

25. Explain the test of transformer oil.

Ans-Oil Test : 1. Break down voltage. 2. Water Content. 3. Acidity test. 4. Resistivity
5. Flash point. 6. Sediment & slug 7. Inter facing tension and 8. Ten delta
Dissolved Gas Analysis Test: Hydrogen (8ppm), Oxygen (3580ppm),Mithen(25ppm)
Nitrogen(43274ppm), ethylene(2ppm), Ethen(7ppm), Acetylene(nil) Propylene(5ppm) Carbon
dioxide(2425ppm) and carbon monoxide(157ppm)

26. Why REF is provided in the LV side of SUT and UT?

The LV sides of the two transformers are earthed through the resistance. This will limit the flow of
current in case of LV earth fault. Hence the differential protection may not act for a LV earth fault. Hence
ref protection is provided.

27. What will happen when Tap changed on Generator Transformer?

When you change the tap on the generator step up transformer, you will change the reactive output of
the generator. Remember that reactive (VARS) always flow downhill in voltage - from higher voltage to
lower voltage. So if you change the tap on the transformer to produce a lower open-circuit secondary
voltage, the reactive output of the generator will increase. Conversely, if you change the tap to cause
a higher open-circuit secondary voltage, the reactive output of the generator will decrease.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 24

28. What are the I.S used in transformers?
IS – 1866 FOR MAINTENANCE AND SUPERVISION OF OIL
IS – 10593 FOR GAS ANALYSIS
IS – 1886 FOR INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE

29. When oil filtration is required?

1. On reweaving oil test results. 2. Draining of oil for maintenance
3. Topping up of transformer oil

30. Grounding of various transformers.

GT HV solidly grounded
LV (delta)
UT HV (delta)
LV cast stainless steel 9.95 ohms 400A for 10 seconds.
SUT HV solidly grounded
LV cast stainless steel 9.95 ohms 400A for 10 seconds.

31. What are the protections for GENERATOR TRANSFORMER?

a) Differential protection
b) Restricted earth fault protection
c) Backup earth fault protection
d) GT phase back up protection
e) Over fluxing protection
f) Oil surge (gas) protection
g) Buchholz and high oil, winding temperature protection.

32. What is the purpose of corona ring?

To minimize the arcing current during switching operations of disconnecting
Switches / Isolator.

33. Why motor starting current is high compared to transformer charging current?
Transformer charging current is only 1% and that of motor starting current is 30 to 40%. Because of
air gap between stator and rotor. If the air gap is more load taking capacity increases and if air gap is
less the load taking capacity reduces.

34. Why control transformer is earthed?

If it is not earthed grounding of control circuit at two different places can cause bypassing of logics. In
case of primary and secondary of the control transformer is getting the main fuse will blow off. (If
secondary is not grounded then 415v will be superimposed in the control circuit during short circuit of
primary and secondary winding)

35. What is Tertiary winding?

Ans-It is used in start-star transformers for to stabilize the floating output voltage and reducing the
Harmonics effect (flow & circulation of Third harmonic Current).

36. Why Transformers are rated in KVA?

Ans- In AC system the load bearing capacity of the transformers is varies in according with PF and thus
kW is not a stable rating that is why the are rated in KVA.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 25

37. Transformer Accessories:
Pressure Relief Valve: Fitted on tank to permit venting out of gases form of oil. Protect transformer
tank against explosion.
Conservator: This allows for shrinkage and swelling of transformer oil. When the oil
is heated up it swells and rises to the conservator. When cools down it goes back to
main tank. Conservator reduces sludge formation of oil because only the oil surface
in conservator is exposed to atmosphere where oil in the main tank is not exposed to
atmosphere.(To accommodate the change in volume of oil during increase in temperature.)

Breather: It provides dry sir to conservator when transformer breathes. That is when
there is shrinkage of oil atmospheric air enters conservator through breather. The
moisture is absorbed in breather by silica gel.
Buchholz relay (gas operated): If there is an initial fault, heating up of core, high
resistance joints heating up by conduction through insulation and supports. There is
heating up of oil, which breaks down and gases are released. This gas actuates the
mechanics in the relay, There by closing contacts of mercury switches for alarm.
Also if there is a short circuit, the buchholz relay will trip the transformer. Also if
there is any leakage of oil through bushing etc and oil level comes down the relay
will give alarm and also will trip the transformer if transformer oil level comes down
the point. Gases can be taken from the relay to identify nature of fault.
Explosion vent: It provided on transformer main tank, provided with two Bakelite
diaphragm which break when the pressure exceeds 5 psi in the transformer tank and
relieve the pressure.
Core: To provide low reluctance path for the magnetic lines of force. It carries both
the HV and LV windings.
HV Winding: High voltage is given to HV winding and low voltage is taken from
the LV winding.
LV Winding: Low voltage is given to LV winding and high voltage is taken from the
HV winding.
Cooling tubes: These are provided to cool the transformer oil so that the heat of oil
will be given to the atmosphere.
HT bushing: Carries the HV terminals.
LT bushing: Carries the LV terminals.
Tap changer: this is provided so that we can get the required voltage out put. There
are two types of tap changer. Online tap changer and off line tap changer.

38. Transformer OIL Property as per IS 335. (2.5mm Gap in Oil BDV Test kit)
Ans-The Oil should have a minimum breakdown voltage & Moisture Content as below:
<72.5 KV = BDV 40KV (rms) = 25 ppm moisture content
72.5KV to 145KV = BDV 50KV (rms) = 20 ppm moisture content
>145 KV = BDV 60KV (rms) = 15 ppm moisture content
RST Trans. Setting = Oil Temp Alarm at 95°C & Tripping at 105°C (small Xmer85&95)
Wdg Temp Alarm at 105°C & Tripping at 115°C (small Xmer 95 & 105)

39. What is impedance?

The total opposition offered by an AC circuit for the flow of current through it is
called Impedance. The letter ‘Z’ denotes it and the unit is ohm.
∴ Z= √ R2+(XL ∼ XC)2 (Impedance = Total of Res. offered by Resi, Indu, & cap)
Z = √ R2 + (X) 2
Where ∼ indicates the difference of XL and XC and denoted in the letter X (net
reactance of the AC circuit).

40.What is percentage impedance of Transformer?

Ans-(If trafo is step down) If Transformer secondary is shorted and voltage applied on primary,
observed that full load current flowing trough secondary that percentage of voltage is % of transformer

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 26

impedance. If transformer primary is 11000V and full load current flowing at 1100V that miens 10%
voltage is injected. So that 10% is transformer impedance.

Summary of effect of percentage impedance in a transformer

• More percentage impedance means more impedance voltage
• More percentage impedance means more voltage drop
• More percentage means bad regulation
• More percentage impedance with increase in R only means more copper loss.
• More percentage impedance means less short circuit force.
• More percentage impedance means less load sharing in parallel operation.

41. Transformer Protection :

1. √ 87 - Transformer Differential Protection (7UT613 – SIPROTEC -Siemens )
2. √ 64R - Restricted Earth Fault Protection (7UT613 – SIPROTEC -Siemens)
3. √ 51 - Phase Over Current (7UT613 – SIPROTEC -Siemens )
4. √ 50 – Inst. Over current (7UT613 – SIPROTEC -Siemens )
5. √ 51G – AC Ground O/C (Earth Fault) (7UT613 – SIPROTEC -Siemens)
6. 51 – Phase O/C (7SJ62 – SIPROTEC -Siemens)
7. √ 50 – 51NS – (HV) Ground O/C Standby prot. (7SJ61 – SIPROTEC -Siemens)
8. 21 - Distance Protection (7SA61 – SIPROTEC -Siemens)
9. √ 51N – (HV) Ground O/C prot. (7SA61 – SIPROTEC -Siemens)
10. 50 - Phase O/C (7SA61 – SIPROTEC -Siemens)
11. √ Buchholz Trip, OSR Trip, Sudden Press. Trip, PRD Trip, WTI Trip & OTI Trip.
12. √ 24 - Transformer Over Fluxing

42. Transformer Test:

1. Ratio Test
2. Polarity Test
3. Insulation Resistance (IR) Test
4. Winding Resistance Test
5. Vector Group Test
6. No load loss and current measurement (short ckt & open ckt test)
7. OIL Test for BDV
8. Core Balance Test
9. Ten Delta Measurement & Capacitance dissipation factor
10. Auxiliary loss measurement (Cooling fan)
11. Test on OLTC

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 27

 Fire fighting
1. How combustion takes place?
For combustion to take place three elements are needed. They are fuel, heat and oxygen. This is
called the triangle fire. Combustion can not survive without these three. Remove any one of them,
combustion ceases to take place. So wherever fuel, oxygen and heat is there together combustion
takes place.

2. How many types of extinction media’s are used in fire fighting?

a. Sand. b. Water.
c. Foam. d. Carbon – di – oxide.
e. Dry chemical powder. f. Halons.

3. What are the classifications in fire?

a. Class A – Ordinary fire like burning of paper, wood etc.
b. Class B – Oil fire like burning of petrol, diesel, LPG etc.
c. Class C – Gas and dust fire like burning of butane, acetone, natural gas etc. and
burning of dust like uranium dust, sodium dust etc.
d. Class D – Metal fire like burning of uranium, thorium, sodium etc.
e. Class E – electric fire example transformer or switchgear fire etc.

4. How many types of fire extinguishers are there and state their suitability?
a. Soda acid type – suitable for Class A type of fires.
b. Foam type – suitable for Class A and Class B type of fires.
c. Carbon-di-oxide type – suitable for Class B, Class C and for Class E type of fires.
d. Dry chemical powder – suitable for Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E fires.
e. Halons BCF (bromo chloro difluoro methane) – suitable for Class A, Class B,
Class C and Class E types of fires.

5. At what areas of risk the Co2 flooding system, mulsifyre systems are provided?
Co2 flooding system is provided in diesel generator and turbine oil tank area.
Mulsifyre system is provided in generator transformer, start up transformer and unit transformer
areas.

6. What are the equipments kept inside the hose boxes?

a. Double female adapter (1 No).
b. Delivery hose pipe (50 feet – 2 Nos).
c. Branch pipe (1 No).
d. Valve wheel (1 No).
e. A hose box key (situated in a cabinet at side of hose box).

7. How water is used in a fire?

Water is used as a cooling effect in a fire.
8. How foam is used in a fire?
Foam is used as a blanketing effect in a fire.
9. Which extinguisher you use for electronic equipment fire?
Co2 or DCP type fire extinguisher can be used on fire involving electronic
equipments.
10. What you mean by starvation method?
Starvation method means elimination of fuel from the fire.
11. What is the name of powder used in Dry Chemical Powder extinguisher?
Sodium-bi-carbonate.
12. What you mean by cooling method?
Cooling method means elimination of heat from the fire.
13. What you mean by blanketing method?
Blanketing method means elimination of oxygen from the fire.
14. Why Co2 is used on Class E fire?
Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 28
Co2 is a non-conductor of electricity.
T IT L E : S IN G L E L IN E D IA G R A M W IT H O V E R A L L P R O T E C T IO N D E T A IL
A P P L IC A B L E F O R : 3 0 M W B H E L G T G # 1

33KV BO AR D LEG EN D :

1 . 2 1 A B C - B c k u p im p e d a n c e
3 3 K V /1 1 0 V 2 . 2 4 -T rfo . o v e r flu x in g
3 . 2 7 - U n d e r v o lta g e
4 . 3 2 - R e v e rs e p o w e r
5 . 4 0 - F ie ld fa ilu re
3 3 K V /1 1 0 V
6 . 4 6 - N e g a tiv e p h a s e s e q u e n c e
S Y N C H R O N IS A T IO N 7 . 5 1 V -V o lta g e re s tra in O /C
P1
8 . 5 9 N - N e u tra l d is p la c e m e n t
KBC H 130 HV O /A D IF F .+ R E F 1 2 5 0 /1 A 9 . 5 9 - O v e r v o lta g e
8 7 G T ,6 4 F ,2 4 CL: PS 1 0 . 6 0 - V o lta g e b a la n c e
1 1 . 6 4 S - S ta to r e a rth fa u lt
A L A R M + T R IP M A R S H A L L IN G B O X M E T E R IN G 1 2 . 6 4 R - R o to r e a rth fa u lt

1000/1A
B U C H ,W T I,O T I,P R V ,M O G 1 3 . 6 4 H - T ra fo . R E F
LV1

LV2

REF

O /C + E /F P R T N . 7 S J 5 5 1
1 4 . 7 8 - P o le s lip p in g
3 3 K V B U S D IF F . P R T N . 1 5 . 8 1 U /O u n d e r/o v e r F re q u e n c y
KC G G 110 1 6 . 8 7 G - G e n . d iff.
S /B E F P2 1 7 . 8 7 G T G e n . & T ra fo . O /A d iff.
O/A DIFF.

1 8 . 2 7 /4 0 - L o s s o f fie ld w ith U /V

P2 CT27 CT26 P1

G e n .T ra f: 5 3 M V A
1 1 /3 4 .5 K V
1 2 5 0 /1 A 1 2 5 0 /1 A
CL: PS C L :5 P 2 0 , 3 0 V A Conn. Ynd11
Z = 1 7 .2 3 %

U A T -6 3 0 K V A
C T 2 0 ,2 1 ,2 2

P2 P1 O F F L O A D IS O .

3 0 0 0 /1 A 1 0 0 /1 A
CL: PS C L :5 P 1 5 ,2 0 V A
C T 1 7 ,1 8 ,1 9 LA+SC

P T 7 ,8 ,9
P1 CT23 KCG G 142
U A T O /C a n d 1 1 K V /R o o t3 /1 1 0 V /R o o t3
S /B E /F A V R P T s ,C L :0 .5 ,4 0 V A
1 1 K V /R o o t3 /1 1 0 v /R o o t3
P2 1 0 0 0 /1 A P R O T E C T IO N P T s
C L 5 P 2 0 ,1 5 V A C L :3 P /0 .5 ,1 0 0 V A

P T 1 ,2 ,3
1 1 K V /R o o t3 /1 1 0 V /R o o t3
M E T . P T s ,C L :0 .2 ,1 0 0 V A
P T 4 ,5 ,6

P2
C T 1 1 ,1 2 ,1 3
MET. CTs
F R O M P C C -4 AVR M E T E R IN G
3 0 0 0 /1 A
C L : 0 .2 , 6 0 V A

CT10
3 0 0 0 /1 A
415V M CC C L : 0 .5 ,4 0 V A
VTU21
O NLY Yph
59
CDG 31 CDG 31
O /C O /C
V T IG M
C T 7 ,8 ,9 2 7 /4 0
G E N . D IF F .

3 0 0 0 /1 A
CL: PS
P1
Voltage Balance+Reverse Power
For Reverse Power- Rph only

MW TU
32R
P
30M W
M
GEN. MZTU
G 21ABC

EXTR DW GF

CTU12
5 1 -1 G
P2 C T 4 ,5 ,6
G E N . D IF F .

3 0 0 0 /1 A YTGM
CL: PS
78G Y
7U R
CT1,2,3

64R
C T 1 ,2 ,3 LG PG 111
ALL PRTN. 2 7 ,3 2 R ,4 0 ,4 6 ,5 1 V ,5 9 ,5 9 N
ZTO 11
( 6 4 S 1 ) ,6 0 ,8 1 U /O ,8 7 G 78G
3 0 0 0 /1 A
CL: 5P15

C T 1 4 ,1 5 ,1 6
O /A D IF F . 3 0 0 0 /1 A
CL: PS
P1

NGT
1 1 K V /2 0 0 V , 1 P H R PVM M 163
3 6 K V A F O R 1 0 m in . 64S2

0 - 9 5 % & 9 5 - 1 0 0 % S T A .W D G . P R T N .
R = 0 .7 o h m
1 6 5 A fo r 1 0 m in .

S .H . S O L A N K I J .G . D H A B A L IA S. DASGUPTA
R E V IS IO N : 0 D A T E O F IS S U E : 0 5 /1 2 /2 0 0 1
PREPARED BY CHECKED BY APPROVED BY

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 29

 GENERATOR PROTECTION INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the protections of the machine is to protect the generator against electrical faults coming from
the generator itself (internal fault), or from the grid (external fault) : short-circuit, earth fault and so on.
The protections must be fast and selective, fast to avoid any physical damage to the machine, selective to
ensure a continuous production on the grid.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF FAULT

• Internal faults :
• earth fault
• fault between phases
• fault between coil turns of a same phase
• unbalance
• loss of excitation
• rotor earth fault
• over or under excitation
• heating

• External faults :
• Earth fault
• overload or fault between phases
• unbalanced loads
• over or under voltage
• over or under frequency
• mechanical fault (turbine,…)
•
• Excitation faults:
• Rotating diodes fault
• Min. & max. excitation faults
•
THE DIFFERENT ACTIONS

• Trip of the generator breaker whatever the fault : directly connected from the protection panel to the
breaker panel
• Trip of the excitation contactor whatever the fault : internal to the panel
• To the turbine : 3 signals
1) an alarm signal (without any trip ) : first treshold
2) an alarm signal to indicate that the protection panel tripped the generator breaker (and
the excitation too)
3) a trip signal to shutdown the turbine

In Jerp Gas turbine is having Two G60A/B protective relay for generator related fault & T60A/B for MSU (Main
step up ) Transformer related fault .Also lockout relay

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 30

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 31
Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 32
 ANSI code Protection Relais Fournisse
27 under voltage SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
32 reverse active power SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
40 loss of excitation SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
46 negative sequence SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
50 max. instantaneous current SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
51 max. delayed current SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
51N max. earth cuurent SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
59 overvoltage SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
59N neutral displacement SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
64 F rotor earth fault TTE 7017/15 CEE
81 over-under frequency SEPAM 2000 Merlin-Ge
87 differential protection DMS 7001 CEE
76 Min.-Max. excitation VC 603 Camille-B
94 F rotating diodes fault DDAE Bassler
F78 loss of synchronism TP 231 Alstom
49 thermal overload RDSY Technirel
51V max. current voltage restraint FTT 7111 CEE
25A Synchrocoupleur SPM 21 Microener
25M Synchro-check T5000 10 AMI Selco

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 33

Protection Responsibility

The operating limits specified by the manufacturer may be inadvertently exceeded for a number of reasons.
These include, among others:

• internal generator failure

• auxiliary equipment failure
• operator error
• abnormal system conditions

The protection methods and equipment in place should be able to safely protect the generator no matter
which of these circumstances, or combination of them, causes the abnormal operation.

OPERATION OF GENERATOR

Protection and Alarms

Those protective relays or devices that trip the generator should alert an operator as to the cause of any
trip, and be able to take direct action if this should prove necessary. In addition to the tripping relays there
are other relays or devices that initiate only an alarm or data logging. In these cases it becomes an operator’s
responsibility to decide what corrective action is required and to take it.

Alarms

Many of the “alarm only” devices are for temperature measurement. These are Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs) and Thermocouples (TCs).

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 34

Protection when Generator is Off Line

The need for protecting a generator while on line is well known, but the need when off line may not be as
well understood. Nevertheless, there are circumstances under which a generator could be damaged while
off line. For this reason, it is recommended that, as a general rule, all alarms and protections be kept
operative at all times. Exceptions to this rule are those protections which would mis-operate or give false
signals when the unit is below rated speed, not excited, or not synchronized. Relaying and interlocking
circuitry that operates when the unit is off line should be reviewed to make certain it does not inadvertently
incapacitate any essential protection.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 35

 Tripping Methods
There are a number of ways a turbine-generator, or a generator alone, may be tripped, i.e., disconnected
from the system or shut down. Some of the factors that should be considered in determining
what type of trip to use for each fault requiring one are:
• severity of fault to generator
• probability of fault spreading
• amount of overspeed resulting
• probability of high overspeed
• importance of removing excitation
• need for maintaining auxiliary power
• need for shutting down the unit
• time required to resynchronize
• effect on the power system

Protective Actions for Generator Faults

1. Simultaneous trip – (Trip-1)

trips the turbine valves closed, opens generator line breakers and removes excitation simultaneously, as
with a lock-out relay. A simultaneous trip is acceptable for all generator faults, and generally provides the
highest degree of protection for the turbine-generator although it does permit a small over speed and there
is a slight probability of high over speed.

2. Generator trip – (Trip-2)

opens the generator line breakers and removes excitation simultaneously, but leaves the turbine running
near rated speed. Where maintaining speed is not harmful, this provides as high a degree of protection for
the generator as a simultaneous trip (Type 1). If the plant can operate following a full load rejection, and if
the cause of the trip can be identified and rectified quickly, it may make synchronization possible in a shorter
time than Type 1. Since it does result in a higher over speed than Type 1, it should only be used when there
is an advantage in not tripping the turbine.

3. Breaker trip – (Trip-3)

trips all generator line breakers but not the excitation or the turbine. This trip has advantages similar to the
generator trip w hen the fault permits excitation to remain applied. Its advantage over Type 2 is that it
provides auxiliary power in cases where this cannot be switched to another bus. If this is not an advantage,
Types 2 or 1 should be used.

4. Sequential trip –(Trip-4)

trips the turbine first. When the turbine inlet valve limit switches indicate the Valves are closed, and the
recommended reverse power relay (or function) operates, normally after a three-second delay, the generator
line breakers are tripped. Opening of the breakers then trips excitation. This trip should prevent any
overspeed and thus is preferred whenever the risk from a three-second delay in tripping the generator is
slight. It is also preferred for most faults in the turbine or steam generator. Its disadvantage is that certain
multiple limitswitch failures, or a reverse power relay failure, would prevent completing the trip. Although
this probability is small, a second reverse power relay, with a 10 to 30 second time delay, connected to
produce a Type 1 simultaneous trip, is recommended as a back-up. This back-up relay also serves as the
primary protection for motoring which does not occur as part of a sequential trip.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 36

5. Manual trip –(Trip-5)
turbine is tripped manually. When generator power reverses, reverse power relay trips generator line
breakers. Breaker opening trips excitation. This trip is recommended whenever an operator sees the need
for a fault trip and is not certain that a runback and trip (Type 6) will be fast enough. Note that Type 5 is
actually a manually initiated sequential trip.
NOTE
There are no cases for which manually tripping the generator breakers is recom-mended.
This is because the generator breakers should not normally be tripped until after the turbine has been tripped
and power has reversed. Then the generator breakers should be automatically tripped by the reverse power
relay. A protected bypass switch may be used to permit manually tripping the generator alone in case of
limit-switch or reverse power relay failure. A manual generator breaker trip should only be used with full
recognition of the risk involved.

6. Manual runback and trip – (Trip-6)

manually decreases turbine output to low level or to zero, followed By the turbine (sequential) trip. This is
the “normal” trip, which is preferred for all normal shutdowns. It is also recommended for trips required by
alarms w hen the operator judges a Type 5 manual trip is not essential.

7. Automatic runback – (Trip-7)

reduces load (via turbine control) at a preset rate to a preset load. It is Recommended here only for loss of
stator coolant (if required). It is an alternative to tripping the unit, and permits continuing on line at a very
low load. When it can be used, it has the advantage of enabling earlier return to full load if the trouble can
be quickly corrected.

8. Manual runback – (Trip-8)

manually reduces load at a rate and to a level determined by operator. This is useful for some faults which
may be load sensitive, such as local overheating, and where there is no need to trip immediately. It also
allows the generator to continue to supply reactive power to the system.

. Protection Recommendations

1. Stator Overcurrent

a. Description
Generators are designed to operate continuously at rated kVA, frequency and power
factor over a range of 95 to 105% of rated voltage. Operation beyond rated kVA may re
sult in harmful stator overcurrent. Note that at rated kVA, 95% voltage, stator current will
be 105%. This is permissible.

Normally, generator load is under the control of an operator. Situations can arise during
System disturbances, such as accompanying generator or line tripouts, which can result
in an overcurrent condition. For short times, it is permissible to exceed the current corresponding to rated
kVA. This Capability is specified in ANSI Standard C50.13 as follows:

Time (seconds) 10 30 60 120

Armature current (percent) 226 154 130 116

b. Detection
Stator current should be monitored by an operator, and kept within rated value by
Adjustment of the turbine-generator controls.
A consequence of over current is stator winding overheating, which should be detected by winding
temperature detectors, usually TCs measuring stator cooling water temperature, and/or RTD’s in slots with
the stator winding (if applicable). All functioning TCs and RTDs should be continuously monitored and
alarmed .How ever, even though it may not result in excessive stator winding temperatures, operating above

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 37

specified currents is not an acceptable practice since unmonitored phenomena, such as temperatures in
other parts of the stator circuit,winding forces, abnormal magnetic fields,

c. Recommendation
Automatic tripping is not provided for protection against stator over current. In cases when a generator will
operate in an unattended station. An alternative is stator
over temperature which provides similar protection.

2. Stator Ground Fault

a. Description
The generator stator neutral normally operates at a potential close to ground, generally
Through a high impedance grounding transformer/resistor. In some cases a reactor is
used in a resonant grounding arrangement. Should a phase winding or any equipment
connected to it fault to ground, the normally low neutral voltage could rise as high as lineto-neutral voltage,
depend-ing on fault location. Although a single ground fault w ill not necessarily cause immediate damage,
the presence of one increases the probability of a second. This is because the occurrence of such a fault is
probably the result of damage which is not confined to one spot. In fact, the existence of a ground fault
through tough, high-voltage insulation is usually a result of another, potentially catastrophic, trouble. A
second fault, even if detected by differential relays, may cause serious damage. A second fault in the same
phase will not be detected by differential relays, and could cause serious damage as a result.

b. Detection
The usual method of detection is by a voltage relay across the grounding resistor. A
current relay is sometimes used in place of a voltage relay or as a back-up. The relay
should be insensitive to third harmonic voltage, but should have as low a pick-up level at
line frequency as is practical to reduce the unprotected zone at the neutral end of the
windings. Methods are available w hich are designed to protect the entire winding. These schemes make
use of the relationship of third harmonic voltages at the line and neutral terminals of the generator. These
schemes supplement the fundamental frequency protection.

c. Recommendations
The grounding impedance should limit the ground fault current to less than 25 amperes.
The usual criterion based on circuit capacitance w ill normally result in less than 10
amperes. The stator ground fault relay should be connected to trip the unit within several
seconds, using a si-multaneous trip,

3. Stator Phase-to-Phase Fault

a. Description
A stator phase-to-phase fault is any electrical fault between two phases of the armature
winding. This type of fault is very serious because very large currents can flow and produce large amounts
of damage to the winding if allowed to persist. Because of the nature of the construction of the armature it
is very likely that this type of fault will grow to include ground, thereby causing significant damage to the
stator core.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 38

b. Detection
It is possible to detect a phase-to-phase fault in the winding by means of a differential relay. This method
provides protection for the entire winding, and its sensitivity is limited mainly by the degree to which the
various current transformers are matched. The differential relay method cannot protect against a fault within
one phase of the winding. Such a turn-to-turn fault can only be detected by the resulting armature current
unbalance. However, such faults are rare and will usually include ground, in which case they will be detected
by the stator ground fault relay.

c. Recommendations
Upon detection of a phase-to-phase fault in the winding, it is imperative that the unit be
Tripped without delay, using a simultaneous (Type 1) trip.

4. Over-Voltage

a. Description
Per missible voltage limits under various operating conditions are given in the Generator
Operation instructions (Ref. 1). It is normally an operator’s responsibility to maintain voltage (and the
corresponding kVA) w ithin specified limits. With turbine-generators it is unlikely that voltage w ill depart
significantly from the preset value. If it does, due to a regulator failure or a system disturbance, a trip signal
will usually be produced by one of the protective relays, such as volts/Hertz or maximum excitation limit.

b. Recommended Action
Therefore, specific over-voltage protection is generally not required for the generator. Depending on the
circumstances, it may be desirable to protect other equipment connected to the generator. For unmanned
generating stations, consideration should by given to implementing automatic overvoltage protection.

5. Volts Per Hertz

a. Description
Per unit voltage divided by per unit frequency, commonly called volts/Hertz, is a readily
Measurable quantity that is proportional to flux in the generator and step-up transformer cores.Moderate
overfluxing (105%–110%) increases core loss, elevating core temperatures for all generator designs and
armature temperatures for generators with conventionally cooled stator windings. Long term operation at
elevated temperatures can shorten the life of the stator insulation systems. More severe overfluxing (above
110%) further increases core loss, and saturates portions of the core to the point that flux flows out into
adjacent structures. The resulting induced voltages can be coupled to stator punchings due to the manner
in which cores are assembled and clamped. Severe overfluxing can breakdown interlaminar insulation,
follow ed by rapid local core melting. Over-volts/Hertz can be caused by regulator failure, load rejection w
hile under control of The dc regulator, or excessive excitation w ith the generator off line. It can also result
from decreasing speed while the ac regulator or the operator attempts to Maintain rated stator voltage.

b. Detection
Volts per Hertz is calculated in a static circuit incorporated in a volts/Hertz relay or sensor. Timing circuits
are also incorporated. The volts/Hertz sensor is normally included as part of the excitation system.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 39

c. Recommendation
Even though over-volts/Hertz is more likely to occur when off line, it can also occur when on line. For this
reason the volts/Hertz protection should be in operation whenever excitation is applied. In view of the
potential consequences it is prudent to provide as conservative protection as possible consistent with
security from false tripping. Selection of a modest maximum trip level of above 118%, coupled with a 2
second time delay satisfies these objectives. A load rejection from full rated KVA, rated power factor and
105% of rated voltage will not result in tripping if an automatic voltage regulator is in service. Operation at
118% should be limited not to exceed 45 seconds. The curve shape from 118 to 110% V/Hz approximates
the overexcitation capability of many transformers (for stepup and station service power applications).
However if the transformers require lower values, the protective relays should be set accordingly.
Continuous operation above 105% V/Hz is not sanctioned and an alarm function should be provided to alert
the operator that corrective action is needed. The excitation control limiter (if applicable) should be set to
prevent continuous operation above 109%. The trip signal should produce a simultaneous trip, Type 1, or a
generator trip, Type 2.

6. Field Overexcitation

a. Description
The generator field winding is designed to operate continuously at a current equal to that Required to
produce rated kVA at rated conditions. In addition, higher currents are permitted for short times, to permit
field forcing during transient conditions. These limits are specified in terms of a curve of field voltage vs. time
defined by the following points in ANSI Standard C50.13-1977:
Time (seconds) 10 30 60 120
Field voltage (percent) 208 146 125 112

b. Detection
Most excitation systems now being furnished include a Maximum Excitation Limit function. Its purpose is to
prevent prolonged field overcurrent by recalibrating the current regulator, transferring to another regulator,
and, finally, producing a trip signal, as required.

c. Recommendation
The owner’s responsibility with respect to this function is to see that the Maximum Excitation Limit is properly
adjusted and maintained, and properly connected to trip the unit when required. Protection Type 4,
sequential trip, or Type 1, simultaneous trip, is recommended. For high response exciters, a Type 1 trip may
be required to avoid rapid overheating of the field should the exciter stay at ceiling for an extended period
of time. In such cases a sequential trip w ould take too long. Since loss of potential transformer signal to the
voltage regulator is one cause of field overcurrent, relaying to detect this situation and automatic transfer to
another regulator is suggested. Sensing and transfer functions are part of most modern excitation systems.

7. Field Ground

a. Description
The generator field winding is electrically isolated from ground. Therefore the existence of One ground fault
in the w inding will usually not damage the rotor. However, the presence of two or more grounds in the
winding will cause magnetic and thermal imbalances plus localized heating and damage to the rotor forging
or other metallic parts. Unfortunately, the presence of the first ground fault makes detection of a second fault
difficult, if not impossible. In addition, modern rotor winding insulation systems have achieved a level of
quality that reduces the likelihood of a field ground except under unusual circumstances where the
probability of occurrence of a second ground or other serious problem is high.

b. Detection
The relay necessary to detect a field ground is normally supplied w ith the excitation system.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 40

c. Recommendation
It is recommended that the field ground detector be connected to produce a sequential trip, Type 4.
Alternatively, a runback, Type 6, or simultaneous trip, Type 1, may be used.

8. Loss of Excitation

a. Description
Loss of excitation (or loss of field) results in loss of synchronism and operation of the Generator as an
induction machine. This will result in the flow of slip frequency currents in the rotor body, wedges, and
armature windings (if so equipped), as well as severe torque oscillations in the rotor shaft. The rotor is not
designed to sustain such currents, nor is the turbine-generator shaft designed to long withstand the
alternating torques. The result can be rotor overheating, coupling slippage and even rotor failure. The length
of time before serious damage occurs depends on the generator load at the time of the incident, slip
frequency, and whether the field winding is open circuited or shorted, and may be a matter of seconds. A
loss of excitation normally indicates a problem with the excitation system which, Depending on its nature,
could be serious (e.g., collector ring flashover, if so equipped). Because of the VARs absorbed to make up
for the low or lost excitation, some systems cannot tolerate the continued operation of a generator without
excitation. Consequently, if the generator is not disconnected immediately when it loses excitation,
widespread instability may very quickly develop, and major system shut-down may occur.

b. Detection
Since loss of excitation results in a marked change in reactive kVA, a loss of excitation relay of the
impedance or mho type is usually used (Ref. 6).

c. Recommendation
The generator should be tripped from the power system, using a simultaneous trip (Type 1), or a generator
trip (Type 2). It is important that all excitation pow er be removed. It should not be assumed that, since there
is loss of excitation, the exciter is not supplying power to an internal fault.

9. Unbalanced Armature Currents

a. Description
When the generator is supplying an unbalanced load, the phase currents and terminal Voltages deviate from
the ideal balanced relationship, and a negative phase sequence armature current (I2) is imposed on the
generator. The negative sequence current in the armature winding creates a magnetic flux wave in the air
gap which rotates in opposition to the rotor at synchronous speed. This flux induces currents in the rotor
body iron, wedges, retaining rings and armature windings, if so equipped, at twice the line frequency.
Heating occurs in these areas and the resulting temperatures depend upon the level and duration of the
unbalanced currents. Under some conditions, it is possible to reach temperatures at w hich the rotor
materials no longer contain the centrifugal forces imposed on them, resulting in serious damage to the
turbine-generator set (Ref. 11). There is always some low level unbalance in any power system and
therefore limits on the continuous unbalance have been established. For currents above the permissible
continuous levels, a limit on the time-integral of I2 has been established for times up to 120 seconds. Such
levels w ill often result from faults, open lines or breaker failures. where I2 is the per unit negative sequence
current on the generator base and it is the time in seconds.

b. Detection
The protection scheme should be designed such that it will permit negative sequence Currents up to the
continuous limit, but produce a trip signal if the level exceeds this value long enough to reach the permissible
I2 2t limit (Ref 13). It is also desirable to alert an operator when I2 exceeds a normal level, which may be
lower than the permissible continuous negative sequence current. This enables him to adjust load in order
to prevent a trip. Ref. 1 describes in more detail the actions an operator may take.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 41

c. Recommendations
A negative sequence relay, similar to that described above, should be used on all units. It Should be
arranged to cause a breaker trip, Type 3, generator trip, Type 2, or a simultaneous trip, Type 1.

10. Loss of Synchronism

a. Description
Loss of synchronism, also referred to as out-of-step operation or pole slipping, can occur as a result of
steady-state transient or dynamic instability. It also may occur as a result of loss of excitation or
synchronizing errors.

b. Detection
The majority of users do not apply specific loss-of-synchronization relaying. However, a skilled relay
engineer can adjust impedance relaying to reliably detect loss of synchronism. Loss of excitation relays may
provide detection, but cannot be relied upon under all conditions. If the electrical center during loss of
synchronism is in the transmission system, line relays may detect it. If they do not, specific relaying should
be provided.

c. Recommendation
Out-of-step operation can result in pulsating torques and winding stresses and high rotor iron currents that
are potentially damaging to the generator. Excessive stator winding and core end heating can also result if
the out-of-step operation is caused by reduced or lost excitation. Therefore, it is recommended that the
generator be separated from the system without delay, preferably during the first slip cycle. A breaker trip,
Type 3, is recommended, and permits the fastest resynchronization after conditions have stabilized.

11. Abnormal Frequency Operation

a. Description
For a generator connected to a power system, abnormal frequency operation is a result of a severe system
disturbance. An isolated or unconnected unit could operate at low or high frequency due to improper speed
control adjustment or misoperation of the speed control.There are two effects to be considered. The
generator can tolerate underfrequency operation for long periods, provided load and voltage are sufficiently
reduced, The generator can also tolerate overfrequency operation provided voltage is within an Acceptable
range.

B Recommendation
For the generator, specific protection for abnormal frequency operation is not required. However, the turbine
is very sensitive to abnormal frequencies and recommendations given for it should be carefully studied and
followed (Ref. 24, 25). Detection of abnormal frequency operation may also be used to identify system
problems.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 42

12. Breaker Failure

a. Description
Since most faults involving the generator require tripping of the generator/line breakers, Failure of any of
them to open properly results in loss of protection and/or other problems, such as motoring. If one or two
poles of a generator line breaker fail to open, the result can be a single-phase load on the generator and
negative sequence currents on the rotor.

b. Detection
Both types of failure described above will cause conditions that may be detected by other Protective devices,
e.g., reverse power, loss of synchronism or negative sequence relays. However, a more direct method is
the use of Breaker Failure Protection (BFP) which is energized when the breaker trip is initiated. After a
suitable time interval, if confirmation of breaker tripping in all three lines is not received, a signal is generated.

c. Recommendation
Industry past practice has not always recognized the need for breaker failure protection Because of the
reliability of line breakers. How ever, it is recommended that BFP be used with all tripping relays that can
trip a generator line breaker. The BFP signal should trip all line breakers that can feed current to the
generator through the failed breaker

13. System Back-Up

a. Description
System back-up protection is also known as external fault back-up protection. As this name implies, it is
used to protect the generator from supplying short circuit current to a fault in an adjacent system element
because of a primary relaying failure

b. Detection
Either voltage restrained or current restrained inverse-time over current or distance relays May be used,
depending on the kind of relaying with which the back-up relays must be selective. Negative sequence
relays, in addition to their primary protective role, are sometimes considered for system back-up protection.
How ever, these will not provide protection against balanced faults.

c. Recommendation
System back-up protection is recommended. The relays should be connected to trip the
unit, using a breaker trip (Type 3), or simultaneous trip (Type 1).

14. Voltage Surges

a. Description
Certain abnormal conditions could occur which might subject the generator to high voltages surges. Among
these are:
• Switching surges from circuit breakers at generator voltage
• Positive and negative surges arriving simultaneously on two phases
• Ineffective direct stroke shielding
• Failure of high side surge protective equipment
• Accidental connection between high and low side transformer windings, due to internal failure, external
flashover or other cause.

The latter category is not a normal protective function of low voltage arrestors and would Subject them to
excessive duty which could cause their failure. In view of the potential personnel hazard in the event of surge
arrestor failure, the user should consider physically isolating the surge arrestor cubicles and limiting access
to them.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 43

b. Recommendation
To provide protection for these and similar situations, surge arrestors are recommended for all units. Surge
capacitors are generally not required for machines with single-turn coils. They are provided on some
packaged generators where optional installation of surge capacitors close to the surge arrestors would not
be convenient. Application of LCI (load commutated inverters) for turbine-generator starting may also
obviate the use of surge capacitors on multi-turn coil machines. Optimal protection requires surge protection
be located in close proximity to the generator terminals.

15. Transmission Line Switching

a. Description
The switching of transmission lines at or near generating stations for maintenance purposes, or simply
restoring a line to service after a relayed trip out, are recognized as normal functions in the course of
operating a power system. In some cases these line switching operations can subject nearby generating
units to excessive duty. The effect on the generator in severe cases is the same as for poor synchronizing
in causing possible stator winding and shaft fatigue damage.

b. Detection
A measure of the severity of a switching event is the sudden step change in power (P) seen by the
generator at the instant of switching. As a general guide, studies have shown that where P does not exceed
0.5 per unit on the generator kVA base the duty w ill be negligible Values of P greater than 0.5 per unit
may be determined to be non-harmful to the generator, for specific units and system switching events, but
these cases should be carefully studied and identified. Predetermination of duties associated w ith line-
switching operations and operating Procedures which limit these duties to acceptable values can be found
from simulating these operations, using a computer program such as that normally used for stability
studies

c. Recommendation
The recommended procedure for avoiding excessive duty for the normal planned line switching operation is
to establish, where necessary, operating procedures which limit the machine P to either the general 0.5
per unit level or an individually determined level for that unit. As an adjunct to established operating
procedures, phase angle check relays at key breaker locations can prevent line closings under
circumstances predetermined to be excessive. Note, however, that such check relays should not be applied
without reliable means of overriding which would permit necessary line closing operations under emergency
circumstances.

16. High Speed Reclosing

a. Description
High speed reclosing of transmission circuits directly out of generating stations or electrically close to the
station may cause significant shaft fatigue damage to the turbine generator unit, particularly where high
speed reclosing following severe multi-phase faults is permitted .The actual fatigue duty which a unit may
experience during its lifetime from this cause depends on many factors, including both the unit’s and the
system’s characteristics, the frequency of fault occurrence, etc. Studies substantiate that significant shaft
damage could occur with un-successful reclosing for close-in three phase faults.

b. Recommendation
In order to eliminate or reduce the potential effects of unrestricted high speed reclosing of Lines near
generating stations, an alternative reclosing practice such as one of the following is recom-mended:
• Delayed reclosing, with a delay of 10 seconds or longer.
• Sequential reclosing, i.e., reclose initially only from the remote end of the line and block closing at the
station if the fault persists. This is recommended only if the remote end of the line is not electrically near
other turbine-generator units.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 44

• Selective reclosing, i.e., high speed reclosing only for the less severe faults such as single line-to-ground;
delayed reclosing on others. Other relaying practices providing selectivity on the basis of fault severity would
also be effective in reducing shaft fatigue duty. Where such alternative reclosing practices are not
considered acceptable to the user, it is recommended that either:
1) Detailed studies be performed to determine the probable lifetime fatigue damage which might be
experienced for the reclosing practice contemplated, or
2) Torsional monitoring equipment be installed to determine the accumulated fatigue damage being incurred.

17. Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR)

a. Description
When a turbine-generator is connected to a transmission network that has series capacitor compensation
or a high voltage dc (HVDC) transmission system, it is possible to develop subsynchronous (under line
frequency) current oscillations in the lines and in the generator armature. In the case of series compensated
ac systems, these currents interact with the synchronously rotating flux to produce torque pulsation on the
generator rotor. If these pulsations are at a frequency close to one of the torsional natural frequencies of the
turbine-generator, high levels of torsional vibration can be induced in the shafts. Torsional instability of the
turbine-generator shaft system has the potential for being extremely damaging to the turbine-generator
shafts. A more recently observed phenomenon in-volves interaction between torsional modes and HVDC
controls. This could lead to an unstable situation, resulting in spontaneous grow th of torsional vibrations
and potential damage to the shaft.

b. Detection
Unstable or high levels of torsional vibration may be detected by observing the variations In angular velocity
of the turbine-generator. A common measuring system involves a toothed wheel, a magnetic pickup and a
frequency demodulator. Strain gauge telemetry systems have also been utilized in short-term tests to detect
shaft torsional oscillations. Indirect methods of identifying sub synchronous resonance steady-state
instability problems involve monitoring generator electrical terminal quantities. The armature current
.
c. Responsibility for Detection
It should be understood by those utilities that utilize series capacitor compensation, or Have HVDC
transmission in their system, that the potential for damaging torsional vibrations is a consequence of the
special electrical characteristics of the transmission network. It is, therefore, the owner’s responsibility to
implement devices to detect, and protect the machine from, the influences of subsynchronous torsional
interaction. In the case of HVDC transmission lines, the potential for interaction between the HVDC controls
and the turbine-generator rotor system needs to be accounted for in HVDC control design. VATECH HYDRO
has worked closely with many utilities on system studies to define the requirements for protective devices
on particular systems.

1) A static sub synchronous resonance filter (static blocking filter)

2) A supplementary excitation damping control (excitation system damper)
3) A machine frequency relay (armature current frequency relay)
4) A torsional vibration monitor

In addition, generators that are applied for use in series capacitor compensated systems or systems
containing HVDC transmission are sometimes furnished with pole-face armature windings. The addition of
pole-face armature windings does not necessarily enhance negative sequence capability. The function of
armature windings is to reduce the machine electrical resistance in the sub synchronous frequency range,
which reduces the potential for torsional interaction at sub synchronous frequencies.

d. Recommendation
It is vital that the electric utility work closely with the manufacturer at the planning stage to

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 45

Define the need for auxiliary equipment to protect the machine. This equipment, if required, needs to be
operational when the machine is first connected to the network containing series Capacitor compensated
and/or HVDC transmission lines. It needs to be highly reliable, as misoperation could result in major machine
failure.

18. Inadvertent Energization

a. Description
When a generator is energized three-phase while at standstill or reduced speed, it will behave and
accelerate as an induction motor. The equivalent machine impedance during the high slip interval can be
represented by negative sequence reactance (X2 ) in series with negative sequence resistance (R2). The
machine terminal voltage and current during this interval will be a function of generator, transformer and
system impedances. If the generator-transformer is connected to an infinite system, the machine currents
will be high (several per unit), and conversely, if the unit is connected to a weak system, the machine current
could be low (1–2 per unit). During the period the machine is accelerating, high currents will be induced in
the rotor and the time to damage may be on the order of a few seconds. A number of generators have been
accidentally energized while at standstill or very low speed. While many have survived the experience with
minor damage, others have not.

b. Detection
While there are several generator zone relays that may detect this contingency, their Performance may be
marginal. Therefore, the preferred approach is to provide detection means specifically designed for this
purpose. One such method is to use overcurrent relays that are armed by a speed relay when the generator
is off line.

c. Recommendation
It is recommended that the detection scheme described above be used to protect every generator. To
prevent damage to the rotor, stator bearings, etc., it is desirable that high speed protection be provided for
this contingency. The relaying should be connected to trip the main generator breaker, trip any breakers
which could feed current to the generator if breaker failure is detected, and be so implemented that it is
never taken out of service when the unit is shut down for any purpose, even with the rotor removed.

19. Bearing Vibration

a. Description
High vibration (as defined below) on a generator is a symptom of a problem. There are
many possible causes of vibration, including:
• Unbalance, • Misalignment
• Thermal sensitivity • Damaged bearings
• Oil whip • Rubbing
• Bent overhangs • Out-of-round journals or collectors
• Stiffness dissymmetry.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 46

b. Detection
All bearings are normally provided with vibration detectors and recorders. Either velocity probes, proximity
probes, or both are used. These permit recording and monitoring of ^ vibration, and alarming and/or tripping
at predetermined levels of vibration. The vibration recorders do not provide the frequency spectrum
information which could be useful in determining the cause of the vibration. This information must be
obtained with a portable vibration analyzer.

c. Recommendation
For both generator and alternator bearings provided with proximity probes, the table below summarizes
recommendations for various levels of shaft vibration. The vibration levels are given in mils [mm], peak-to-
peak, unfiltered. For generators provided with velocity probes which monitor endshield or pedestal Deflection
in the vicinity of the bearing, the alarm level is 0.5 in/sec, and the trip level is 1in/sec.

20. Synchronizing Errors

a. Description
Improper synchronizing of units to the line may occur for a number of reasons. The most Severe of these
results from incorrect connection of potential transformer or synchronizing aids such that gross out-of-phase
synchronizing, such as a 120° error, may occur. A failure of automatic synchronizing equipment may also
result in large synchronizing errors. While turbine-genera-tors are designed to withstand these rare
occurrences without catastrophic results, provided stator current does not exceed the three-phase short
circuit value, they can result in damage, such as slipped couplings, with resulting high vibration, loosened
stator windings, and fatigue damage to the shaft and other mechanical parts Careless synchronizing, w hile
generally a less severe incident, may, on an accumulated basis, have the same result.

The following synchronizing limits are recommended to avoid damaging effects:

• Breaker closing within _ 10° (electrical angle)
• Voltage matching within 0 to +5%,
• Slip slower than 10 seconds per slip cycle for manual synchronization.
• Slip slower than 6 seconds per slip cycle for automatic synchronization.

b. Detection
A severe out-of-phase synchronizing incident will be evident from the physical effects of Noise and turbine-
generator foundation vibration. In addition, a tripout may result from the Vibration trips or from electrical
protective relays. Poor synchronizing routine is less evident but would be observable by the synchroscope
and an oscillation of electrical quantities (power, VARs) subsequent to the synchronizing.

c. Recommendations
Careful checking of circuits during initial installation or equipment change out and the establishment of well-
adhered-to procedures for manual synchronizing are key elements in minimizing out-of-phase synchronizing
incidents. A Synch Check function should monitor manual synchronizing to prevent large errors Automatic
synchronizing relays can provide very high accuracy. Where such relays are used, however, it is important
that a check function be applied to provide an independent back-up. Failure of the primary relays to perform
should be alarmed, since this might otherwise not be noticed.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 47

21. Motoring

a. Description
Motoring of a generator will occur when turbine output is reduced such that it develops less than no-load
losses while the generator is still on line. Assuming excitation is sufficient, the generator will operate as a
synchronous motor driving the turbine. The generator will not be harmed by synchronous motoring, but, if it
occurs as a result of failure to complete a sequential trip, protection for the fault originating that trip is lost.
In addition, a steam turbine can be harmed through overheating during synchronous motoring.If field
excitation is lost, along with turbine output, the generator will run as an induction motor, driving the turbine.
In addition to possible harm to the turbine, this will produce slip-frequency currents in the rotor and could
cause it to overheat if continued long enough.A third type of motoring occurs when the generator is
accidentally energized when at low speed. This is discussed separately under “Accidental Energization”.

b. Detection
Motoring following loss of turbine output can be detected with a reverse power relay. To Avoid false trips
due to power swings, a time-delay pick-up of 10 to 30 seconds is suggested. This is the backup relay
suggested in the description of Trip 4 – sequential trip. Measurement of very low pow er levels at very low
power factors will require relatively high precision. Reduction in reactive power flow in the generator will
reduce the requirement for high precision. This may be accomplished through control action of the excitation
system or by operator action.

c. Recommendation
It is recommended that the reverse power relay referred to above be used and connected to produce a Type
1, simultaneous trip. Alternatively, a Type 2 generator trip or Type 3 breaker trip could be used. Breaker
Failure Protection should be initiated, since line breaker failure may be the cause of the motoring.

22. Stator Over temperature

a. Description
Stator overheating may result from over current operation, improper gas pressure or purity (if applicable),
gas or water cooling system malfunction, internal cooling passage blockage, etc.

b. Detection
Armature bar temperatures are monitored by either TCs measuring stator cooling water temperature and/or
RTD’s in the stator slots (if applicable). All functioning RTDs and TCs should be constantly monitored and
alarmed As pointed out in the stator overcurrent section, these temperature detectors do not provide
complete protection against damage due to overcurrent operation, because temperatures in other parts of
the winding, winding forces, abnormal magnetic fields, etc. may become excessive.

c. Recommendation
Automatic shutdown is not always provided for protection against stator overheating on generators with
conventionally cooled stator windings. All operators should be made aware of the importance of operating
the generator within its rated capability. In cases where a generator will operate in an unattended station,
some form of overtemperature protection should be provided. Implementation of an automatic stator
overtemperature protection scheme also provides some overcurrent protection, and is generally easier to
implement than overcurrent relaying.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 48

23. Local Overheating (if applicable)

a. Description
Before synchronization, there are at least tw o areas of possible overheating in the generator which are a
function of field excitation:
• Stator core heating, which is related to the stator flux (volts/Hertz)
• Generator field heating, which is related to field current.
After synchronization, in addition to these two, there is also the possibility of stator win Ding heating
(including end windings, connection rings, leads, and high voltage bushings), which is related to armature
current. Local overheating can be caused in a number of ways. One is damage to the laminations at the
inner diameter of the stator core. This might cause electrical contact between laminations leading to a flow
of current and therefore heating. This type of damage may be caused by a foreign object striking the core
under the influence of electromagnetic forces in the machine. Overheating may also be caused by improper
cooling or by faulty or damaged insulation, allowing excessive leakage current to flow. It can also be caused
by operating outside the capability limits, especially in underexcited regions.

b. Detection
On hydrogen-cooled steam turbine-generators, overheating can be detected by the use of the Generator
Gas Monitoring System (GGMS). The GGMS consists of a generator Core Monitor, a Signal Validation
Control and a Pyrolysate Collector. The generator Core Monitor is an ionization-type particulate detector
that is connected to the generator so that a constant flow of cooling gas passes through it. The cooling gas
is monitored for the presence of submicron particles (particulates). Under normal conditions, the gas coolant
contains no particulates that can be detected by the monitor. When overheating occurs, the thermal
decomposition of organic material, epoxy paint, core lamination enamel or other insulating materials
produces a large number of particulates which can be detected by the monitor to produce an alarm. The
particulates can be collected by the Pyrolysate Collector which is designed to operate when a generator
Core Monitor alarm occurs. Confirmation of overheating may be accomplished by laboratory analysis of the
particulates.
The Validation Control is used to automatically discriminate between a Core Monitor alarm caused by an
instrument malfunction and one caused by local overheating. When the alarm is verified, the Validation
Control actuates a machine heating alarm.

c. Recommendation
When a machine heating alarm occurs, load should be reduced by manual runback (Type
8) until the alarm signal clears. If the alarm signal does not clear within five minutes the
generator should be tripped manually (Type 5). Contacts are provided in the Validation Control which can
be used to actuate runback or trip circuits if this feature is desired.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 49

Generator Protection:
1. √ 87 – Generator Diff Protection
2. √ 40 – Under Excitation Protection
3. √ 46 – Negative Phase Sequence Relay
4. 50/51 – Phase Over current protection
5. √ 51N – Ground Over Current (E/F) protection
6. √ 81U – Under Freq Protection
7. √ 81O – Over Freq Protection
8. √ 78 - Pole Slip Protection
9. √ 24 – Generator Over Fluxing Protection
10. √ 64G1 – Generator Stator earth fault (95%)
11. √ 59GN/27TN - Generator Stator earth fault (100%)
12. √ 64 – Generator Rotor Earth fault
13. √ 51V – Time O/C with Voltage restrain
14. √ 59 – Generator Over Voltage
15. √ 27 - Generator Under Voltage
16. 32F – Generator Forward Power Protection
17. √ 32R - Generator Reverse Power Protection
18. √ 50 - BF Protection
19. 60F - VT Fuse failure
20. 50/27G- Accidental Energisation

Protection : (Line, Busbar, Generator and Transformer)

1. Directional Protection Relay: (67)

Directional Relay Comparing the direction of current flow in the line with reference to the bus voltage.
In other words the direction relay measures the phase angle between voltage & current vector. Relays
gets voltage from bus Pt and current from line CT. Directional O/C relay operates only when the current
flowing through the relay is more then plug setting and also current flowing in current (operative)
direction.

Directional Over Current & Directional Earth Fault relay:- (67R/Y/B & 67N)
67R/Y/B directional over current relay current coil connected in secondaries of related line CT. Current
coil of directional E/F relay (67N) is residually connected. The potential coil of 67R is connected across
Y & B phase of bus PT secondary. Similar that 67Y connected across R & B and 67B connected across R
& Y phase. Phase advancing resistance (not shown) is in built with potential connected of relay. Potential
coil of Directional E/F (67N) relay is connected across open delta of intermediate voltage transformer
(IVT). IVT having a ratio 110/√3 = 110/3 will give voltage 3Vο/3 = Vο (Zero Sequence Voltage) across
open delta.

67N Relay is fed with residual current voltage (i.e. open delta voltage VR+VY+VB) is zero under normal
condition and during fault (L-L-L & L-L). In case of ground fault (L-g) the residual voltage is equal to
depression of voltage in faulted phase for solidly earthed system. This voltage causes the E/F relay to
operate.

2. Busbar Differential Relay: (96)

The operating principle of busbar differential is hired on kirchoff’s low. The algebraic sum of all the
current entering and leaving the busbar zone must be zero, unless there is a fault there in. In this case
I/C current sum= O/G current sum= 0. To avoid Ct saturation high impendence relay is used. For fault
in bus section sum of the current as seen by CTs will no longer be zero. The corresponding zone will
operate and check zone also operate. To avoid a malfunction check zone operation is added with the
operation of individual bus section zone.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 50

3. Generator Over Voltage Relay: (59G)

Reason for over voltage:

1. Transient over voltage due to switching surge or lightning.
2. Sudden load throughout.
3. Failure of AVR.
Any kind of O/V can damage he insulation of generator. So precaution is required to protect it (generator
insulation) from such damages. Any kind of over voltage will actuate O/V (59G) relay which initiates
class – A protection.

4. Generator Thermal Over Load Relay : (51G)

It is an over current relay connected in generator winding. If there is an over current beyond the rated
current of generator because of over loading it will be actuated through heating characteristic of
generator.

5. Negative Phase Sequence Relay: (46)

If there is unbalance in current vector in generator phase due to unbalance loading or fault in any phase,
it will induce double frequency eddy current in rotor. These current is allow to persist can cause over
heating of rotor. So the purpose of negative phase sequence is to disconnect the generator from grid
before such excess temp is reached.
Unbalance loading or fault in any phase will unbalance the stator current. In one phase it
will be high where as other phase it will be low or medium.
Normal over current relay is not used to detect such over voltage because with unbalance
load, load current may go high or some time beyond the full load current. That’s why negative sequence
relay is used to detect such fault (Unbalance loading or fault in any phase).

6. Generator Back-up Impedance Relay : (21) (Distance Protection) 7SA610

This relay detects two & three phase short circuit between the zone of Generator terminal and unit
Transformer (21G2) and beyond the above zone up to Grid (21G1) by the method of impedance.
Conventional method of detecting it by over current relay is not safe because of time lag response of
O/C relay. In this method where impedance between Generator terminal and unit Transformer and
above the zone is only measured, is suitable & prompt. The time log of this relay is very short (500ms)
and impedance of the graduation of the distance protection of the system.
21G1 relay measure the impedance Z1 = V/I = 3Ω/phase from the generator neutral side. If
any fault occurs between generator winding and 400KV Bus measure impedance will be less then
3Ω/phaseand operating points came under 21G1 relay circle. Thus it sets actuated and initiated class-
C protection.
21G2 relay measure the impedance Z2=V/I = 1.72Ω/phase between generator terminal and
unit transformer. If any fault occurs in this zone impedance by 21G2 relay will be less than 1.72Ω/phase.
This operating point enters into 21G2 circles and actuates class-A protection.
Relay current IN = 5A
Pick Up value = V/I = 0.5 to 5Ω/phase.
Time Log = T = 0.5 to 5 Sec.

7. Gen. Stator E/F : (i) 95% (ii) Standby (ii) 100 % (64G / 51NG / 64G1)

If there is E/F occurs in any stator winding leakage current will starting flowing through NGT. The
intensity of leakage current will be dependent on the % of stator coil. If E/F is between 0 to 95% wdg
leakage current will be high. To detect by normal relay, but it is between 95 to 100 % due to less
intensity of leakage current special provision of injection transformer has been arranged to detect it.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 51

 It there is any E/F occurs in stator winding zero sequence current will starting flowing through
the neutral and also as result E/F, VT-3 voltage become unbalance which will be transmitted to 64G1
relay through star / open delta transformer. Because of open delta transformer-unbalanceness will be
more prominent at the relay coil terminal. So 65G1 relay sets actuated as soon as E/F appears in stator
winding.
Zero seque. current through NGT as a result of E/F will actuate standby relay 51NG.
For detecting E/F in dead zone (95 to 100%) 64G relay is used. A 24V of 12.5 Hz is continuously
injected to stator winding by 64G relay through injection transformer. During normal operation current
through the relay will be zero as a capacitance between stator winding and ground is high (open ckt).
As soon as E/F occurs – capacitor between stator and ground sets actuated and current starts flowing
(15ma) through the relay thus its sets actuated. (In stage-II this relay has been kept out of service
because of frequent maloperation.)

In Reliance 95% E/F measured by Ct which is located in NGT secondary side and 100% E/F measured
by third harmonic voltage from NGT secondary side voltage.

8. Generator Rotor E/F : (64F1/F2)

If 1st E/F occurs in field winding small earth leakage current will circulate between stator earth and
winding earth. As leakage current is very small - it will not create any major abnormality in generator
operation. Except following mild effect.
1. Slight increase in field current.
2. Vibration in bearing may so high.
But in case of second E/F in rotor due to lower resistive path, field current will start flowing between
two earth (1st & 2nd earth) by passing in between field winding. If some part of field is bypassed due to
2nd E/F, flux gap will form in rotor – which inturn produce abnormal flux distribution in the stator winding.
This will cause -----
--- (i) Heavy vibration
(ii) Distorted phase current in stator (abnormal current – No signwave)
(iii) Pole sleep
(iv) High field current and abnormal temp rise in rotor.
1st E/F is not harmful but second E/F is very danger. Second E/F relay actuate to trip the unit trough
class-A protection. Standard rotor IR value should be greater than 70 MΩ. If it is less than 5 MΩ E/F
relay will act.

9. Loss of Excitation : (40)

Loss of field supply to a synchronous generator can be caused by – following reason a) A fault in
excitation system
b) Incorrect opening of field breaker. (F.B)
Following effect observed in case of loss of excitation
a) Machine will operate as an induction generator drawing reactive power from grid.
b) Instability in grid. c) Abnormal rotor heating
When loss of excitation occurs – The machine begins to draw reactive power from the grid. This property
is used for detecting loss of excitation by measuring impedance at generator terminal.
The relay is offset impedance type measuring MHO at the generator terminal. In case of loss of
excitation, generator impedance falls within the tripping zone and relay will actuate.
When ever there is a power swing in the grid, MVAR may be imported from the grid through the
excitation is alive. (ie. In case of pole slip and loss of synchronism) in such case generator impedance
falls momentarily in this zone. However, by time integrator it is possible to ensure that despite
intermittent pick-up a definite trip command is imparted by the protective relay. This impedance relay
can be made offset type by varying point A & B with relay adjustment. Pick-up at A (%) = (87.5/S1 x
d) k
Pick-up at B (%) = (8.75/S2 x d’) k,
S1 = 1 & S2 = 0.5 for turbo generator.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 52

10. Generator Transformer Stand By E/F Relay : (51N)

When ever Earth Fault occurs (within the winding or out side the winding) zero sequence current will
pass through the neutral. If the fault is located outside the winding, only 51N will set actuated and
initiated class-C protection.

11. Generator Transformer HV Side O/C Protection : (51GT)

Over current protection at HV side of generator transformer has been provided. If it sets actuated on
O/C class-A protection will be initiated.

12. Generator Transformer Restricted E/F Relay : (64REF)

In a transformer E/F may occurs outside or inside the winding. When the fault (E/F or short ckt) occurs
out side the winding, it will detect by sensing O/C at HV side through IDMT relay. This type of fault
detection is known as unrestricted – because IDMT (O/C) will act where ever the fault is (inside, outside
or in the load). In such case IDMT sensing should be more than over current limit and less than short
ckt limit.
For detecting E/F within winding of high rating transformer (1600KVA onwards) Restricted
E/F method is used at star side of the winding.
Fault at F1 (out side of wdg) increased resultant current in CT’s which is neutralized
by zero sequence current in neutral. Thus 64RGT will not have any operating current. But when fault
occurs at F2 (within the wdg) only zero sequence current through neutral will operate the relay, because
resultant CT current will be more and less zero. Thus 64RGT sets actuated only when fault occurs within
the winding and actuate class-A protection.

13. Generator Transformer Over Fluxing Protection: (24 or 61GT)

For any transformer induced voltage V = KΦf or Φ = V/f

From this equation if Φ is to be kept constant which is desirable for any transformer to avoid core
saturation, V/f ratio should always be kept constant.
Reason for Over Fluxing :-
a) Unit is on open ckt with field energized to maximum level.
b) Speed is increased or decreased from synchronous speed with field supply ON.
• Effect of Over Fluxing :-
(i) Flux density in transformer core will be higher which lead to core saturation.
(ii) Saturated core will create harmonic effect which is not desirable.
(iii) Transformer will draw more no load current which lead to heating.
(iv) Voltage ratio will be disturbed. Alarm 1.1PU and Trip= 1.18PU (V/F=2.1=1PU)

Normally V/f ratio = V/f = 110 /50 = 2.1, if because of any reason over fluxing occurs and V/f ratio
cross the limit point – following operation are carried out in SES panel automatically.
a) To change AVR from Auto to manual
b) To restrict the raise excitation impulse in manual mode.
c) To reduce excitation in manual mode.
All the Operation carried out automatically to restrict the raise of voltage – so that V/f ratio is within
limit. If after these operations excitation control fails to maintain V/f ratio – unit will trip on class-A
protection. For this protection (relay – 61GT1/GT2) voltage is taken from VT (PT=110V) and frequency
is taken from m/c.

The Flux density in the core depends on the ratio of terminal voltage (V) divided by the freq (f).
Normally the over fluxing withstands characteristics of the transformer are:--
120% over fluxing for 2 minutes
135% over fluxing for 1 minute
140% over fluxing for 5 seconds.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 53

14. Generator Breaker Stuck Up Protection: (50LBB)

If generator breaker fails to trip on protection, LBB will come into service to energies BUSBAR protection
relay of all the elements (Breaker) connected to the bus to which generator is connected and actuated
class A protection. As long as power flow is there- 50LBB contactor is in picked up condition. Suppose
unit got tripped on protection and generator breaker did not trip – in such case timer T will start
energizing through master trip relay contact and 50LBB contact 9Becouse power flow in these for not
operating the generator breaker) after 200ms timer will energize tripping relay of all connected elements
to trip particular breaker.

15. Generator Pole Slip Protection: (78G)

Because of following reasons pole slipping may occurs----

o Excessive load on Generator
o Insufficient field Excitation
o Sudden load changes & Short circuit in grid.
Sudden occurrence of electrical fault in grid such as load changing, short circuiting, grid ckt interruption
etc which destroy the equilibrium of energy balance and unusually followed by oscillation. If stability of
Grid is returned, the stationary operating state will take over with a stable oscillation, it is important
that the relay protection does not react. If the oscillation is not stable a loss of synchronism of one or
more synchronous machine will result. Two or more parts of the grid no longer run in synchronism ----
-this is known as pole slip. Pole slip in synchronous running where by the excitation of the machine is
maintained. Thus state is characterized by strong oscillation of reactive and active power. Pole slip is
measured by loss of impedance relay at Generator terminal.
Pole slip starts it impedance measured by the 78G relay falls below its limiting value. If the
system fault enters the relay operating zone and exists more then 25ms – relay will act the class-C
protection.

16. Reverse Power and Low Forward Power Relay : ( 32R & 32F)

This s basically protection provided for prime mover (Turbine). When a turbo generator is shut down
in an emergency there is a risk of over speeding if the GB (Gen Bkr) open before the steam / fuel stop
valve is completely closed. Even if both action are simultaneous steam / fuel trapped in the casing
may be sufficient to cause over speeding. To avoid that Reverse power relay is used. In reverse power
generator drawing active power from grid. Generator is not designed for motoring action it should be
immediately tripped when the steam / fuel valve / flow is stopped and to avoid damage to the turbine.
In actual Generator reverse power setting for steam turbine 2% And For GT 3 to 5%.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 54

 Purpose of Electrical Protection
• Purpose of over current relay (Inverse); type- CDG
It is a self powered inverse time over current and earth fault relay, used for selective
phase and earth fault protection in time graded systems for A.C. machines, transformers, feeders etc.
A non-directional heavily damped induction disc relay, which has an adjustable inverse time/current
characteristic with a definite minimum time. The relay has a high torque movement combined with low
burden and low overshoot. The relay disc is so shaped that as it rotates the driving torque increases
and offsets the changing restraining torque of the control spring.

• Purpose of Directional inverse Over current & earth fault relay; type- CDD
Directional phase or earth fault protection of ring-mains, parallel transformers,
transformer feeders, parallel feeders etc., employing the time graded principle.; This
relay comprises an inductive disc over current unit with wound shading coils and a
directional high speed induction cup unit. The cup-unit contact is wired across the
shading coils so that no torque is exerted on the disc of the over current unit until the
cup unit contact closes. The inductive disc unit is thus directionally controlled and it
operates only when the current flows in the tripping direction. The directional unit is
a high speed, low inertia four pole induction cup movement designed to give a high,
steady and non-vibrating torque. its current coil is connected in series with the
operating coil of the induction disc unit. The directional unit is normally provided
with voltage polarizing coils.

• Purpose of Over current & earth fault relay; type- CAG

This relays are designed for instantaneous phase or earth fault protection and
instantaneous high set over current protection.; A standard hinged-armature unit
forms the basic movement for this relay. It consists an operating coil mounted on a
cylindrical iron core bolted to a frame at one end. This frame extends along the side
of the coil, with its end forming a knife-edge on which the armature is pivotally
mounted. The armature is 'L' shaped and pivoted at its corner so that one arm can be
attracted to the end of the core while the other arm to operate a set of contacts.

• Purpose of Local breaker back-up relay; type -CTIG

To safe guard against the drastic consequences of failure to clear faults rapidly, many
power supply authorities install 2 independent systems of protection for major
transmission lines. There remains however the possibility of the circuit breaker itself
failing to operate and this hazard is traditionally covered by remote breaker back-up.;
CTIG relay is a 3 phase or 2 phase and earth fault instantaneous over current unit
intended for use with a time delay to give back-up protection in the event of a circuit
breaker failure. A particular feature of the CTIG relay is a fast reset, which enables
the time delay to be set closer to the breaker trip-time.

• Purpose of Battery earth fault relay; type- CAEM-21

The battery earth fault relay is used to detect earth faults and deterioration of wiring
insulation in either pole of battery. The scheme consists of a centre tapped resistor, a
measuring relay, plug setting bridge, auxiliary relay and rectifier bridge to provide
unidirectional supply to the measuring relay coil. For different battery voltages different values of centre
tapped resistors are used. Variable sensitivities are provided by means of the tapped coil whose taps
are connected to the plug setting bridge. The centre tap of resistor is brought to one terminals of the
relay and this terminal is either directly earthed or earthed through a centre zero milli ammeter. Under
healthy condition no current flows through the measuring relay coil and in any pole of the battery or
wiring insulation failure, current flows through the measuring relay coil and the relay operates.

• Purpose of Motor protection relay: Type- CTMM/CTMFM

This relay contains all the protection factors to protect the motor, from Thermal
overload (Ith), Instantaneous over current (I1), Instantaneous or time delayed
unbalance element, Earth fault Element (I0) & Stalling protection (I1(t))
Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 55
• Purpose of Rotor earth fault relay (type- CAEM-33)
When a single E/F is detected in the DC field circuit of a machine, the machine has
to be taken out of service at the first opportunity. This is because, if allowed to run
with an E/F on the rotor, a subsequent second E/F can cause severe damage to the
machine. However, a relay like CAEM-33 which can detect such a second E/F and trip out the machine
can make it possible to run the machine even with a single E/F, without any such risks, thus helping to
preserve the generation capacity. The start of
the second rotor earth fault detection scheme is a very sensitivity transductor element. The AC winding
of the transductor is connected in series with a rectified AC voltage relay. The Dc winding of the
transductor on the other hand is connected in series with the rotor E/F circuit. Under normal conditions-
i.e. with no DC flowing, the AC wining of the transductor presents a high impedance, and the AC voltage
applied is mostly dropped across this winding. Hence the relay remains deenergised. When a second
rotor E/F occurs, a DC current flows through the transductor dc winding which causes the impedance of
the AC winding to reduce considerably by driving the transductor core into saturation. Hence, the applied
voltage is fully available across the relay and it operates.

• Purpose of Sensitive earth fault relay (type - CTUM-15 & CTIGM-15

It may not be always possible to detect high resistance faults by convectional earth
fault relaying. In such cases a very sensitive current relay will be required for this
purpose. It can be connected residually since it has an adjustable definite time delay
provided to take care of transient spills in the residual circuit due to CT mismatch. Also, its low burden
enables it to be used with existing CT's/ Relays without affecting the performance.; The incoming current
is stepped down by an internal current transformer and converted to a voltage by a variable resistor
network. The signal is compared with an internal reference. When this reference level is exceeded, a
time delay is initiated, after the time delay has elapsed, a relay operates.

• Purpose of Negative phase sequence current relay; Type- CTN/CTNM

Negative phase sequence current in the stator of a generator, caused due to unbalanced loads or faults,
it induces double frequency eddy current in the rotor. These currents, if allowed to persist, can cause
serious overheating and the purpose
of this relay is to disconnect the machine before such excess temperature is reached.
The inputs from the current transformers, which are connected in each phase of the
generator supply, are fed to a negative sequence filter which gives an AC output voltage proportional
to the negative sequence current. This voltage is rectified and
smoothed and fed into the squaring circuit of the main measuring element, the definite time delay circuit
and the alarm element. The output from the squaring circuit is proportional to the square of the input
voltage and is applied directly to the main timing ckt to give the required relationship between I22t (I
squire 2t) and
operates time t.

• Purpose of definite time Over current & earth fault relay: Type-CTU
This relay can be used for definite time over current protection against phase and
Earth faults on medium and low voltage distribution systems. The definite time relay
offers a considerable advantage over inverse time relays in instances where there ia a
wide variation in line impedance. Another application is in the field of stalling protection of motors.
When the thermal overload relay does not provide protection
against stalling, separate definite time O/C relay type CTU can be used to provide
the same. This relay comes in following nomenclature: CTU-12/22/32/52/62/15.
CTU relay combines the advantage of complete static measurements with characteristic of the robust,
well proved attracted armature unit. These relays measure current and time accurately, imposes low
burden on CT's. Each phase comprises a static overload detector and timer, which is accurate over a
10:1 time setting range. When the positive peak of the input signal exceeds the reference level, the
time delay circuit starts and after a preset time, drives the output relay. Instantaneous high set unit
when fitted uses alternate half cycle for measurement and through a separate level detector drives a
separate output relay.
• Purpose of Over fluxing Relay: Type-GTTM

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 56

Transformers need protection against the risk of damage, which may be caused when
the transformers are operated at flux density levels significantly greater than the design values. The
over fluxing withstand time is generally found to be varying inversely with the working flux density in
the core, having higher withstand times
during extreme over fluxing conditions. The over fluxing condition can occur during system over voltage
or under frequency conditions.
The basic operating principle is to produce an ac voltage, which depends upon the ratio between AC
input voltage and the frequency. The AC input voltage is fed to a step-down transformer, which also
provides isolation and the stepped down voltage is fed to a V/F ratio detector circuit. This circuit is a
simple operational amplifier integrator with the provision for V/F pickup adjustment. The AC voltage is
rectified by true RMS. to dc converter. This circuit gives a frequency output and this frequency increases
rapidly with the increase in voltage. The frequency output is given to a curve shaping circuit, which
involves counter and comparators. The counter counts the frequency output and the number of counts
required for final trip condition is changed by the comparator circuits to get the required timing
characteristic.

• Purpose of Biased Differential Relay: Type-MBCH

This relay is suitable for protection of two or three winding power transformers, auto
transformers or generators transformer units. The differential transformer protection measuring circuit
is based on the well-known Merz-price circulating principle.

• Purpose of Digital frequency relay: Type-MFVUM

This relay is used to monitor the frequency of an electrical system. The relay are suitable for any
application in industrial plants and to generators where definite time
under or over frequency protection is required. The operating principle of the relay is the comparison
of the time interval of the incoming frequency with that of a preset time derived from an accurate
oscillator within the relay. The incoming frequency signal is connected to an INPUT CIRCUIT, which then
drives an IMPULSE GENERATOR to produce a pulse at the beginning of each period of the input voltage.
The preset time interval is obtained from an OSCILLATOR and COUNTER and adjustment is achieved
using SELECTOR switches, which drive a DECODER circuit. A COMPARATOR
Compares the two-time interval and this triggers an adjustable TIMER which then operates the output
relay and latched light emitting diode (LED) glows.

• Purpose of Stator Earth fault Relay: Type-PVMM

A 100% stator earth fault protection is designed to detect earth fault occurring in the
regions of machine winding close to the neutral end. This relay is a composite modular relay that gives
100% stator earth fault protection for machines, whose neutral are not directly earthed. It works on
the principle involving monitoring of the neutral side and line-side components of the third harmonic
voltages produced by AC generators in service.

• Purpose of Voltage regulating relay and line drop compensator: Type-VTJCM

This relay is used with on load transformer tap changers and induction regulators to
provide close and accurate automatic voltage regulation on power systems of any
voltage. When the regulated voltage moves outside a dead band, set by the sensitivity control, the volts
high or volts low circuits are initiated and after a time delay, determined by the response characteristic,
the appropriate tap changer control auxiliary relay closes its contact to initiate a tap change.

• Purpose of Directional power relay: Type-MWTU.

This relay setting ranges from 0.25% to 18.56% of rated power. This makes the relay
suitable for sensitive reverse power applications. For example with turbo-generator,
where the detection of 1% or 2% reverse power is necessary to prevent the synchronous machine from
motoring in the event of the power from the prime mover becoming too low. It is also suitable for low
forward power interlock and under power protection.

• Purpose of Check synchronizing relay: Type-SKD/SKE.

This relay is used to prevent interconnection of badly synchronized supplies. Type

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 57

SKD relay are used for auto reclosing sequence, type SKE relay are used to safeguard manual
synchronizing of generators. Phase measurement is achieved by algebraically subtracting the 2 supply
voltage waveforms and comparing the resultant modulated beat waveform envelope with a Dc reference
voltage. The DC reference is proportional to the sum of the peaks of the 2 supply voltages to provide
phase measurement independent of supply voltage variation.

• Purpose of Static distance protection: Type-SHPM.

This relay (QUADRAMHO) is a static distance protection relay specially designed for comprehensive
high-speed protection of HV & EHV distribution/transmission lines. 3 zones of protection are
included, each employing separate measuring elements, one element each for 3 phase-to-phase and 3
phase-to-earth faults. Thus a total; of 18 elements are provided thereby increasing the reliability of the
protection. Poly phase measuring elements are not used in QUADRAMHO as in some of the
contemporary schemes. The relay is suitable for both three poles & single-and-three pole tripping of
the circuit breaker.

• Purpose of Static offset MHO relay: Type- YTGM.

This relay is a static single phase, single step, and distance protection with MHO offset MHO
characteristic. With suitable current/voltage input selection, the relay can be made to have the required
characteristic in the R-X plane for various applications such as Generator Field failure protection,
Generator backup impedance protection and as offset MHO relay for use in conjunction with generator
pole slipping protection.

• Purpose of sensitive power relay: Type-WCD.

This power relay is a sensitive Poly phase induction cup unit, providing under power,
reverse power and over power protection. This relay detects a reversal of current flow, caused by
insufficient driving power from the prime mover, preventing the generator operating as a synchronous
motor. The electrical quantities energize windings on an eight pole laminated stator. The moving contact
is operated by a cup shaped Aluminium rotor, which turns on jewelled bearings in an air gap between
the stator and a fixed center core. Only a small arc of rotation is needed to cause contact closer. Low
rotor inertia and very high driving torque ensures a high speed operations.

• Purpose of pole slipping relay: Type-ZTO.

This pole slipping relay has been designed to protect synchronous Generators against
the possibility of the machine running in the unstable region of the power angle curve which would
result in power oscillations and pole slip. The relay consists basically of one directional relay and one
blinder relay operating in conjunction with a 40-80 milli seconds static timer. Intended primarily for
installation between the generator and associated transformer (preferably on the generator terminals)

• Purpose of fuse failure relay: Type - VAPM

This relay detects a failure or inadvertent removal of voltage transformer secondary
fuses and prevention of incorrect tripping of circuit breakers. This relay consists of a
rectified AC voltage operated hinged armature unit. Three coils for the three phases
are wound over a single core producing in effect a common relay for the three phases. Each coil is
connected across one of the voltage transformer secondary fuses and under healthy conditions, this
coil is short circuited by the fuse and cannot be energized. When one or more fuses or are removed
the appropriate coil(s) is energized under relay operates immediately to open the trip circuit.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 58

 Maintenance of Electrical Equipments
Generator Maintenance
• ISOLATION

o Authorized engineer will accept the Electrical work permit along with the lock out key
o Ensure the correct Generator is identified in the field.
o Ensure LOTO system is followed and collect the keys from Electrical operation.
o Confirm the isolation of Generator at 33 kV breaker end, starting motor and ratchet motor (turning
gear / baring motor)
o Ensure that 11kV cable at GAC end is earthed.
o Ensure that the transformer discharged and kept earthed at both the sides.

• Generator

S.NO Checklist Action Taken

1 Check air duct chamber & remove any accumulated oil Cleaned
& dust.

2 Check the space heater JB & Measure IR value of Ok/Not Ok

space heater ( Magger Value min - >10Mohms with
500V )

3 Measure Generator IR Value with and without surge Ok/Not Ok-Surge arrestor to
arrestor and Capacitor ( 2.5 kV- 1 Min ) ground O/V due to switching /
With Surge arrestor & capacitor min value- >15 M lightning surge. And Capacitor
ohms to reduce high freq signal.
W/o surge arrestor & capacitor min value- > 250M
ohms
4 Measure the Rotor IR value with diode bridge ( by 100 Ok/Not Ok
V ) Min value->20 M ohms
5 Measure the main Exciter Field and PMG stator IR Ok/Not Ok
and WR value

• PM of PMG, Main Exciter and Diode wheel

1. Clean the Generator air duct chamber and remove any accumulated oil
2. Inspection of the space heater for any damage.
3. Check the space heater for IR value and give clearance to operation for switching on and
keep that in on condition.
4. Remove the carbon brush holders on shaft for both DE and NDE side of the generator.
5. Measure initial IR value of Generator Rotor, stator and PMG stator for reference
6. Noting down the connection details of PMG, Q-axis, rotor earth fault, RTD, and other JB
terminations, with details of ferrule number and colour code.
7. Remove and kept secure this connection leads.
8. Open the Generator side flexible connection of 11kV bus bar.
9. Take the meggar value and PI value of the generator.
10. Measure the meggar value and PI of Main generator stator daily during shut down.
11. Measure the Exciter air gaps before dismantling of Exciter rotor and stator.

AIR GAP Between Stator & Rotor = 20–25mm, Exciter =10-15mm, PMG= 5-8mm

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 59

 12. Insert thick quality insulation paper (insulation grade e.g. J&J make) to protect both rotor
and stator of the exciter for hitting each other while removing the stator.
13. Ensure slow and steady removal of exciter stator over its rotor to avoid any damage.
14. Keep exciter rotor and stator in a dry place with proper roofing and facility for heat up.
15. Collect all the insulated bolts, washers, plates and keep safely.
16. Inspect the exciter stator and rotor visually, for any kind of damage.
17. Open one side of the diode lead from diode wheel assembly connections, and check each
set for healthiness( Diode and fuse).
18. Clean the exciter stator and rotor thoroughly with clean dry cloth.
19. 8.3.18 Re-connect the diode and resistor assembly.
20. Heat up the exciter stator and rotor either with hot air blower or with halogen lamps for at
least 7-8 hours, maintaining a temperature 60 deg. C and if moisture is suspected, heat up
upto 80 deg. C.
21. Carryout testing of both stator and rotor (winding resistance, insulation resistance,
impedance, and PI.) Testing can be done even before varnishing, but after cleaning at
ambient temperature.
22. Apply the varnish if required.
23. After varnishing heat up again as per point no. .8.3.19 for dry up.

• PM of Generator Stator and Rotor

1. Remove the light fittings of exciter compartment.

2. Inspect the silver contacts of rotor winding connecting exciter rotor and main rotor.
3. Record the air gap between rotor and stator at turbine end and exciter end.
4. Make arrangements for the monsoon protection of removed rotor and stator overhangs.
5. After removal of rotor, protect the semiconductor painted portion of the stator winding at slot
end by wrapping some thick paper or insulation
6. Clean the overhangs of winding, wedges, and rotor and generator core with dry marking cloths.
7. Clean the overhang portion of the stator, excluding semiconductor varnish portion and stator
core.
8. Check the rotor wedge strips, and tighten them with Allen key.
9. Inspect the stator, rotor, overhangs, and enclosures for any defect, damage or presence of
foreign material.
10. Heat up the rotor and stator either with hot air blower or with halogen lamps at least for 7-8
hours maintaining a temperature of 60 deg. C and if moisture is suspected, heat upto 80 deg.
C.
11. Conduct testing as per item no. 8.5
12. Clean the overhangs, wedges, rotor etc. with clean dry cloth, after testing.
13. Do the varnishing of the rotor and stator windings, if required.
14. Dry up of varnishing (if applied) by heating.
15. Take the corrective actions if any after getting the test results.
16. After points 8.4.15 and 8.4.14 is complete give clearance to mechanical for re insertion of
rotor.
17. After insertion of rotor, record the air gap, compare with the earlier values, and make sure
that air gap difference is not more than 5 % of the total air gap radially.
18. Inspect the air gap; overhang portion and stator enclosures to make sure that, there is no
foreign material present, before giving clearance to mechanical for boxing up of end covers.

19. Before installing the rotor of exciter, make sure that, the silver contacts of rotor winding are
in position.
20. After exciter rotor is fixed and before exciter stator installed, cover the rotor portion with thick
insulation paper for protection from any mechanical.
21. After exciter stator is installed, remove the paper from air gap.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 60

 22. After alignment of exciter rotor, check the air gap, compare with air gap recorded before
removal and ensure that, the maximum difference is within 5%.
23. After getting clearance from mechanical for connections, install the rotor earth fault assembly
and the JBs.
24. Complete the connections, which were removed, as per the as built.
25. Ensure that the carbon brushes at the driving end are fixed.
26. Simulate the rotor Earth fault protection from field
Relay circuit faulty, E/f alarm, Trip
27. Take the final meggar and PI value of the Generator.
28. Connect the generator side flexible connections.
29. Check the tightness of the bolts with torque wrench set at 90 N-M
30. Remove the neutral link and PT fuses inside the GAC for meggaring
31. Do the combined final meggaring of 11kV side upto the primary winding of transformer with
2.5 kV meggar, record the result and discharge the circuit
32. Connect the earth link and install the PT fuses inside the GAC after meggaring
33. Ensure that the PM of GAC, Phase cubicle and neutral cubicle are done as per the check sheet
CPPJ/ELE/4001
34. Ensure that the PM of Generator transformer is done as per the check sheet CPPJ/ELE/4015
35. Remove the transformer neutral earthing
36. Do the final meggaring of the 33kV cable and transformer winding, record the value and
discharge the circuit
37. Connect the transformer neutral earthing.
38. Ensure that, the PM of 33kV feeder is done as per the SMP CPPJ/ELE/3008 and checklist.
39. Box up the 33 kV cable chamber of the breaker after removing temporary earth
40. Measure the resistance of discharge resistor in AVR panel.
41. Ensure that, PM of GCP, GRP, AVR panel etc. are carried out as per the check sheet
CPPJ/ELE/4002 including protection logic checking.
42. Ensure lighting maintenance job of GAC, turbine compartment and exciter compartment have
been completed.
43. Remove the temporary earthing if any, from the generator terminal either at GAC or any other
location
44. Measure earth pit resistance and give treatment if required.
45. Modifications against any PCO or any FAR recommendations are to be carried out.
46. Ensure that connection of roof mounted motors or any other motors have been restored back
47. Ensure that Generator space heater is healthy.
48. Ensure that PM of UAT is completed (UAT is applicable for GT 1 & 4)
49. Return all the permits taken for the GT over hauling related jobs.
50. Once the generator is in FSNL, measure the PMG stator voltage before closing of the field
breaker.
51. Once the Generator develops full voltage, measure the voltage of the main field ammeter
terminals.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 61

 • Diagnostic testing of Generator.

For assessing the healthiness and condition of the Generator and to find out any preventive steps
to be taken, during or in the future shutdowns, a set of diagnostic tests are done on the generator
as detailed below.
These are done by engaging testing agencies, who analyze and gives recommendations.
Generally the following tests are carried out during the overhauling.
1. DC Absorption on stator.
2. Measurement of Capacitance & Tan delta on stator.
3. Recording of PD on stator.
4. Study of Non-linear Behavior of winding Insulation on stator.
5. Measurement of winding resistance of stator.
6. Checking of RTD's of stator.
7. Wedge mapping using deflection method suitable for ripple spring wedges on stator-after
threading out the generator rotor
8. Microscopic & Endoscopic Inspection – After threading out the generator rotor
9. Visual Inspection of generator Stator & rotor, exciter stator & rotor
10. Measurement of winding resistance of rotor
11. Measurement of impedance of generator rotor
12. Recurrent surge oscillograph
13. Measurement of Impedance, winding resistance and IR of exciter stator
14. Measurement of Impedance, winding resistance and IR of exciter rotor
15. Diode and fuse checking 16. RTD checking

• Job closure

I. Ensure all connections are restored as per marking

II. Ensure the monsoon protection of GAC and PT fuse inserted
III. Remove external earth which was provided during maintenance work
IV. Remove men & materials from the site
V. Remove all tools & tackles
VI. Clean the area
VII. Take field executive signature on PTW
VIII. Handover the PTW with isolation stub and key to operation SFE

• Record observation during startup

o Measure vibration and noise of bearing
o Measure PMG voltage at different speed and phase sequence

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 62

 Maintenance of 174 MVA, 220 KV/34.5/11 KV RST

Introduction
We have 8 numbers of Refinery Service Transformers (RSTs) of M/s ABB Make in JERP CPP, which
interconnect the 220 KV switchyard and the GIS 33kV switchboards. The details of the transformers are
220/34.5/11 KV, 174 MVA and YNyn0d11.
Purpose
This document deals with the different types of checks, inspections and other maintenance activities,
which are to be carried out for the transformers.
Scope
This document is applicable for the periodic maintenance of the transformers installed in MRS 1 and
MRS 2.
For any major maintenance activities to be carried out on transformers, manufactures operation and
maintenance manual shall be referred.
References
1. Operation and Maintenance manual of M/S ABB.
Operation and maintenance manual of M/S MR make On Load Tap Changer
Oil testing specifications procedure as per IS 1866
Oil Quality specifications as per IS 335

Safety
Before carrying out any job on the transformer, obtain PTW & Barricade the area.
Ensure the 220 KV-side Breaker and Isolator are kept open and the earth switch is on and tagged.
Ensure the 33kV side breaker is opened. Isolator is in earth position
Ensure the transformer is discharged after de-energising and discharge rods are kept connected at
transformer terminals throughout the job.
Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying out
the job.
Conduct ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
Procedure
The maintenance of the transformer includes regular condition monitoring, shutdown maintenance and
any major maintenance activities.

Condition monitoring of transformers.

The major items to be checked during normal operation of transformers are as per the check list.
Preventive maintenance
Apart from condition monitoring of transformer, preventive maintenance is also done for the grid
transformers. The frequency of this transformer preventive maintenance is fixed as decided by CES.
The check points during the preventive maintenance of these transformers are as per the check sheet.

Guidelines for the checks of transformers

The following general guidelines shall be adopted while carrying out the periodical maintenance of the
transformers.
I General: Transformer tank, cover, bushings and other parts should be inspected periodically for any
oil leakage, peeling of paint or rust formation. Rusted portion should be properly cleaned and painted.
Oil leakages should be immediately attended to. Clamping bolts on gasket joints should be tightened
properly and if necessary gaskets should be replaced.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 63

Transformer oil. Oil should be checked with frequent intervals and if necessary, conservator should
be topped up. Oil for topping up should be cleaned, filtered and complying with IS: 335. Samples
of oil should be taken at specified regular intervals and tested. Oil testing is carried out as defined in
IS: 1866.
The oil should have a minimum breakdown voltage as indicated below.
Voltage grade Break down Voltage
< 72.5 kV 40 kV (rms) (2.5MM Gap in BDV kit)
72.5 kV to 145 kV 50kV (rms)
>145 kV 60kV (rms)
The presence of moisture should be checked and should be in permissible limits as follows.
Voltage grade Moisture content
> 145 kV 15 ppm
72 kV to <145 kV 20 ppm
<72.5kV 25 ppm
1. Conservator and oil level indicator: Oil indicator glass should be kept clean so that oil level is
clearly visible. When conservator is taken for maintenance MOLG mechanism and float should be
cleaned and inspected for operation.
2. Silica gel breather. The silica gel colour should be monitored and maintained as dark blue. When
it is saturated with moisture (colour becomes pale blue pink), it should be reactivated by heating it upto
110-130 deg. C. for about 8 hours. The oil level in oil seal should preferably be maintained at the level
marked in the cap.
3. Buchholz relay. : During service if any gas is found to be collected, the gas should be tested and
analyzed.
4. Temperature indicators: During maintenance inspection, the level of oil in the pockets holding
the thermometer bulbs should be checked and oil replenished, if required. The capillary tubing should
be fastened down if it has become loose. Dial glasses should be kept clean. Temperature indicators
should be crosschecked with portable temperature sensors. On doubt the same has to be calibrated
during PM of Transformer. Thermometer pockets should be filled with oil, and pockets should be free
from water.
5. Bushings: Porcelain insulators and connectors should be cleaned and examined for any cracks or
any other defects. Oil level in the condenser bushings is to be checked for minimum level.
6. External connections including earthing: All connections should be tight.
7. Gasket: Check the transformer for leakages periodically and take corrective actions as required.
8. Paint work: The paintwork should be inspected and where necessary, re painting and re touching
should be done

Maintenance of On Load Tap Changers (OLTC)

Following items are to be checked along with the periodic maintenance of transformers. For any
major maintenance activities, MR’s operation and maintenance manual shall be referred.
1. Tightness of sealings of the tap changer head, the protective relay and pipe connections to be
done.
2. Tightness of the motor drive housing.
3. Tightness of all electrical connections, cleanliness of the TB’s also to be checked, if required same
is to be tightened.
4. Proper setting and connection of the electrical space heater in the motor unit.
5. The appearances of the control appliances in the motor drive unit.
6. The oil level in the motor drive gear box.
7. Quality of the oil in the diverter switch.
8. Oil quality shall be increased, by fresh oil replacement, if the BDV is found to be less than 60 V.
9. Preventive maintenance of the motor.
10. Examine the silica gel breather and re activate if necessary.
11. Monsoon protection of the control/driving cubicle.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 64

Maintenance of Remote Tap Changer Control (RTCC) panels.

Following maintenance activities are to be carried out during the yearly shut down.
1. RTCC panel to be opened and remove the dust using the vacuum cleaner.
2. Tightness of all control wiring and fuses.
3. Healthiness of all the indication lamps.
4. Operation of the tap changer (from remote and local) and after the checking bring it back to normal.
5. Tap changer position indicator in RTCC shall be checked.
6. Connection and setting of the space heater.
7. Vermin proofing of the panel.
8. Flexi separator commissioning

Maintenance of Capacitor Voltage Transformer

Introduction
JERP switchyard has 4 numbers of capacitor voltage transformers, which are having application of
metering, synchronizing and protections. These CVTs are of M/S AREVA make.
Purpose
This document describes various checks, which shall be carried out during maintenance of CVTs.
Scope
This document is applicable for the maintenance of CVTs installed in switchyard.
The manufacturer’s manual for CVT shall be referred to for any major jobs, which can occur for these
instruments.
Reference. Installation and maintenance manual for CVTs of M/S.
Safety
1. Before carrying out any job on CVTs, obtain the electrical PTW.
2. Ensure that, CVT is isolated ,de-energized & discharged.
3. Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying
out the job.
4. Proper ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
5. Barricade the working area around the CVT under maintenance from other yard equipment/Bays,
which could be live.
6. No person shall carry ladders or any such long poles etc. to switch yard, unless specifically
instructed.
7. Procedure
General inspection includes checking for any oil leakage, dust accumulation, and healthiness of oil level.
Inspection checks during PM:
The following maintenance aspects shall be looked into while doing the maint. of CVTs.
1. Inspection for any cracks in HV bushings.
2. Inspection for any oil leakage.
3. Inspection of the healthiness of rubber gaskets.
4. Cleaning of the CVT capacitor stacks and tightness of terminal connections, ensure that, the jumpers
are tightly connected to the primary terminals of CVT.
5. Inspection of the neutral earthing in CVT marshalling box and tighten all connections.
6. Cleaning of marshalling box & junction box.
7. Check for secondary fuses and if required replace the same.
8. Check for the earthing connection firmness.

Note - The units are hermetically sealed hence oil does not deteriorate in service. So in no case oil
sample should be drawn for testing the di electric strength.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 65

 Maintenance of SWYD Current Transformers
Introduction
In the JERP 220 KV switchyard, we have nos. of current transformers (CT) for the application of
metering and protections. The CTs are of M/S Areva make.
Purpose
This document describes the checks, which shall be carried out during the periodic maintenance of
Current transformers.
Scope
This document is applicable for the periodic maintenance of current transformers installed in the
switchyard.
The manufacturer’s manual shall be referred to for any major maintenance jobs if required to be taken
for these instruments.
Reference
Installation and maintenance manual for Current transformers of M/S
Safety
1.1 Before carrying out any job on Instrument transformers, take electrical PTW.
1.2 Ensure that Instrument transformers are isolated, de-energized.
1.3 Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying
out the job.
1.4 Proper ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
1.5 Ensure proper use of tools.
1.6 Barricade the working area around the equipment under maintenance from other yard
equipment/Bays, which could be live.
1.7 No person shall carry ladders or any such long poles etc. to switchyard, unless specifically instructed.
close the permit.

Procedure for maintenance of CTs

The following maintenance aspects shall be looked into while doing the periodic maintenance of CTs.
General condition monitoring includes checking for any oil leakage, dust accumulation, and oil level. Oil
level needs to be monitored regularly.
Inspection checks during PM:
1. Inspection for any cracks in HV bushings.
2. Cleaning of the porcelain insulator thoroughly.
3. Inspection for any oil leakage.
4. Inspection for the healthiness of rubber gaskets.
5. Inspection of marshalling box and tighten all connections.
6. Cleaning of marshalling box & junction box.
7. Inspection of the power connections for tightness.
8. Check for the hotspots in CT.

Note - The units are hermetically sealed hence oil does not deteriorate in service. So in no case oil
sample should be drawn for testing the di electric strength.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 66

 Maintenance of HT Motor

Introduction
We have many HT motors installed in CPP
Purpose
This document describes the different checks and step by step procedures, which shall be carried out
for the preventive maintenance of HT motors
Scope
This document is applicable for all the HT motors
Reference
1. Operation and maintenance manual for motors of M/S ABB/SIEMENS/Hyundai
2. Operation & maintenance manual of switchboard & breakers of M/s Siemens.
3. Check sheet for Motor maint. No.

Safety
1. Before carrying out any job on motor, obtain electrical PTW.
2. Ensure that Switch gear for particular motor is de-energized, discharged and isolated.
3. Verification of safe isolation from supply: The panels are equipped with position of the breakers i.e.
service/test positions
4. The breaker should be in test position & plug disconnected.
5. Control supply should also be disconnected by means of fuse removal.
6. Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying
out the job.
7. Proper ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
8. Ensure proper use of tools.
9. Barricade the working area around the motor under maintenance from other equipment, which could
be live

DANGER
Baricate adjacent live equipments
Residual charge could be present in the cables or motor windings. Make sure to discharge them by
means of earthing rod.
Pl. make sure the panel no. before opening cable chamber as it could lead to severe accidents.
Before placing earthing rod for discharging be sure for no live part or voltage on the cable to be
discharged by non contact type voltage detector.

Procedure
Following aspects of maintenance shall be looked into, while carrying out the general maintenance of
the HT motor.

Following different procedures are to be adopted for the motor maint.

1. Procedure for Identification & isolation of feeder breaker with cable chamber.
2. Procedure for Discharging of cable
3. Procedure for Maintenance of switchgear panel.
4. Procedure for Maintenance of breaker
5. Procedure for Maintenance of motor at field with LCS
6. Procedure for final meggering & handingover

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 67

Procedure for Identification & isolation of feeder breaker with cable chamber: Please always
follow the following procedure for the identification of feeder.
1. Check the tag no. on the PTW & match with what written on panel isolation tag.
2. Match the tag & description written on panel sticker with PTW
3. Check the breaker is in isolated position.
4. Check the control plug is disconnected.
5. Check control fuses are taken out.
6. Check the no. of panel match the no. the no. back side of the panel.
7. Switch on the lights of cable chamber from the front of the panel & check at the back ( cable
chamber)for the light glowing. Switch it on & off 2-3 times.
8. Mark the panel & barricate from adjacent panels at the back.
9. Follow the instructions written if any on the cable chamber sheet.

Procedure for discharging the cable:

Please always follow the following procedure for the discharging of Power cable of HT motor
1. After identification & confirmation open the door cover carefully.
2. Do not insert any thing inside the panel. Don’t even try to peepin.
3. Check & confirm the voltage by means of voltage detector (non contact type) taking it infront of
cables at the door distance only.
4. If the detector is not making any sound check the detector on any live socket or cable nearby &
confirm it is working perfectly.
5. Check it again at the cable chamber. Make sure it is not making any sound.
6. Connect the earth rod firmly at earth strip nearby.
7. Make the earth rod handle long suitable for voltage range.
8. Do not hold the earth wire (let it hang freely)with rod & touch the rod to the cable terminal. The
cable may show initial discharge spark & then there will be no charge on the cable.

Procedure for Maintenance of switchgear panel

Please observe the following procedure for maintenance of switchboard Type 8BK80, parts with
cables.
1. Check the tightness of power cable terminations with proper tool. Torgue 55Nm
2. If any loose connection found pl. change the spring washer & report.
3. For any hot spot , blackening marks found please clean the surface with cleaning agent, remove
any burr & then tighten the termination with new nut bolts & washer set.
4. Check the CT primary termination if any& tighten them.
5. Check the CT secondry terminations tightness, their ferrules, & control wires for their intactness.
6. Check the earthing connection of the cable for it’s tightness.
7. Check the space heater in the chamber (pl. switchoff if it is hot), check the resistance & tightness
& record in check sheet no.
8. Place the cable chamber cover on two bolts.
9. Check control wiring tightness in control chamber at front.
10. Danger: control voltage from Dcs may be present even after removal of control fuses. Pl. take
care.
11. All CT shorting links are in place & tight.
12. Check the control fuses for resistance & it,s ratings. If any fuse showing some resistance pl.
change it with new for correct rating & report.
13. Check if any wire left unconnected. Pl. check the same with drag. & confirm if not used pl. insulate
it properly.
14. Check the control contactor coils working with the help of drawing.
15. Check all indicating lamps are O.K. & working. If any found not working ,pl. change the same with
proper lamp or fitting wherever applicable.
16. Pl. check that all switches (push buttons, rotary switches) are O.K.( no damage) working freely.
17. Check the relay settings & record.
18. If possible pl. take control trial of the feeder as per drawing requirements.

Procedure for the maintenance of Breaker.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 68

Under normal operating conditions the circuit-breakerType 3AH3/3AH5 are maintenance-free. After
10,000 operating cycles or depending on the respective operating conditions (e. g. dusty
environment, frequent condensation, etc.) .however it is recommend to inspect the switchgear
according to the above maintenance recommendation. To do this, you may only use the materials
specified hereafter on the individual functional parts of the circuitbreaker.
.
Permissible cleaning agents / lubricants
Perclorethylene, Trichlorethylene on parts other than CR insulators.
CR insulator should not be cleaned with above as it gives harmful effect on them. They should be
cleaned with distilled water only.
Silver plated & other contact surfaces should be cleaned with clean cloth.
Sevogem 2 or Multipurpose grease “H” or any neutral grease can be used for lubrication.

Please observe the following procedure for maintenance of breaker parts

1. Check operating mechanism and interlocking of position switches and position lever switch (if
required, grease linkage and bearings)
2. Vacuum circuit-breaker operating mechanism.
3. Operate the trolley for test & services position and verfiy that the switch positions are reached
correctly.
4. Take out the trolley out of the panel for maintenance & close the panel door.
5. Danger:1 Pl. beware of the dangerous high voltage present inside the panel at top fixed
contacts.Make sure the safety shutter is on. If any descripancy found pl report to the incharge &
follow the instructions given.
6. Pl. discharge the closing spring of the breaker by doing it On & OFF once after disconnecting the
control supply. As this can lead to severe accident also.
7. Check contact surfaces, Jaw contact and operating linkages for signs of wear.
8. Check the intackness of Vaccuum Bottle & insulators ,Connecting rods.
9. Grease the linkages wherever applicable.
10. Check the operation of the mechanism manually, Closing ,Tripping.
11. Check the resistance of closing coil (Y9) tripping coils (Y1) & record. Should be 325+- 100 ohms
.If resistance not found as per record pl. report & replace the coils.
12. Spring charging motor resistance 25+-5 Ohms.
13. Check the resistance of antipumping contactor & motor charging contactors & record. If resistance
not found as per record pl. report & replace the contactors.
14. Check the rotary switch opration.
15. Check & tighten the control wirings.
16. Clean all the breaker body, connecting arms, insulators, jaw contacts etc. If required, clean the
insulating bushings with a vacuum cleaner
17. Apply fresh gelly on jaw contacts.
18. Megger the breaker with 2.5 kv megger Ph-Ph & top to bottom & PH-E & record .
19. Check the panel by opening the door for any unwanted material. Don’t get into the panel.
20. Place the breaker trolley in the panel under isolated conditions.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 69

Procedure for Maintenance of motor at field with LCS

Before going to the field pl. make sure the breaker is isolated, control plug is disconnected & panel
door is locked out.

• Please observe the following procedure for maintenance of motor.

1. Identify the Motor at plant and confirm Equipment Tag & name written on it is matching with
equipment tag & name written on the Work permit. In case of doubt ask Engineer/Operator
2. Check motor is not starting from LCS in presence of Engineer/Operator.
3. Open Motor terminal box and use earthing rod, first connecting it to ground and touching it to cable
termination for cable & motor discharging.
4. Check the terminal studs & terminal connectors for damage to threads or overheating
5. Check the terminal bushing for damage due to cracks, excessive carbonization etc.
6. Check the Motor Terminal Box for signs of moisture. If yes, then wipe it with a clean ,dry cloth. Look
for possible moisture seepage points and seal. Check the connection’s condition and tightness of Power
Cables & Winding leads .
7. Observe the condition of Terminal box cover Gasket .Change if it is worn out. It is to be properly
fitted back and sealed with proper Sealent RTV compound (silastic)
8. Check the terminal studs in Motor Neutral Box,winding leads & terminal connectors for damage to
threads or overheating
9. Check the Motor Neutral Box bushing/bushing plate for damage due to cracks, excessive
carbonisation etc.
10. Check the Motor Neutral Box for signs of moisture. If yes, then wipe it with a clean, dry cloth. Check
condition of Silica Gel and if necessary reactivate/replace
11. In Motor Neutral Box for winding leads a) Observe the condition b) Check the
Connection tightness.
12. Check the connection tightness of CT Secondary terminals and Cracks developed on surface if any.
13. Observe the condition of Neutral terminal box cover Gasket .Change if it is worn out. It is to be
properly fitted back and sealed with proper sealant.
14. Check the Space Heater connection. tightness.
15. Check condition of power and control cable ,their support, glanding and clamping.
16. Check the control wires inside the Local control stn, it’s element operation and terminal connection.
Check earthing of local control stn .
17. Open the fan cover & clean the wire mesh. Check that the fan is firmly secured to the shaft & is not
damaged
18. Clean the motor cooler. Open the cover first securing the bearing at NDE side & then all the tubes
are visible. Clean the tubes with brush with hard fibres throughout the tubes, do not use rags or markin
for that as it may stuck in between.
19. Close the tubes cover after cleaning & again secure the sealing of the same.Replace the gaskets if
required.
20. Check whether Earthing conductor are firmly connected to the motor body & are not broken. Check
for double earthing.Measure the earthing resistance by opening one earth from the connecting strip &
check resistance between body & earth. It should less than 1 Ohm .Measure & record in the check sheet
( under reference). Repeat the same for second earthing also.

21. For grease lubricated motors check lubrication nipple for bearing is clean and not clogged.,closed
with cap.
22. For Hyundai motors sevogem 2 or silvania RL2
For Siemens motors shell alvania RL3
23. Remove the cap & do greesing of the motor if required if possible by rotating the shaft by hand. Cap
the nipple again.
24. Clean Motor body thoroughly.
25. Check motor bearing temperature indicator indicating reading near to ambient.
26. Check Motor IR Value with 2.5 KV Meggar between PH – E & PH – PH (winding star point isolated )
and also measure winding resistance& inductance and record them in check sheet (By EMcElectric
Motor Checker) or LCRM Meter (Indu cap & Resi.)

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 70

27. Connect the star point of motor winding.
28. Check that all bolts in Main Terminal Box , Space Heater Terminal Box , RTD Junction Box , Neutral
terminal Box are firmly secured
29. Secure the Motor Terminal Boxs firmly in position & then seal the cover with proper sealant around
the periphery of the joint for better sealing.
30. Sealing to be done as described above for
a. Space Heater TB
b. Neutral TB
c. RTD TB
d. LCS
e. DE & NDE side Spigot
f. Cable glands having side & top cable entry wherever applicable

After completion of job ensure that all waste material has been positively removed from site and site
is clean.

Procedure for final meggering & handingover

Please observe the following procedure .
1. After completion of job from the field from the back side of the feeder panel open the doorwhich
was earlier secured with two bolts only.
2. If any confusion pl. confirm the panel again by the procedure described in 6.1.1 & make sure.
3. Check the chamber for any abnormal material inside.
4. Clean the chamber thoroughly with vacuum cleaner .
5. Seal the opening found if any from the sides & bottom.
6. Check CBCT is secured at it’s place.
7. Cable entry is sealed properly. If not seal it with M-seal or silastic.
8. Connect the Megger 2.5 kv between power terminal & earth , measure the value for 1min. &
10min.(for PI). Record the same in check sheet.
9. Remove the megger & leads close the door & secure it with all bolts firmly tightened.
10. Remove the material from back side of the panel.
11. Contorl panel, connect all the fuses removed, check for proper rating.
12. Connect the control plug & breaker operation in test position.
13. Close the door & return the work permit.Motor is ready for operation.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 71

 Maintenance of SF6 Circuit Breaker

Introduction
We have nos of SF6 circuit breakers of M/S Siemens make installed in JERP switchyard.
The details of the circuit breakers are 245 KV, 3150 Amps, 40 KA and 3AP1F1 type.
Purpose
This document describes various types of checks, which shall be carried out during the preventive
maintenance of SF6 circuit breakers.
Scope
This document is applicable for the preventive maintenance of all the SF6 insulated 245kV rated outdoor
duty circuit breakers in the switchyard. The operation and maintenance manual of circuit brakers shall
be referred to for any major overhauling of the circuit breakers.
References
Operation and maintenance manual for the 245kV SF6 of circuit breaker: - M/S SIEMENS
Safety
1. Before carrying out any job on Circuit Breakers, obtain electrical PTW.
2. Ensure that, both ends of the Breaker are isolated, de-energized, discharged and kept earthed.
3. Control and heating supply must be switched off.
4. Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the personal carrying
out the job.
5. Proper ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
6. Barricade the working area around the circuit breaker under maintenance from other yard
equipment/Bays, which are live.
7. No person should carry any ladder or any such long poles inside the switchyard, without the
instructions.

Procedure.
Following activities are done during the preventive maintenance of SF6, as per the check sheet
ZCPP/ELE/4009
1. Thorough cleaning of the CB shall be made.
2. Power conductor tightness shall be checked.
3. Breaker cubical all control connection to tighten.
4. Breaker ON/OFF operations shall be checked from both remote and local.
5. Spring charging indication to be check.
6. SF6 level/pressure shall be checked.
7. Record the meggar value of breaker poles.
8. Trip coil and close coil resistance shall be measured and recorded.
9. Breaker contact resistance shall be measured.
10. Closing time and tripping time of the breaker shall be measured and recorded.

Check sheet
Refer check sheet ZCPP/ELE/4010 for the preventive maintenance of SF6 circuit breakers.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 72

 Maintenance of 220KV Isolator

Introduction
We have isolators of 1250A (bay isolator) and 2500A (main bus isolator) capacity of M/S SIEMENS make
installed in JERP switchyard. All the isolators are of horizontal, center break, gang operated isolators.
Safety
Before carrying out any job on isolators, obtain electrical PTW.
1. Ensure that, both ends of the isolator are de-energized, discharged and kept earthed.
2. Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying
out the job.
3. Proper ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
4. Ensure proper use of tools.
5. Barricade the working area around the isolator under maintenance from other yard equipment/Bays,
which could be live.
6. No person should carry any ladder or any such long poles to the switchyard, unless instructed
specifically.

Procedure
Following aspects of maintenance shall be looked into, while carrying out the general maintenance of
the isolators.
• Operating Mechanism
1. Maintenance of linkages including transmission gears.
2. Maintenance of stopper bolts.
3. Cleaning of the auxiliary switch contacts and grease with silicon grease.
4. Electrical and Mechanical interlock with earth switch and Isolator.
5. Lubrication of the operating mechanism hinges, lock joints, on levers and bearings shall be done.
6. Tightness of all mounting bolts shall be done.
7. Movement and alignment of all arms for simultaneous operation shall be verified.
8. Ensure proper interlock indications with the EDMS panel.
• Main Contacts.
1. Cleaning and lubrication of all main Contacts.
2. Alignment of structure with respect to the contacts and uniformity of the movement of arms shall
be attended if required.
3. Tightness of all bolts, nuts, pins etc.
4. Cleaning of the support insulators and checking for cracks in insulators, if any.
5. Measuring of the contact resistance of all three phases, and shall be less than 300 micro Ohms.

• Earth Switches.
Alignment of earthing blades.
Contact cleaning.
Check the operation of earth switches.
Check the earth connection of structure and marshalling box.
• Marshalling boxes of Isolators and earth switches.
Visual check of auxiliary contacts and ensure contact healthiness
Cleaning and checking of the terminal tightness in marshalling box.
Tightening Torque for the various assemblies and subassemblies.
For M10 bolt 19Nm
For M12 bolts 33Nm

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 73

 Maintenance of Lightning Arrestor in 220KV SWYD

Introduction
The lightning arrestors are used for limiting the surge voltages to a safe value by discharging the surge
current to ground. We have 84 nos. of lightning arrestors in JERP 220 KV switchyard. In any one
phase, there are two individual stacks of rating 120 KV and 78 kV installed one above the other. These
lightning arresters are manufactured by M/S Crompton.
Purpose
This document describes various checks, which shall be carried out during the periodic maintenance of
lightning arrestors.
Scope
This document is applicable for the periodical maintenance of lightning arrestors, installed in JERP 220
KV switchyard.
Reference
The manufacturers (of M/S Elpro international Ltd) O&M manual shall be referred to for any major jobs
on Lightning arrestors.
Safety
1. Before carrying out any job on LAs, take electrical PTW.
2. Ensure that LA is discharged.
3. Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying
out the job.
4. Proper ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
5. Barricade the working area around the LA under maintenance from other yard equipment/Bays,
which could be live.
6. Keep a temporary earthing on the line.
7. Before returning the permit after completion of the job, remove the temporary earthing.
8. No person shall carry any ladder or any such long poles in the switchyard, unless specifically
instructed.
Procedure
The following maintenance aspects of LA shall be looked into while doing the maintenance of lightning
arrestors.
1. Visual inspection shall be done for any cracks on insulator surface and any flash over at the vent.
2. Cleaning the insulator of LA stack.
3. The power conductor connection tightness shall be checked.
4. Stack to stack bolt tightness checking shall be done.
5. Ensure proper alignment of LAs.
6. Ensure earthing connection tightness.
7. Inspect discharge counter for any physical damage and Earth link continuity at the discharge
counter.
8. Record the IR value the entire stack using 5kV meggar.
9. Record the leakage current of the monitor. (Compare reading of the leakage current with that of
the latest reading taken during condition monitoring. If the leakage current is found to be double of
that value, clean the arrester housing. The leakage current again is to be noted after charging. If it is
still on higher side, replace the arrester at the earliest opportunity).
10. Ensure monsoon protection of leakage current monitor.
11. Ensure earth connectivity to Earth pit/ Ground is ok.
12. Remove all material, tools, men and temporary earthing.
13. Return the electrical PTW.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 74

 Maintenance of 38 MVA, 33/6.6 KV Distribution Transformer

Introduction
We have 2 numbers of 38MVA Distribution transformer of M/s ABB Make in JERP CPP, which interconnect
the MRS board’s supply at 33KV to the 11 KV STG output terminals. The details of the transformers are
33/11 KV, 38 MVA and YNd11.
Purpose
This document deals with the different types of checks, inspections and other maintenance activities,
which are to be carried out for the transformers.
Scope
This document is applicable for the periodic maintenance of the transformers installed in STG area.
For any major maintenance activities to be carried out on transformers, manufactures operation and
maintenance manual shall be referred.
References.
1. Operation and Maintenance manual of M/S ABB.
Oil testing specifications procedure as per IS 1866
Oil Quality specifications as per IS 335
Safety
1. Before carrying out any job on the transformer, obtain PTW & Barricade the area.
2. Ensure the 33 KV-side Breaker is kept open and the earth switch is on and tagged.
3. Ensure the transformer is discharged after de-energising and discharge rods are kept connected at
transformer terminals throughout the job.
4. Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying
out the job.
5. Conduct ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.

Procedure
The maintenance of the transformer includes regular condition monitoring, shutdown maintenance and
any major maintenance activities.
Condition monitoring of transformers.
The major items to be checked during normal operation of transformers are as per the check list.
Preventive maintenance
Apart from condition monitoring of transformer, preventive maintenance is also done for the grid
transformers. The frequency of this transformer preventive maintenance is fixed as decided by CES.
The check points during the preventive maintenance of these transformers are as per the check sheet.

Guidelines for the checks of transformers

The following general guidelines shall be adopted while carrying out the periodical maintenance of the
transformers.

General: Transformer tank, cover, bushings and other parts should be inspected periodically for any
oil leakage, peeling of paint or rust formation. Rusted portion should be properly cleaned and painted.
Oil leakages should be immediately attended to. Clamping bolts on gasketed joints should be tightened
properly and if necessary gaskets should be replaced.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 75

Transformer oil. Oil should be checked with frequent intervals and if necessary, conservator should
be topped up. Oil for topping up should be cleaned, filtered and complying with IS: 335. Samples
of oil should be taken at specified regular intervals and tested. Oil testing is carried out as defined in
IS: 1866.

The oil should have a minimum breakdown voltage as indicated below.

Voltage grade Break down Voltage
< 72.5 kV 40 kV (rms)
72.5 kV to 145 kV 50kV (rms)
>145 kV 60kV (rms)
The presence of moisture should be checked and should be in permissible limits as follows.
Voltage grade Moisture content
> 145 kV 15 ppm
72 kV to <145 kV 20 ppm
<72.5kV 25 ppm
Conservator and oil level indicator: When conservator is taken for maintenance MOLG mechanism and
float should be cleaned and inspected for operation.
Silica gel breather. The silica gel colour should be monitored and maintained as dark orange. When it
is saturated with moisture (colour becomes Green), it should be reactivated by heating it upto 110-130
deg. C. for about 8 hours. The oil level in oil seal should preferably be maintained at the level marked
in the cap.
Buchholz relay. : During service if any gas is found to be collected, the gas should be tested and
analyzed.
Temperature indicators: During maintenance inspection, the level of oil in the pockets holding the
thermometer bulbs should be checked and oil replenished, if required. The capillary tubing should be
fastened down if it has become loose. Dial glasses should be kept clean. Temperature indicators should
be crosschecked with portable temperature sensors. On doubt the same has to be calibrated during PM
of Transformer. Thermometer pockets should be filled with oil, and pockets should be free from water.
Bushings: Porcelain insulators and connectors should be cleaned and examined for any cracks or any
other defects. Oil level in the condenser bushings is to be checked for minimum level.
External connections including earthing: All connections should be tight.
Gasket: Check the transformer for leakages periodically and take corrective actions as required.
Paint work: The paintwork should be inspected and where necessary, re painting and re touching should
be done
Flexi separator commissioning
Follow SOP NO: ZCPP/ELE/S3003 ELECTRICAL PROCEDURE

Check sheets

Refer following check sheet for carrying out the preventive maintenance of the transformer.

ZCPP/ELE/4013 Check sheets for 38MVA

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 76

 Maintenance Procedure for 220 KV Terminations
Introduction
We have 8 no of RST fed by 220 KV cables which is to be terminated at both end at switch yard as
well as at RST end M/S SAUDI CABLES terminated in jerp for all 220 KV cables.

Technical details

220 KV Terminations:

Nominal voltage : 220 KV

Rated maximum voltage : 245 KV
Rated minimum voltage : 198 KV
Frequency, Hz : 50 Hz
Circuit rating, MVA at 198 : 174 MVA
Short time current /duration : 40 / 0.2 KA/S
Dielectric strengthPower frequency withstand voltage, l min. dry : 460 KV
Lightning impulse withstand voltage : 1050 KV

Surge Arrester:

Material of construction : Metal Oxide

Material of Housing : Polymeric
Nominal discharge current : 10 KA
High current Impulse 4 / 10 micro sec : 100 KA
Continuous operating voltage : 6 KV
Rated voltage : 7.5 KV

Purpose
This document describes the different checks and step by step procedures, which shall be carried out
for the terminal of the 220 KV cable
Scope
This document is applicable for the entire 220KV cable terminal in JERP

Manufacturer’s manual (of M/S SAUDI CABLES) for the terminals of 220 kV shall be referred for any
major activities or overhauling.
Reference
Termination catalog of M/S SAUDI CABLES.
Safety
1. Before carrying out any job on 220 kV CABLE, obtain electrical PTW.
2. Ensure that, Cable is de-energized, discharged and kept earthed.
3. Verification of safe isolation from supply
4. Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying
out the job.
5. Proper ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
6. Ensure proper use of tools.
7. Barricade the working area around the switchgear under maintenance from other equipment, which
could be live.
8. Do not enter with ladder or any other equipment which has long extension unless and until it is
required and have permitted to enter those equipments.

Procedure
Following aspects of maintenance shall be looked into, while carrying out the general maintenance of
the 220 KV terminals. It includes check for any oil leakage, dust accumulation on the insulator.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 77

Inspection checks during PM:
The following maintenance aspects shall be looked into while doing the maintenance of 220 KV
terminals.
1. Inspection for any damages in HV bushings surface.
2. Inspection for oil leakage if any.
3. Inspect and tighten bolts in the bottom plate of HV bushing.
4. Cleaning of the HV bushing stacks
5. Tightness of terminal connections.
6. Check whether oil filling point is tightly connected or not and see for leakage possibility from there.
7. Check for the earthing connection firmness.

Note - The units are hermetically sealed hence oil does not deteriorate in service. So in no case oil
sample should be drawn for testing the dielectric strength.

• . Surge Arrester checking.

1. Check connection tightness in the surge arrester box
2. See physical damage if any to the surge arrester
3. Seal properly the surge arrester box ensure no water ingress inside form top gland

• Surge Arrester Testing

Case – 1: Surge arrester testing in case it is failed and new arrester is to fixed
a. For testing the surge arrester isolate it form the bushing
b. Arrange a high voltage kit
c. Connect the high voltage lead to the top of surge arrester and other to the earth.
d. Apply the voltage and start increasing it gradually in steps of 100 V.
e. Note the leakage current through the surge arrester
f. Note the voltage at which it gets fully conducting mode and current increase suddenly.
g. Also measure the leakage current at this point when the surge arrester conducts.
h. The voltage for conduction should be more then 7.5 KV

Case – 2: Surge arrester testing in case of checking its performance

a. For testing the surge arrester isolate it form the bushing

b. Connect the 500 V megger lead to the top of surge arrester and other lead to the earth.
c. Apply the 500 V megger. Note the values, if it is satisfactory then proceed further.
d. Now connect 5 KV megger lead to the top of arrester and other to the earth.
e. Apply the 5 KV and note the value.
f. It should note conduct in any case neither in 500 V nor in the 5 KV tests, as the rating of arrester
is of 7.5 KV.
g. If at all it conducts it is faulty and needs to be replaced.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 78

 Maintenance of Lighting Highmast

Introduction
We have highmast lighting system of M/S make in the switchyard. These highmasts are providing
lighting to the switchyard as well as function as a shielding from lightning for the switchyard.
Purpose
This document describes different types of checks, which shall be carried out during the periodic
maintenance of lighting highmasts.
Safety
1. Before carrying out any job on lighting highmast, obtain electrical PTW.
2. Ensure all PPE and safety belts are available and proper use of the same by the persons carrying
out the job.
3. Proper ‘toolbox talk’ to the persons doing the job.
4. Ensure proper use of tools.
5. No person shall carry any ladder or long poles into switchyard unless specifically instructed.

Procedure:--
The following maintenance aspects shall be considered while doing maintenance of the lighting
highmasts.
1. Open the terminal cover at the base of the highmast.
2. After opening the cover check the condition of plug and socket for any burning/heating.
3. Inspect the Level / condition of gear oil.
4. Put the rester.
5. Put the gear properly on the raising/lowering arrangement of the highmast.
6. Put torque gear to the power tool and fix it to the gear.
7. Check the alignment and tie it to the highmast.
8. Put starter plug to the highmast socket and place the starter softly on ground, little away from the
highmast.
9. Ensure that both plug top of the highmast are not at the same level.
10. Start lowering the mast and after completely lowering the highmast, ensure that the highmast is
just resting on the rester.
11. Remove the plug top of the starter.
12. Open both the highmast JBs on the lantern carriage and check the condition of the circuit by
meggaring.
13. Check the individual ckt and Identify & rectify the fault in the circuit and fitting, if any.
14. Ensure cleanliness of all fittings and provide monsoon protection.
15. Check the condition of wire rope ferrules and if required replace it.
16. Check the condition of the wire rope for any mechanical damage.
17. Before raising the lantern check that power cable is free from the rope.
18. Start raising the lantern carriage and ensure that lantern is sitting properly in its position.
19. Check the level of the lantern from distance and if level is not ok, adjust the level manually.
20. Ensure the highmast gear is latched properly.
21. Put both the plug top of the highmast.
22. Check the condition of power JB and check for any looseness. Rectify the same, if any.
23. Provide monsoon protection to the power JB.
24. Ensure that the highmast earthing is in good condition.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 79

Why we have used secondary 1A why not 5A.
ANS: Let us assume that the CT secondary has a rated burden of 15 VA. I have already explained the importance of
burden earlier. Now with 1A rated secondary current 15 VA means a burden of VA/ (current) 2 = 15/12 =15 ohms.
Suppose the rated burden in the primary also is 15 VA. The required resistance will be 15/ (100) 2 = 0.0015 ohms
which will not be possible even if we short the primary. It is true that with a 5A CT secondary the number of turns can
be one fifth, but the effect of the lead resistance demands a higher secondary voltage. For example if the lead
resistance in a differential protection is 5 ohms, the voltage requirement on the CT will be proportional to the product
of the current and resistance. Obviously with a 1A CT, the voltage requirement will be less. The same is true for
metering CT also where remote metering is involved., You can see that though we may need less copper in a 5 A
CT, we land up using more Iron (larger core cross section) to accomodate the higher voltage requirement. Therefore
many utilities have made it a standard to go in for 1A secondary current rating rather than going in for mix of 5 A and
1A based on application need.

Is CT saturation a temporary or a permanent phenomenon?

ANS: Normally it is a temporary phenomenon. The CT regains its original characteristics by the subsequent
decreasing current cycles. If a CT contains a remnant flux due to any reason (DC being one of the culprits. It can
happen when we make polarity checks on a CT or during millivolt drop test across the terminals of the switchgear.)
then during a fault, it may be driven deep into saturaton from where it cannot recover fully. In those cases the CT has
to be taken out and demagnetised. The last incident of this nature was found in one of the 6.6 KV motor feeders in
Utility more than a year back.
You may be aware that we use the saturating phenomenon to our advantage in the metering CTs. If the reflected
secondary current during a fault is sent to the metering instrument, it may get damaged. The metering CTs get
saturated, thereby the current does not increase beyond a limit.

Is there any relation of CT saturation with frequency variation. If yes what is the +/- frequency range.
Ans- A CT by design and theory would attempt to balance the Ampere turns (AT). That is, if it is a 200 / 1 A CT then
with 200 A in the primary, it will give 1 A in the secondary.
To enable 1 A in the CT secondary , the core should be capable of developing the required voltage at the secondary
terminal = 1 x (Ct resistance + lead resistance + burden) and proportionally higher voltage during fault condition.
The voltage generated is proportional to the Flux(Flux density x no. of turns) x frequency. From this equation you can
see that as the frequency is reduced the generated voltage is reduced. But to maintain the AT balance, the CT would
like to maintain the same secondary current, that is 1 A in this case.
To maintain 1A, we have to maintain the same level of voltage at the CT secondary.
To maintain the same level of voltage the flux has to increase to make up for the decrease in frequency.
If the flux increases, depending on the CT characteristics the core may get saturated.
Normally a protection CT has a very high knee point voltage. Therefore, it would not saturate under normal condition
but may do so under fault condition.
A metering CT has a low knee point voltage. It is possible that some degree of saturation may set in.
With a higher frequency, it is obvious that the CTwould need a lower flux to maintain the same terminal voltage.
However in this case the core loss which is proportonal to the frequency will increase slightly.
There is also an effect of frequency on the burden. In an inductive burden the reactance is proportional to the
frequency. That is, at a higher frequency the inductive part of the burden will increase thereby demanding a higher
CT secondary voltage. Normally the CT burden being predominantly resistive, this phenomenon can be neglected.
The important question however remains at what frequency would the saturation set in. I am not in a position to
answer that straight away. It would depend in the design margin. Normally we specify the electrical instruments to
work satisfactorily within a +/- 10% voltage and +/- 5% frequency margin.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 80

 MOTOR

CURRENT UNBALANCE in Motor and its effect

Allowed (Maximum 10%)
Current unbalance is result of loose terminal connection or a build-up of dirt or carbon on one set of
contacts (using the example of L1 as the problem leg) would cause a higher resistance on that leg (L1)
than on L2 and L3. The current follows the path of least resistance, so the current increases in legs L2
and L3. Higher current causes more heat to be generated in the motor windings. Percent (%) of current
unbalance is calculated in following way, with a maximum acceptable current unbalance of 10%.

Example:
Load current is A =66 Amps, B= 70 Amps and C= 59 Amps.
Average Current: (66 +70 + 59)/3=65
Maximum deviation from average Current:
(A) 66 – 65 = 1 Amps
(B) 70 – 65 = 5 Amps
(C) 65 – 59 = 6 Amps
Maximum deviation is 6 Amps

% Current unbalance: (6/65) x 100=9.2 %

The unbalance current in three phase systems can be represented by a set of vectors referred to as the
sequencing components. An example of such is represented in the below example

3 Phase Vector + Ve seqnce -Ve seqnce 0 Seqnce

Primary
cause of
motor failure
is excessive
heating due
to unbalance
current,
which if
sustained
over long
time periods
will result in motor burn out. Over heating also reduces the life of motor. If a motor is continuously
over heated by just10 degrees, its life can get reduced by almost 50%.

Current unbalance in a motor is best represented by the presence of excessive negative sequence
component in the motor current.

Unbalance & Sequence components:

Unbalanced currents in a three phase motor can be resolved into three balanced components as
follows

a) Positive Sequence component: This component is in the same phase sequence as that of the motor
current. All its three phases are perfectly balanced - they are equal in magnitude and are displaced by
120 degrees. The positive sequence component epresents the amount of balance in the power supply
and consequently is instrumental in delivering useful power.

b) Negative Sequence component: This component has a phase sequence opposite to that of the
motor current hence the name negative sequence. It represents the amount of unbalance in the

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 81

feeder. All its three phases are perfectly balanced - they are equal in magnitude and are displaced by
120 degrees. This component does not produce useful power - however by being present it
contributes to the losses and causes temperature rise.

c) Zero Sequence components: This, if present, represents extent of earth fault in the feeder. All its
three phases are in the same direction.

Effect of Unbalance current in Motors:

During current unbalance, negative sequence currents flow through the stator windings. This results
in induction of negative sequence voltage in the rotor windings. Since the rotor is short circuited, this
will result in abnormal current flow in the rotor and damage the rotor winding. A voltage unbalance of
the order of 3% can increase the heating by nearly 20% in the rotor.

The negative sequence impedance of the motor is approximately same as the locked rotor impedance
which in turn is approximately one sixth of normal motor impedance. Due to this even small voltage
unbalance can produce large negative sequence current in the motor.

The frequency of the negative sequence current induced in the rotor will be equal to (supply
frequency) x (2-slip) Hz. This is due to the fact that it is revolving in the opposite direction. This
frequency will be typically around 99 Hz during normal motor operation. Due to skin effect, high
frequency negative sequence currents encounter high rotor resistance. This in turn results in over
heating. The increased resistance is typically 5 times the normal positive sequence resistance.

1. What is motor? How DC motor works?

A motor is a machine, which takes electrical energy and converts that electrical energy into mechanical
energy. DC motor works under the principle, that whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field, a mechanical force will be acts upon that conductor and the conductor tends to rotate,
if it is arranged freely to rotate. The direction of the force or rotation can be determine by “Fleming’s
left hand rule”

2. What is torque?
Whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force will be acts upon
that conductor and the conductor tends to rotate, if it is arranged freely to rotate. This rotation is due
to the turning or twisting force acted on that conductor. This turning or twisting movement of a force
about an axis is called torque ‘T’. T = force * radius Newton-meter.
Work done per revolution = force * distance covered in one revolution.
∴ Work done per revolution = force * 2πr.
Work done per second = force * 2πr N (r.p.s)
Work done per second = 2π N T (äT = F * r)
So power developed in metric horsepower is equal to force 2πNT/735.5 hp.

3. What are the classifications of DC motor?

a. DC series motor.
b. DC shunt motor.
c. DC compound motor.
There are two types of DC compound motor.
a. Differential compound motor.
b. Commulative compound motor.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 82

4. What are the losses in DC motor?
The losses in DC motor are same as that of DC generator. They are copper losses,
magnetic losses and mechanical losses.

5. What are the characteristics of DC motor?

The characteristics of DC motor shows the relation between armature current (Ia),
speed (N) and torque (T).
a. Torque and armature current characteristics. It is also known as electrical characteristics.
b. Speed and armature current characteristics.
c. Speed and torque characteristics.

6. What is the necessity of DC motor starter?

Eb = V – Ia ra. ∴ Ia = V – Eb / ra.
At the time of starting from the rest there is no any back emf (Eb) in the armature. So a large current
flows through the armature based on V / ra. This very large current blow out the fuses and before to
that it will damage the commutator, commutator brushes and winding. To avoid this difficulties a proper
resistance has to be introduce in series with the armature till the motor reaches it’s rated speed or till
development of Eb in the armature to reduce the starting large current to safe value. This starting
resistance is gradually cut out as the motor gains speed and the develops back emf (Eb) which regulates
it’s speed and armature current. This can be achieved by the help of starter.

7. What are the types of DC motor starter?

a. DC two point starter for series motor.
b. DC three point starter for shunt motor.
c. DC four point starter for compound motor.

8. How speed control of DC motor can be achieved?

Induced emf in the armature E = P * φ * Z * N / A * 60 volts.
Where Z and A are constant.
N ∝ Eb / φ
N ∝ V – Ia ra / φ.
We can consider that Ia ra drop is very small and there by in the place of V – Ia ra
we can consider only V. If it so then N ∝ V/ φ.
So speed may be varied by varying either applied voltage to the armature and by
varying field flux or field strength per pole or total field flux.

9. What are the types of AC three phase motors?

Mainly there are two types.
1. Synchronous motors.
a. Plain synchronous motors.
b. Auto synchronous motors.
2. A-synchronous motors.
a. Induction motors.
1. Single phase motors 2. Three phase motors.
• Shaded pole motor. • 3φ single squirrel cage motor.
• Capacitor start capacitors run motor. • 3φ double squirrel cage motor.
• Capacitor start induction’s run motor. • Squirrel deep bar induction motor.
• Split face motor. • Slipring induction motor
b. Commutator motors.
1. Single phase commutator motors. 2. 3φ commutator motors.
• Plain repulsion motor. • 3φ series motor
• Repulsion start induction’s run motor. • Charge motor.
• Repulsion induction motor. • Compensated motor.
• Series motor or universal motor.
10. What is the working principle of 3φ induction motor?

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 83

When 3φ supply is given to stator, a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced. This
rotating magnetic field produces induced emf in the rotor winding as per faraday’s laws and this induced
emf causes to circulate a heavy induced current in the rotor winding due to very small resistance of
rotor. At the initial moment the frequency of induced emf is equal to the frequency of the stator supply
voltage, when the rotor is stationary as in the case of secondary of a transformer. The rotor induced
current according to lenz’s law flows in such a direction that it opposes the cause, which is inducing it.
In this case the cause producing the rotor current is the relative speed between the rotating magnetic
field if stator and the rotor and is maximum when the rotor is stationary. Hence to reduce this relative
speed rotor conductor (rotor) starts to rotate in the same direction in

11. What is slip?

The difference in speed of stator magnetic speed ‘Ns’ (synchronous speed) and rotor speed ‘Nr’ is called
slip or absolute slip and it is denoted by the letter ‘S’.
∴ S = Ns – Nr / Ns. Slip has no unit. Percentage of slip of induction motor varies from 4 to 5% in
small motors and 1.5 to 2.5% in big motors. In other words slip ‘S’ = fr / f. Where fr is rotor frequency
and f is stator frequency.
12. What is the working principle of double squirrel cage induction motor?
In double squirrel cage motor outer cage rotor winding is of high resistance and low reactance. Inner
cage winding is of high reactance and low resistance. At the time of starting rotor frequency is equal to
the stator frequency and there by the reactance of the inner cage winding is comparatively high (XL =
2πfL) because it is linking more inner winding than the outer winding. So the impedance of inner cage
winding is very high. Hence the current flow through inner cage winding is very less comparing to the
outer cage winding. That is a very high ratio of current
is passing through the outer cage winding at the time of starting and there by
produces very high starting torque.
When the rotor starts running the speed of the motor can be increased and the slip will be decreased
and there by the rotor frequency (‘S’ = fr / f). So that in the running condition the reactance of the
inner cage decreases to the lowest value and hence the Impedance (XL = 2πfL). So the current in inner
cage winding will be comparatively more than the outer cage winding at the time of running. So now
inner cage winding produces more torque than outer cage at the time of running and the motor running
torque is good enough.

13. Why starter is necessary to start the AC motor?

a. At the time of starting motor starting current is high (4 to 5 times). Therefore if motor is directly
started the supply voltage may be disturb.
b. By the help of starters starting and stopping of motors can be made easily as we required. Because
starters provides overload tripping difficulties.
c. The help of starters can protect motor against the single phasing by the action of overload
arrangements. d. Protect the motor from no-voltage and its difficulties.
e. Permits automatic control when required.

14. What are the types starters used for starting of induction motor?
a. Direct on line starter (air break) mechanically.
b. Direct on line starter (air break or oil immersed) electrically.
c. Star delta starter.
d. Slipring motor starter.
e. Auto transformer starter.

15. What are the speed control methods of induction motor?

a. By controlling the supply voltage.
b. By controlling the supply frequency (Ns = 120f / P).
c. By varying the number of poles (Ns = 120f / P).
d. By rotor rheostatic control (for small speed variation).

16. What is magnetic locking or cogging effect of induction motor?

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 84

In squirrel cage induction motor some times the rotor and stator care teeth or slots are comes face to
face or parallel at stationary condition. If we are starting the motor at this condition the motor get
hesitated to start or run due to the attraction developed between those rotor and stator teeth or slots.
This is known as the magnetic locking or cogging effect of a squirrel cage induction motor. This type of
magnetic locking in squirrel cage induction motor can be avoided either by skewing the rotor slot or by
selecting the rotor slot, such that there is no common factor between the rotor slot and stator slots.

17. What is skewing?

Skewing can be done by turning the rotor slots about 15° from the parallel position of slots with the
shaft. That is rotor slots are not in parallel with the shaft but there is an angle of about 15° with the
shaft.

18. What are the losses in induction motor?

a. Stator losses (stator copper losses, stator iron losses).
b. Rotor losses (rotor copper losses, rotor iron losses).
c. Windage and friction losses.

19. What is synchronous motor?

An alternator, which is running as a motor can be called as synchronous motor and it runs at
synchronous speed while it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It requires both AC for
armature and DC supply for field.

20. What are the advantages and dis-advantages of synchronous motor?

Advantages
a. It’s a constant speed motor and is equal to synchronous speed from no load to full load. b. It has
good efficiency higher than induction motor.
c. It can be run as a motor and also as an alternator as per the requirement. More over it can be used
as synchronous condenser.
Dis-advantages
a. It can not be used as a varying speed motor. Because its speed can not be varied.
b. As a motor it is not self-starting type and it can not be started on load.
c. It requires both AC and DC supply. d. Hunting is also produced in this motor.

21. What are the applications of synchronous motor?

a. These motors are used in powerhouses, in sub stations for the improvement of power factor by
connecting it in parallel to the supply and it is run without load under over excitation of field.
b. Used in big industries where many induction motors are installed to improve the power factor. c.
Used for constant mechanical loads.

22. What is hunting effect?

When the load is varied to the motor the oscillation being setup in the rotor about the position of
equilibrium corresponding to change of load condition. So the damper winding acts the magnetic lines
of force and causes to create the opposite torque, which keeps the rotor in the same position of the
particular load. This oscillation of the rotor is known as Hunting or Phase swinging. To reduce this
hunting damper winding is helpful.

23. What is synchronous condenser or phase advancer?

An over excited synchronous motor takes leading current just like a condenser and gives leading power
factor. A synchronous motor, which I used only for the purpose of improving power factor, can be called
as synchronous condenser or phase advancer.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 85

24. Why single-phase motors are not self-starting?
When a 1φ supply is given to the single winding of the single phase motor, the field produced by it
changes in magnitude and direction sinusoidally (pulsating flux). Such and alternating field is equivalent
to two fields of equal magnitude and speed rotating in opposite direction. Such rotating magnetic fields
produces two torque’s on the rotor. So the rotor can not rotate in any direction. Because the net torque
developed by the motor is equal to zero. So a single-phase motor is not
self-starting.

25. What are the methods to self-starting of single-phase motor?

a. Splitting one phase into two phases.
b. By using capacitor.
c. By using repulsion method.
d. By shading the poles.
e. By connecting the field in series with the rotor having winding with commutator
(AC series motor or universal motor).

26. What are the methods to control the speed of single phase motor?
In AC single-phase motors speed control can not be achieve as smooth as in DC motor. There are
following few methods of speed control.
a. By changing the number of poles of stator. b. By changing the applied voltage to the stator.
c. Frequency control method. d. Rotor rheostat control.
e. By operating two motors in concatenation or cascade or tandem method.
f. By injecting an emf in the rotor circuit. g. By changing slip.

27. What is the effect of frequency and high voltage at the start of motor.
For a constant load if frequency decreases motor current will increase and at the start if voltage is
more motor current also increases.

28. What is the minimum voltage required for starting of 6.6 kV motors?
Minimum 80% of rated voltage.

29. What are the limits of vibration measurement for motors?

50 microns for displacement and 5 mm/second for velocity.

30. What you mean by SPDP?

Screen protected drip proof.

31. What is the current in single phasing?

2 times of rated current.

32. What is the impedance per phase of delta connected motor?

1.5 times the total impedance.

33. What is the slip of an induction motor during normal running?

More than zero.

34. What is the effect of increased load on power factor of induction motor?
Power factor of an induction motor increases with loading.

35. What are the effects of unbalanced voltage on induction motor?

There will be negative sequence current, which will heat up the stator winding and weakens the
insulation. These currents will induce emf in rotor and heat up the rotor bars and cause breakage in
them. Also due to high leakage fluxes due to negative phase sequence current the end parts heating
will be more.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 86

36. What are the types of bearings are adopted for small motors and large motors?
Small motors (LT motors)
Horizontal mounted – deep groove ball bearing at both ends.
Medium motors --Roller bearing at DE and deep groove bearing at NDE.
Large motors (HT motors above 750 kW)
Horizontal mounted – sleeve bearing (pedestal) cooled by lub oil.
Vertical mounted – face to face angular contact ball bearing at NDE and roller or ball
bearing at DE.

37. What do you mean by term insulating resistance? How it is measured?

Insulating resistance: insulating resistance is the opposition offered by an insulating material to the flow
of current (electrons) through it when an high potential is applied across it. Insulating resistance are
measured by megger. First the equipment whose resistance is to be measured is disconnected from
supply. If the machine is a large one, there may be accumulated static charge on the machine. So we
have to discharge it by connecting a wire between the terminals and ground for 15mins. Otherwise
megger will give wrong reading. After this we should remove the wire and we have to connect megger
terminals (live & earth) to the motor terminal and earth. The rating of the megger should be selected
properly. Then rotate the megger at rated speed of 160 rpm and take the readings.

Predictive (preventive) maintenance on Induction Motor.

38. What are the reasons for high current in motor?

a. High frequency – at 51 Hz current will be 105% of the normal current.
b. Low frequency – at 47.8 Hz current will be 102% of the normal current.
c. High voltage. d. Under voltage.
e. Mechanical over loading. f. Process requirement.

39. What are the reasons for unbalanced current in motor?

a. Loose power cable connection.
b. Voltage unbalance.
c. Short-circuited turns of coils of winding.

40. What are the reasons for vibration in the motor?

Vibration could be because of mechanical faults and electrical faults.
• Mechanical faults.
a. Wrong alignment of the motor on foundation.
b. Wrong installation.
c. Improper fitting of bearing and cooling fans.
d. Periodic impulse loads such as reciprocating compressors.
e. Pulley of heavy weight which cause bending of motor shaft resulting in non uniform air gap. f.
Damage of bearing or bad bearing. g. Bad coupling.
h. If the axial alignment of the motor and the driven machine is incorrect and rotor is allowed to contact
its axial stops, high axial vibrations may occur, together with high bearing temperature high and even
bearing failure.
i. Machine base and foundation problem. j. Under sized bearing.
• Electrical faults.
a. Air gas dissymetry. b. Broken rotor bars.
c. Slackened stator core. d. Slackened rotor core.
e. Interturn short in the rotor winding in the two-pole machine.
f. Unbalance in rotor winding.
g. Unbalance power supply voltages.
If the vibration is because of electrical fault, de-energise the machine and watch the vibration as it runs
down.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 87

 • The possible vibration frequencies observed are
a. Twice the power supply frequency – it indicates that the vibration is developed
by unbalanced power supply voltages, unbalanced air gap, unbalance in rotor
winding, slackened stator core etc.
b. Multiple of power frequency – the stator and rotor slots co-ordinate to develop
radial lines of force to deform and pulsate the cores.
c. Twice the slip frequency – magnetic unbalance due to unbalance air gaps,
slackened rotor core, interturn short in the rotor-winding etc. of two-pole
machine.
d. Beat (Humming) – in case of two-pole machine the beat is developed when
the vibration of twice as much as power frequency developed between the
stator and rotor is superimposed on the vibration of twice the slip frequency
developed due to irregular air gap.

41. What are the reasons for winding temperature high in the motor?
For motors having class – B insulation the temperature should not be more than 110°C and for motors
having class – F insulation the temperature should not be more than 130°C. In case temperature is
more, then the following could be the possible reasons.
• Electrical overloads.
a. Over and under voltage. b. Over and under frequency.
c. Voltage unbalance. Voltage unbalance create unbalance of currents and
increase in temperature which will be 2*(% voltage unbalance)* (% voltage unbalance)*.
(% Voltage unbalance) = 100 * maximum deviation from average voltage average voltage.
For instance if voltages are 390V, 410V & 440V,
% Voltage variation = 100*(440-390+410+440) (440-390+410+440) = 6.45%.
Therefore increase in temperature rise = 2*(6.45)*(6.45) = 83°C (approximately).
d. Voltage transients and interruptions. e. Loose connection at motor terminals.
f. Unbalance current. g. Single phasing (if OLR protection is not working).
h. Long acceleration cycle. i. Unusual system grounding conditions.
• Mechanical overloads.
a. Locked rotor. b. Heavy starting. c. Bearing problem.
d. Overload in continuous duty and intermittent duty.
• Environmental overloads.
a. Excessive temperature of cooling medium or ambient temperature.
b. Restricted flow of cooling.
c. Reduction in the density of cooling medium.
d. Heat transfer from machine parts connected to the motor.
4. Others.
a. Excessive number of switching operations.

42. What are the reasons for bearing temperature high?

Temperature of bearing should not be more than 90°C. In case temperature is higher
than the 90°C the following could be the possible reasons.
a. Inadequate lubricants inside the bearing.
b. Faulty bearing. c. Bearing is jammed.
d. Over greasing. e. Improper grade of lubricant.

43. What are the reasons for abnormal sound or noise?

Motors in general should run very quietly and no abnormal noise is desired.
However if noise is there, it could be because of following reasons.
a. Windage noise – the noise due to ventilating system, (whistling noise).
b. Bearing noise – the noise due to its rolling contact.
c. Unusual noise – some defects inside the motor (example – motor bar failure).
d. Deep heavy growling noises – some electrical fault.
For permissible limits of noise levels for rotating electrical machines IS: 12065:1987

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 88

is being reffered.

44. What are the reasons for harmonics in the motor?

Generally even harmonics are not expected to be present in three phase motors. Triple-n harmonics
like 3rd, 9th, 15th etc. are also not expected. The dominant odd harmonics expected are 5th, 7th, 11th
and 13th etc. Presence of strong 2nd harmonics indicates unbalance voltage, unbalance winding
impedance, rotor defects, magnetic imbalance, faulty rotor skewing etc.
Very strong 3rd harmonics indicates magnetic saturation, ground leak currents, overloads etc.
Overloading causes overheating, resulting in non-linear magnetization which gives high 3rd harmonic
winding faults, short circuits. Hot spots in rotor or stator also may indicate higher harmonics.

45. What are the possible reasons for motor not coming of rated speed during start?
In case motor does not come to its rated speed then following could be the probable causes.
a. Starting load is too high. b. Broken rotor bars (look for cracks near rings).
c. Open primary circuit. d. Voltage is too low.

46. What are the possible reasons for motor to take long acceleration time?
Following may the possible reasons for motor to take long acceleration time.
a. Excess loading.
b. May be rewound motor with poor quality of winding conductor having high resistance.
c. Defective squirrel cage rotor. d. Applied voltage is too low.

47. What are the points contributes in insulation resistance of the motor?
If the measured insulation resistance of the motor is less than 1 MΩ / kV with a minimum of 1MΩ, when
the machine is cold it is to be dried out before full voltageis applied to the terminals of the motors and
the drying out is to be continued as long as the insulation resistance rises or until a sufficiently high
value that is not less than 1 MΩ / kV with minimum of I MΩ at 75°C is reached.
While proceeding for point as above said, following factors are to be kept in mind which affect the
insulation resistance measurement.
They are, a. Surface condition. b. Moisture. c. Temperature.
d. Magnitude of test voltage. e. Duration of application of test voltage.
f. Residual charge in the winding. g. Ageing of the insulation. h. Mechanical stresses.

48. What are the minimum recommended PI values for AC and DC rotating machines?
Following minimum recommended PI values criteria is to be followed.
a. 1.5 for class – A insulation.
b. 2.0 for class – B insulation.
c. 2.5 for class – F insulation.

49. What is the minimum recommended absorption coefficient value for AC and DC rotating
machines?
Absorption coefficient = IR value for 60 seconds = 1.3 (minimum recommended value) IR value for
15 seconds
Tips:
a. IR value decreases some what with an increase I applied voltage. However for machines in good
condition substantially the same IR is obtained for any test voltage up to the peak value of the rated
operating voltage.
b. If the IR value decreases significantly with an increase in applied voltage it is an indication of
imperfections or fractures of the insulation aggravated by the presence of dirt or moisture or may be
due to the effects of dirt or moisture alone, or may result from numerous other phenomena not
necessarily associated with any defect or weakness.
c. IR value for good dry winding continue to increase for hours with constant test voltage continuously
applied, however a fairly steady value is usually reached in 10 to 15 minutes. If the winding is wet or
dry or dirty the steady value is usually reached in 1 or 2 minutes after the test voltage is applied.
d. The recommended minimum IR value for AC and DC machines is determined by
the following empirical relationship.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 89

IR = kV + 1 Where IR = recommended minimum IR in mega ohms at 40°C of the entire machine
winding and kV = rated machine voltage in kilo volts. Temperature correction is to be applied, if winding
is not at a temperature of 40°C.
e. IR of the one phase of three phases winding with other two phases earthed, is approximately twice
that of the entire winding. Therefore when the three phases are tested separately, the observed
insulation resistance of each phase should be divided by two to obtain a value which after correction for
temperature, may be compared with the recommended minimum value of IR.

50. What is use of Tan – Delta test? And what are the recommended values?
The very purpose of this test is to detect moisture content, voids, cracks and deterioration in the
insulation and same is to be conducted on HT motors. Based on the guidelines given in the article
‘Diagmistic testing on the winding insulation’ by J. S. Simon (IEE vol. 127 may 1980) the contamination
level of motor winding is to be assessed from the given Tan – Delta value.
Starting Tan – Delta values Degree of contamination
0 – 4%. Low void content.
4 – 6%. Clean.
6 – 10%. Some dirt.
10 – 14%. Dirt and moisture.
14 – 16%. Gross contamination.
16 – 20%. Heavy deposit of oil dirt.
Above 20%. Severe oil and carbon contamination.

51. What are important guidelines for conducting HV test?

Based on the recommendations given in IS: 4029:1977 decided DC test voltage
= (2E+1kV) 1.6 * M
Where E = rated voltage.
2.6 = AC to DC conversion factor.
M = derator factor which is a function to be decided on the basis of the age and condition of equipment.
The DC voltage applied in steps and the leakage current recorded at each step. A plot leakage current
Vs test volt is to be plotted as the test progress.Some recommendations of IS:4029:1977.
a. The HV test made on the windings on acceptance shall as far as possible not be repeated. If however
a second test to be made at 80% of the volt given by the empirical formula given above.
b. Test voltage for completely rewound motor = full test voltage for new motor.
c. Partially rewound or overhauled motor = 75% * full test voltage for a new motor.
d. Before the test for the old parts of the winding shall be carefully cleaned and dried.
e. Before attempting of HV DC test a minimum PI value of motor should be obtained.

52. What are the uses of high voltage surge test?

This test gives distinct wave forms giving indications of various defects such as,
a. Turn to turn short in same phases. b. Coil to coil short in same phases.
c. Partial phase to phase short. d. Complete phase to phase short.
e. Improper coil connections. f. Reverse coil connections.
g. Open coil connections. h. Short to ground partial.
i. Short to ground complete.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 90

53. What is the thumb rule for motor current?
Thumb rule for NO LOAD current of motors.
Type of enclosure No. of poles % No Load current of rated current
TEFC 2 15 – 20
TEFC 4 30 – 35
SPDP 2 25 – 30
SPDP 4 35 – 40
SPDP 6 to 8 50 – 55
SPDP 10 80
Note: TEFC (Totally enclosed fan cooled) motors are low inductive having low
active material in comparison to SPDP(Screen protected drip proof) motors.
Thumb rule for calculating positive sequence and negative sequence current in
motors. a. Positive sequence current: Average of all three phases currents.
b. Negative sequence current: Maximum deviation of any of the phase currents from the average.

54. How you evaluate the insulation condition based on PI value?

Evaluation of insulation condition based on PI value
PI value Insulation condition Recommendation
1.0 – 1.5 Bad Drying is mandatory
1.5 – 2.0 Doubtful Drying is recommended
2.0 – 3.0 Adequate No drying is needed
3.0 – 4.0 Good No drying is needed
> 4.0 Excellent No drying is needed

55. Purpose of Motor protection relay: Type- CTMM/CTMFM

This relay contains all the protection factors to protect the motor, from Thermal
overload (Ith), Instantaneous over current (I1), Instantaneous or time delayed
unbalance element, Earth fault Element (I0) & Stalling protection (I1(t))

56. Why differential protection for HT motors?

For more than 2500 kW motors it is required to provide differential protection. It is
biased Relay against internal phase fault or earth fault very fast. Insensitive to
starting current and stalling current.

57. What is the 2 stage stalling protection for HT motor?

Because locked rotors withstand time of motor is less than starting time of motor
under reduced voltage conditions.
Stage 1 = 350% 6 sec for starting at rated voltage
(Because starting time = 6 sec + hot stall time = 7 sec)
Stage 2 = 175% 15 sec to permit 14 seconds starting time under reduced voltage
Condition (Since starting current is less, stage 1 will not operate)

58. What are the effects of single phasing?

a. Current will increase √3 times.
b. More heat in stator and rotor parts.
c. Insulation failure and short circuit & Ground fault may occur.

59. What is Motor controller?

A device that controls some or all of the following functions: starting, stopping,
overload protection, over current protection, reverses, changing of speed sequence
control and running/jogging.

60. What is Motor speed?

The shaft speed of the three-phase squirrel cage motor is determined by the frequency of the supply
voltage and the number of poles in the motor. A two-pole motor runs at a speed of 3000 rpm on 50
cycles per second.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 91

rpm = cycles per second x 60 – slip Poles (Where slip is the difference between the speed of the rotating
magnetic field and the speed of the rotor.)

61. Why Over current protection used?

A fusible disconnect or circuit breaker used to protect the branch circuit conductors, control devices and
the motor from grounds and short circuits. the over current protection device must be capable of
carrying the starting current to exceed 400% of the motor full load current.

62. What is Overload?

Any excessive amount of current drawn by the motor is called overload. Overloads on a motor may be
mechanical or electrical.

63. What is Plugging?

The instant reversal of motor is called plugging. Damage to the driven machinery can be result if
plugging is applied improperly.

64. What is Sequence control?

The control of separate motors to operate in a predetermined pattern.

65. What are IP (ingressive protection) and IC?

IP means ingressive protection to the motor against the dust and water entry. The first digit indicates
protection against accidental contact with live or moving parts (solid particles). The second digit
indicates protection against ingress of water, foreign bodies. IC means instrument cooling to the motor
(type of cooling)

66. What are the effects of excessive starts and repetitive surges?
Repetitive surges may give impact to the insulation of the motor and dielectric capability of the motor.
Excessive starts may subject stator winding to high current for more time. Subsequently in HT motor
due to High Mass rotor bar and rotor short ring may loose or fail. Bearing also may damage.

67. What are the effects of broken rotor bars and broken shaft parts?
Broken rotor bars
a. High stator current and over heat of stator winding.
b. More harmonic currents in end parts.
c. High vibration.
Broken shaft or parts
a. Stator winding loose bracing.
b. Rotor high vibration and bearing vibration.
c. Frame vibration and more harmonics in side bands.

68. Give the relation between current and temperature in motors.

a. Winding temperature is proportional to square of the current.
b. 10% increase in current gives 30% increase in temperature.
c. 10°C rise in temperature makes 50% life reduced.

69. What are the effects of imbalance stator winding resistance?

If the stator winding resistances are imbalance phase to phase give pulsating fluxes and pulsating torque
on rotor and vibration may increase. For accurate resistance measurement Kelvin Bridge is used.

70. What reflects the change in speed?

a. Supply frequency may vary the speed of the motor.
b. Load on the motor may vary the speed of the motor.

71. What is use of BORESCOPE inspection?

BORESCOPE inspection method makes it easy to observe the end winding condition

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 92

of the motor. In this inspection winding ties, loose coils, dust etc can be observed.

72. What you mean by CRAWLING and COGGING?

Crawling --The motor fails to rotate at rated speed or motor rotates at … or 20% speed is called motor
crawling. This may be due to system imbalance or more pulsating torque. (means due to 5th and 7th
harmonics effect)
Cogging --Motor fail to start atoll is called motor cogging.

73. Why motor starting current is high compared to transformer charging current?
Transformer charging current is only 1% and that of motor starting current is 30 to 40%. Because of
air gap between stator and rotor. If the air gap is more load taking capacity increases and if air gap is
less the load taking capacity reduces.

74. What is the use of making rotor skewing?

1. To run motor quickly by reducing magnetic hum.
2. It reduces locking tendency with the stator.

75. Why under voltage tripping of motor is incorporated in motor feeder breakers?
The under voltage can occur in case of bus fault. If the motors are kept connected they will feed the
fault which may cause the damage. Due to the back feeding from the motor the motor will slow down
very fast. Hence process system will come to halt very fast. (In case HT motor will not rotate for the
designed 3 to 5 minute period in case of bus under voltage).

76. What is the purpose of static starter? How current setting adopted?
The static starter limits the starting current of the motor to 2.5 times the motor rated current instead
of 6 times the rated current. If the motor is directly on UPS, the UPS fuse will blow, since the UPS
cannot supply so much starting current. Hence the static starter is set to limit the starting current. This
is achieved by firing angle control of back to back thyristor

76. What are the protections provided for motor feeder?

Ith - Thermal over load
I2S - Unbalance load
I0S - Earth fault protection
I1t - Stalling protection
I1Inst. - Short circuit protection

77. What is polarisation index?

a) It is defined as a ratio of 10 minutes resistance value to 1-minute resistance value.
b) It gives a quantitative information about the insulation with respect to moisture, dirt and other
contamination. c) A PI value of less than 1.0 indicates a need for immediate reconditioning.

78. Why megger value of 1 minute is less than 10-minute value?

After 10 minutes the high voltage applied make the molecules such a way that stabilised in a good
insulation. If insulation is weak it leads to more leakage current due to high potential.

79. What is the classification of duty of rotating electrical machines?

S1 – Continuous operation at rated load (MCR) in 40 °C
S2 – Short time operation (STR) for 5 minute or 15 minutes or 30 minutes.
S3 – Intermittent periodic operation (resting and loading e.g. cranes, lifts etc)
S4 – As for S3 but with starting
S5 – As for S3 with electric braking
S6 – Continuous cyclic operation.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 93

80. What should be the value of insulation resistance of induction motor?
In Rm = kV + 1 M OHMS. Insulation resistance of any electrical machine (motor or generator) should
be above 0.5-M ohms in all cases.

81. What are the classes of insulation?

Y – 90οC (max) cotton, silk, paper, wood without oil impregnation
A – 105οC Materials of class Y impregnated with natural resins, insulating oils.
E – 120οC Synthetic resin enamels, cotton and proper laminations.
B – 130οC Mica, glass fibre, asbestos with suitable bonding substance.
F – 155οC Class B with more thermally resistant bonding materials.
H – 180οC Glass fibre and asbestos, mica with silicon resins.
C – >180οC Mica, ceramics, glass, quartz and asbestos without binders.

82. What are the checks on the motor during the preventive maintenance?
IR Value, Resistance and Inductance measurement and PI value (should > 1.5)

83. What are the causes of motor vibration?

a) Broken rotor.
b) Slacked stator core.
c) Slacked rotor core.
d) Rotor winding unbalance.
84. What are the causes for motor high current?
a) High frequency (51 Hz - 105% current)
b) Low frequency (48 Hz – 102% current)
c) High voltage
d) Low voltage
e) Mechanical over load
85. What are the causes for motor unbalance current?
a) Loose connection
b) Voltage unbalance
c) Turns short circuit
Condition Monitoring Of Electrical Equipments
Purpose of Condition Monitoring:
 To prevent untimely failures causing heavy production loss.
 To enable maintenance to be performed according to the measured condition of the
equipment.
 To estimate remaining life of the equipment from the present condition & the rate of
degradation.
 To plan the replacement strategy or major maintenance / refurbishment strategy.
 To observe safety and cost control.

Types of Condition Monitoring :

➢ On Line Condition monitoring :
(a) Continuous – Ampere, Winding Temperatures Bearing Temperatures, Vibrations,
Oil level, Buchholz Relay
(b) Special – Motor Current Signature Analysis, Vibration Measurement, Ultrasonic
testing, Tr. oil testing, Ferrography, Thermography
➢ OFF Line Condition monitoring :
(a) Insulation Resistance Measurement Test (b) Polarization Index Test
(c) Partial Discharge Test (d) High Voltage Test
(e) Recovery Voltage Measurement Test (f) Core loop Test
(g) Tan Delta Test (h) Time measurement
(i) Acoustic Partial Discharge Test (for transformer)
Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 94
Electrical Equipments :
Generators, Power / Distribution Transformers, HT / LT Switchgear – Breaker Panels, PCC, MCC,
HT / LT Motors, UPS & Battery Chargers, Battery sets, HT / LT Cables, Special panels

Insulation Resistance Test (Off-line)

o When DC voltage is applied to insulation, three components of current flow : (a) Capacitance
charging current (b) Absorption current & (c) Leakage current
o Leakage current depends upon the presence of dirt, moisture etc. It rises quickly and becomes
stable.
o To have realistic value of leakage current, it is usually taken at the end of one minute.
o Insulation tester is commonly known as ‘Megger’. (It is the brand name).
o Meggers are available in different voltage ratings –
500 V, 1000 V, 2500 V and 5000 V.

IR measurement is affected by:

✓ Surface conditions
✓ Temperature
✓ Moisture
✓ Magnitude & application of test voltage
✓ Residual charge in the winding
 IR tends to reflect the surface condition.
 Realistic assessment of the state of the bulk of insulation is not always possible.
 Size & capacitance of insulation also plays important role.
 Very common test – taken on all elect. equipments, panels, bus bars etc.

Polarization Index Test (Off-line)

* Very useful guide to know dryness & cleanliness of the insulation

* IR is measured after one minute and after ten minutes
* P.I. = IR after 10 minutes
IR after 1 minute
* Since it is the ratio, it is independent of temperature.
* High value of P.I. indicates the good condition of the insulation system.
* As a thumb rule, P.I. of less than 2 is not accepted.
However, if the reason of low P.I. is identified, P.I. value can be improved.
* Motors, generators, X’mer are tested for P.I. to know the condition of insulation.

Motor Current Signature Analysis:

Spectrum Analysis of the motor’s current & voltage signals can detect various faults without taking
shutdown.
Typical faults detectable by this technique are:
✓ Rotor bar damage
✓ Misalignment / unbalance
✓ Foundation looseness
✓ Static or Dynamic eccentricity
✓ Core damage, Loose wedges
✓ Interturn short , Defective bearings
✓ Bent shafts

What is the principle of MCSA ?

❖ Faults in the motor changes the flux distribution inside the motor.
❖ This leads to Harmonics generation.
❖ Current & voltage signals are captured during operation.
Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 95
 ❖ FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) analyzer displays various harmonics components (called Elect.
Signature)
❖ It contains Supply Harmonics ( seen both in V & I) and Fault Frequency Harmonics (seen in
current only)
❖ Superimposing the I & V FFT signals enables to identify the Fault Frequency Harmonics (FFH)
❖ Analysis of FFH identifies the nature of fault.

Data required for MCSA

Name plate details like KW, Voltage , FLA, RPM…

No. of rotor bars & Stator slots
Bearing numbers of DE & NDE sides
CT ratio & PT ratio (wherever applicable)
Some of the case studies
1. LDPE plant (Baroda complex) 1100KW motors of process compressors. Cracked rotor bars –
2. GTPP (BC) 210KW BFW pump motor- Rotor unbalance & bearing looseness.
3. IOP (BC) 410 KW motor of BFW pump- Misalignment, some rotor bars showing high
resistance- Preliminary stage of rotor bar cracking

Offline Condition Monitoring Tests on Motors:-

I.R. Test (Primary test – taken before opening motor)
P.I. Test (Dryness & cleanliness of winding)
Partial Discharge Test
Tan Delta Test (To check the trend of deterioration)
Loop Test (To check the hotspot in the winding)
Balancing of rotor (Mechanical)
Shaft thoroughness (Mech)

Tan Delta Test:-

o In the perfect capacitance, there is vector angle of 90 degree between voltage & current.
However, in practice, even with brand new insulation, this angle is (say Delta) less than 90
degree.
o Tan Delta test is carried out on HT motors, generators, X’mers, bushings etc.
o As the insulation goes weaker, Tan Delta value increases. Tan Delta is measured with the test set.
o Voids & impurities present in the insulation, may discharge partially during the voltage application.
o Tan Delta directly indicates power dissipated by the insulation.
o A low Tan Delta is generally desirable. High value at low voltage indicates presence of moisture &
contamination.
o Abnormally high Tan Delta indicates weakness in bulk insulation.
o Increase in Tan Delta with passage of time, also indicates the deterioration of the insulation.
o For particular equipment, Tan Delta value is measured every year with same voltage, to monitor
deterioration in the insulation. Sudden rise indicates high alert.

Transformers – (Off-line test)

Recovery Voltage Measurement

o This test is based on material’s polarization and relaxation processes when it is electrically
stimulated.
o When DC voltage is applied to insulation system, Polarization phenomena is strongly influenced by
the degradation of that insulation system.
o The test is basically divided into three parts:
(a) Charging by DC voltage Uc for time period Tc.
(b) Isolation from the voltage source & short cktd. for short time period Td.
(c) When S.C. is removed after time Td, the return voltage will appear across the electrodes.

Transformer Oil Tests

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 96
o Transformer oil works as cooling media and insulation also. It is coming in direct contact with live
parts of a transformer. Hence, any moisture or chemical impurity in Tr. oil will directly affect the
performance of transformer. There are two types of tests (both are on line tests)
 BDV test (Break Down Voltage test):
Oil sample collected from running transformer.
Sample is tested in the test kit in the laboratory.
In pre-defined steps up to 60 KV. BDV is noted.
voltage For old/new oil to be used for different voltages, values are given in IS 335 & IS
1866.
Chemical Tests on Tr. oil
✓ Water content (in ppm)
✓ Specific resistance
✓ Dielectric dissipation
✓ Total acidity
✓ Interfacial Tension
✓ Flash point
✓ Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Tolerable limits for various voltage grades and new/old oils are given in IS. Acetylene content traced
out in DGA is a matter of concern. Based on the results, replacement
filtration of oil is decided.

PD Test by A.E. Method

 Conventional PD test method is very sensitive to EM interference. Hence laboratory set up is

required.
 Large test objects like power transformers, HT motors etc. can not be tested in lab due to size.
 PD test by Acoustic Emission Method solves these problems. Another advantage is, it is on-line
test.
 AE method is very suitable for field application, as it is immune to EM interference.
o Sensitivity does not vary with test object capacitance. Therefore it can be used for large power
transformers & capacitors.
o PD results in localized, nearly instantaneous release of energy. Its effects are- Chemical, EM,
structural changes in material –etc.
o Acoustic discharge detection is based on the mechanical signal transmitted from the discharge.
o Fraction of the released energy heats the adjacent material & can evaporate some of it.
o This can create a small explosion. The acoustic waves produced, propagate through out the
insulation.
o These waves are detected by suitable sensor and analyzed by Data Acquisition System.
o Seriousness & location of the weak point in insulation are indicated in the test results.

THERMOGRAPHY

❖ Infra red imaging & temp. measurement camera (cost @Rs.30lakhs) is used..
❖ It SEES, MEASURES and RECORDS hotspot temperatures.
❖ Colored bar code (on left or right side) indicates temperatures figures.
❖ On hotspots, temperature are also written in figures.
❖ The results can be down loaded on floppy or CD.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 97

❖ Why star point of star connected motor is not grounded? Why alternator is operated
at lagging power factor?.

The transfromer's secondary which is feeding 3 phase motor is already earthed.so there is no need to
earthe the motors star point again. Because earth resistance wont be same every where.If we
eartherd both the ends,there will be a current flow between two neutrals.
universaly,in industries 70% of loads are inductive tupr which are having lagging PF nature.Always
load only decides the power factor not source(Alternator).So that only the rating always mentioned as
VA and not watts.

❖ why circuit breaker closing time is always higher then tripping / opening time
Whenever a Loaded circuit breaker is interrupted / tripped / opened an arc is inevitably (Certainly)
formed between the contacts. But in the closing time there is no current carrying by Circuit Breaker
and no any other effect on contacts. So, circuit breaker closing time is always higher then
tripping/opening time.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 98

 Electrical Equipment Testing Method
INDEX

1. MAJOR CONRIBUTION IN JERP CPP AREA.

- TESTING IN 6.6 KV SYSTEM.
- GENERATOR & GENERATOR TRANFORMER
- 220 KV Switchyard
- 220 KV cable.
- 33KV Gas Insulated Switchgear
- 415 V PCC & 2 MVA TRANSFORMER
- APPROVAL FOR ELECTRCIAL CLEARNCE FROM GOVT. ELECTRICAL INSPECTOR

PROJECT- TESTING PROCEDURE FOR VARIOUS ELE. SYSTEM

- INTRODUCTION

- EARTHING OF THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

- IMPORTANCE OF THE EARTHING IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

- HOW TO MEASURE EARTHING RESISTANCE?

1 6.6 KV/415V TESTING& COMMISSIONING OF HT / LT PANELS.

- CURRENT TRANSFORMER

- POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

- CIRCUIT BREAKER

- BUSBAR

- BUSDUCT

- SIEMENS SIPROTEC RELAY

2 POWER TRANSFORMER TESTING AND COMMISSIONING.

3. HT/LT MOTOR TESTING AND COMMISSIONING.

4. TESTING REPORT.

INTRODUCTION

1. EARTHING

To start testing of Any Electrical system / equipment, we have to ensure the earthing of
the electrical system is ready. So first we should know what is its importance of earthing & how to
check earthing .

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 99

1.1IMPORTANCE OF THE EARTHING SYSTEM
►Provide a low impedance ground fault current return path in order to activate the protection and
clear or alarm the ground fault a soon as possible.(equipment ground)
►Limit the voltages on station structures and accessible equipment both during normal operation and
during electrical transients to safe levels.(safety ground)
►Minimize electrical noise interference in control and instrumentation systems.(safety and equipment
grounds)
►Minimize the effect of lightning strikes on personnel, equipment and structures (safety and
equipments ground)
►To provides means to carry electric currents into the earth under normal and fault conditions
without exceeding any operating and equipments limits or adversely affecting continuity of service.
►To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of critical
electric shock.

1.2 TESTING OF EARTHING SYSTEM

The testing of earthing system is generally required for all electrical equipment/ system ( like
substation, PIB, HT motors, lightening protection, Plant earthing grid). The primary condition to
carry out test is the installation must be completed and each earth pit should identified with proper
tag number. The tests are e carried out on the earthing system are as follows.

(a) Earth Pit resistance for treated earth pits

(b)Resistance of Earth Grid

(a) TESTING OF EARTH PIT

► Open the earth pit cover for treated earth pits.

► Disconnect the earthing strip from the earth pit electrode.
► Set the earth tester on level ground/base. Insert the spike rods at distance specified.
► Connect the measuring lead to the electrode of the pit under test.
► Crank the earth megger at specified speed (for conventional hand operated earth tester)
and read the stabilized resistance reading from the scale. For Digital battery operated
earth tester, apply test voltage and take the readings.(AS per the range specified below)
► Record the reading in the test report format.
►Fill in all the information asked in the format.
►Repeat the test for all the pits, each time restoring the earth strip connections with earth pit
electrode, very effectively.

(b)RESISTANCE OF EARTH GRID

►This test can be taken at any place either at any earth pit, or at transformer bay, where
earth strip is found exposed and connection of earth megger leads is possible.
► Set the earth megger on firm and level ground.
► Insert / Drive in the spikes of earth megger at specified distance, from the grid resistance
measurement place.
► Connect the earth megger resistance measurement lead to the earth strip, after removing
rust, dust from strip surface.
► Crank the megger at specified speed and read the stabilized reading of the megger and record the
same. Restore the connections.

1.3 LIST OF TESTING EQUIPMENTS

► Earth Megger
► Multimeter
Maximum values of resistance of equipment earthing systems to the body of

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 100

 Earth shall be as follows :
– General Electrical Earthing : 1 ohm
– Earthing for Static Discharge : 10 ohms
– Earthing for Lighting Protection : 10 ohms
– Instrument ‘Clean’ Earth : 1 ohm
– Intrinsically safe Earth : 1 ohm

Topic – 1

1. 6.6 KV/415V TESTING& COMMISSIONING OF HT / LT PANELS

1.1.1 6.6KV/415V PANEL LIST OF TESTING ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS

►CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
►POTENTITAL TRANSFORMERS
►BREAKER
►BUS BAR
►BUS DUCT
►RELAY

1.1.2 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

TESTING OF Current Transformer.

► Basic Theory Class

► Insulation Resistance Test
► Polarity Test.
► Ratio Test.
► Winding Resistance Test
► Inter Turn Test
► Knee Point voltage, magnetizing curve.
► Composite Error Test
► List of Equipments

1.1.3 INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST

► Open cable compartment.
► Clean the surfaces of CTs with soft cloth.
► Take complete name plate details of all CTs
► Disconnect the secondary terminals, and its earthing after noting down the connection details.
► Since the CTs are of Bar Primary, for our application check only continuity of bar primary, from
P1 to P2.
► Using 1000V Megger, measure insulation resistance of secondary winding w.r.t. earth.
► Record the readings, for future reference.

1.1.4 POLARITY TEST :

► CT used in panels are bar type, for our application mounted on bus bars, fixed firmly. As
per standard the polarity is marked on CT, by marking P1, P2 for primary winding, and S1,S2 for
secondary winding. P1, P2 means the power flow is from P1 to P2 and accordingly the CT is
mounted on bus bar. With primary correctly fixed, the induced current will flow from S1 to S2 in
secondary side. The direction of current in secondary and decision to make S1 or S2 as star point is
very important in Protection.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 101

► Apply momentarily low DC voltage to Primary side of CT terminals P1 & P2 and observe the
deflection of pointer of Multimeter, set on low DC voltage range and connected to secondary
terminals.

This is best done by taking 1.5 / 9v dry cell with wire soldered at positive and negative
pole, multi meter in voltage range connected to secondary terminal, positive to S1 and negative to
S2. With multi meter connected, hold positive terminal wire of cell near P1 – actual and
not marked P1 of CT - and touch the negative wire of cell to P2, at the same time observe the
deflection on multi meter. If the deflection is in positive direction, then the polarity of CT mounted
is correct.

– Repeat the test for other CTs of Panel and then for All Panels’ CTs.

1.1.5 RATIO TEST :

– This check is usually carried out during primary injection test to ascertain the ratio of the CT.
► Inject the current in Primary side (Say 25 %, 50 %, 75% and 100 % of rated current) by Auto
Variable Transformer / 1 phase primary injection kit and measure the secondary side current by
suitable multi meter / ammeter/ clamp on meter in measuring core, compare the secondary current
measured with theoretical values and calculate the percentage error. Repeat the test for Protection
Core, of all CTs of panel and CTs of all remaining panels.

1.1.6 WINDING RESISTANCE

► Note down the connection details of secondary terminals of CT secondary.

► Disconnect the secondary connections.
► Measure the secondary resistance of protection core using micro ohm meter on appropriate
range.
► Note down readings and atmospheric temperature.

1.1.7 INTERTURN TEST

This test confirms healthiness of windings from inter turn short.

► Disconnect the secondary connections.
► Set up Single Phase Variac. Connect out put to secondary winding also connect multimeter in
series or fuse clamp on meter for measuring current.
► Feed secondary current – 1A, and hold it. If inter turn short is existing, this current will shoot up.
Normalize CT secondary connections.

1.1.8 MAGNETISING CURVE :

This parameter is very much critical for protection core of Current Transformer. While
doing this test care must be taken to observe rise in current with rise in voltage is linear, other
wise there are chances of CT core saturating. Several points should be checked on each Current
Transformer Magnetising Curves.

► This can be done by energising the secondary winding from the local main 230V supply through a
variable auto transformer and connecting Ammeter in series to
measure the current and a voltmeter / multimeter for measuring voltage.

► Take several readings of voltage and current simultaneously. Preferable voltage value of 100, 150,
200, 220, 250 and 260V. Utmost care and attention is to be taken to limit the applied voltage for the
test. Applied voltage should not be more than SECONDARY LIMITING VOLTAGE, which is calculated
by a formula using secondary winding resistance at 75 degrees centigrade.

►Plot the graph of measured current on x-axis and applied voltage on y-axis and locate knee point.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 102

►For demagnetizing the core apply the test voltage gradually in reverse polarity –increase up to
maximum test voltage and decrease to zero voltage gradually.

MAGNETISING CURVE – FORMULAE

۶ Secondary Limiting Voltage ={(R75+VA/Is*Is) /
(Accuracy Limiting Factor / Is)}.
۶ R75 = 1.2* Ramb. Where
R75=Secondary resistance at 75 Degree C.
Ramb = Secondary Resistance at Ambient Temperature
Is = Secondary Current at full rating.
VA = VA Burden rating of CT.

1.1.9 COMPOSITE ERROR TEST

► Convert value of secondary resistance (measured during winding

resistance test taken at room temperature) of protection core is to be converted at 75°C.
► Secondary Limiting Voltage is calculated using formula :
SLV= ( R75°C+ VA/Is²) X ALF /Is, where VA is rated burden,
ALF is Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF is 10 for 5P10 class CT)
and Is rated secondary current.,R75= R (room temp) *1.16,
Apply calculated SLV to the secondary terminals of CT under test and note down the excitation
current in mA. calculate Percent Composite error using formula %age composite error=Excitation
Current at SLV/ALF x rated secondary current x 100.
1.1.10 TESTING EQUIPMENTS
Multi meters, 2 numbers.
► 1.5 / 9V dry battery cell.
► Variable auto transformer / Single phase Prim Inj kit.
► Clamp on meter.
► Hand tools, cut pieces of copper wires.

1.2 TESTING OF POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

► GENERAL
► LIST OF TESTS
► TESTING EQUIPMENTS

GENERAL

► Two types of PTs are there in any HT/LT panel Line PT and Bus PT.
► Line PTs are mounted on incomer breaker trolley where as Bus PTs are mounted on separate
panel in each Bus section.
► Line PTs gives indication of presence of supply in incomer breaker panels, from upstream source.
► Bus PT senses the respective bus voltage and are useful for under voltage tripping and other
metering and protective circuits.
► Ensure that PT fuses are removed before starting the testing of PT

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 103

LIST OF TESTS
► Insulation Resistance Test.
► Polarity Test.
► Ratio Test.

1.2.1 INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST

► Take the Bus PT trolley out of panel, clean the trolley and the
transformer thoroughly. Remove PT fuses.
► Open the star point of primary and secondary.
► Take IR value of R phase primary winding with respect to earth by
1000V Megger.
► Repeat the test for Y,B phase Primary.
► Take the IR value of secondary windings with respect to earth using 500V Megger.
► Value of IR measured should be more than 50 MΩ.
► Record the reading for future reference .
► Restore all the removed connections.
► Put back the Trolley in its Position.
► Repeat the test with other PT trolleys.

1.2.2 POLARITY TEST :

► Take out the Line PT Trolley out of the panel.
► Clean the Trolley and Transformer.
► Open the star point of primary and secondary completely
► Connect multi meter negative to Terminal ‘n ‘ of secondary and Multi meter positive to ‘a’ of PT
secondary phase, under test.
► Take 1.5 / 3 volt cell with positive and negative leads.
► Connect positive to terminal A of primary phase test. Touch the negative of the cell to N terminal
of primary, phase under test, observing at the same time the direction of deflection in multi meter
connected to secondary.
► If the deflection is in positive direction, then connected polarity is correct. i.e. positive of cell
being A and positive of Multi meter being a.
► Repeat the test with other two transformers and remaining Line PT and bus PT trolleys.
► Restore all the connections as per drawing.
1.2.3 RATIO TEST :

► Take the Line PT Trolley out of Panel.

► Clean the Body and the Transformer thoroughly.
► Connect three phase 415V supply to primary of PT.
► Measure the primary and secondary voltages between phase to phase and phase to neutral
record the readings.
► Calculate the ratio using phase to neutral as well as phase to earth Voltage readings of primary
and secondary.
► Compare the calculated ratio with the name plate ratio.

► Convert secondary phase to neutral measured reading (based on test voltage of 415 volts) to
system voltage of the panel. It should be 110 (for delta connection) or 110/√3 volts (for star
connection).
► Repeat the test with other Line PT and Bus PT units.
1.2.4 TESTING EQUIPMENTS
► Multimeter.
► Megger (1 kV and 500 V ).
► Clamp on meter.
► Dry Battery cell 1.5 / 3V with soldered wire at positive and
negative terminals.
► Cut pieces of copper flexible wires.
► Hand tools, etc.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 104

1.3 TESTING OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

► GENERAL
► PRE-CONDITIONS
► TESTING
► TESTING EQUIPMENTS
GENERAL
The module is limited for different tests carried out on breakers only and remote tripping or
inter tripping scheme for out going breakers is excluded. Where as, scheme of operation of two
Incomers with one Bus Coupler and tripping through its own tripping devices is included.
► Take breaker name plate details for each test.

1.3.1 PRE-CONDITIONS / PREPARATIONS

Ensure following points before testing:
► Check the installation of panels are complete, including incoming connections by way of bus duct
or cables
► Check DC supply – breaker control supply – is available and other auxiliary supply is available to
panels.
► Complete set of control drawing is available.
► Close and trip circuit wiring is checked and is through.
► All inter panel wiring is done, checked and is through.
► Switch gear floor is clear, clean and no other agency is working near and around panels.
► Arrange for 1 phase, 3 phase power through ELCB or SFU.

1.3.2 Insulation Resistance Test :

► Take the breaker trolley out of panel.
► Clean the breaker arms and contacts thoroughly.
► Take the trolley near the door of the panel, insert plug.
► Switch on DC of the panel.
► See the spring charging operation taking place.
► Close the breaker. This may need to bypass certain interlocks. Take Insulation Resistance by
2.5kv megger for phase to phase and phase to earth – trolley body -. Value would be in Giga Ohms.
While testing Incomer Breakers, please take out PT fuses so that the value is only that of Breaker.
Closing Breaker will eliminate repeating the test for Out Going Terminals of Breaker.
► Discharge the terminals and open the breaker.
► Record the readings for future reference.

1.3.3Contact Resistance Test :

► Take the breaker trolley out of panel.

► Clean the breaker poles and body.
► Take the trolley near its panel door, insert the plug.
► Switch on DC. See spring charging operation taking place. Close the breaker.
► Power up and connect micro ohm meter to R pole incoming and out going terminals.
► Measure the resistance by reading stable reading of meter. Record the readings for future
reference.
► Repeat the step for Y and B phase.
► Remove micro ohm meter, open breaker and put it back.

1.3.4 High Voltage Test :

► During Hi-Potential test, fuse of PT should be removed.
► Normally this test is all ready carried out under bus bar testing. If done
earlier then this test need not be performed.
► If the HV test of busbars are not done with breakers in line, then take
the breaker out of panel check its cleanliness, close the breaker outside
panel.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 105

► Apply DC High Test Voltage through HV testing kit across phase to phase and note down the
leakage current in record sheet.

1.3.5 Circuit Breaker Timing test :

The test is carried out with breaker out of panel, DC available and Breaker Analyzer powered up
and connected to breaker under test. The kit is suitable to measure timing of one phase at a time.
► Connect the breaker testing kit (CABA) properly.
► Then apply closing command through testing kit and measure closing time.
► Apply Tripping command and measure opening time.
► Apply Close-trip command to measure close- open time.
► Repeat the test for other 2 phases. Record readings.

1.3.6 Functional test :

These are the test done repeatedly to conform that the breaker will operate, as desired with in
built safety parameters provided. Any problem faced, should be referred to Maintenance.
► Check the movement of double bit key during trolley rack out and in operation, with panel door
closed. Feel the pressure while the breaker is engaging fixed contacts, operation though need little
more force, but still it will not get blocked.
► Check the manual spring charging and close trip operation of breaker manually. Observe the
flag indicating condition of the spring and breaker.
► Give DC supply to breaker and test the breaker close trip, spring charging operation in test
position. Observing the mechanical and electrical indicators.
► Check the Tripping through Protection Relay with breaker in service position, observing
operation of relay, master trip relay, fault trip and breaker off indication.
► Attempt to close the breaker after tripping on fault without resetting master trip relay and
observe it not closing. Check the two incomer one bus-coupler scheme by closing two breaker and
bus-coupler breaker in service position and select both incomer in auto position. Trip incomer one
and see the bus- coupler getting ‘ON’
► Repeat the test with incomer two and observe the bus-coupler getting ‘ON’. Bus PT and Line PT
supply will have to be given to carry out this test.
► Test the two incomer and bus-coupler scheme for taking out one incomer for maintenance by
selecting the breaker to be taken out as incomer and closing the bus-coupler.
► Take Counter readings of all breakers and record the same.

1.3.7. TESTING EQUIPMENTS

► Computer Aided Breaker Analyzer (CABA).
► Multimeter.
► Megger.
► Micro-ohm meter.
► High voltage testing kit.
► Clamp on meter.
► 1 Ph and 3 Phase Variable Auto Transformers
► Loose wires for connection in different tests
► Hand tools, etc.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 106

1.4 TESTING OF HT/LT PANELS – BUSBARS
LIST OF TESTS
► Conductivity test / Low Resistance Test.
► Insulation Resistance Test.
► High Voltage Test.
► List of Testing Equipments.

1.4.1 CONDUCTIVITY TEST / LOW RESISTANCE TEST

This test is useful to minimize the voltage drop in the bus bars. The resistance will depend on number
of joints each Ph. This test can be carried out, all joints of same phase & for other phase also.
Connect one lead Micro-Ohm Meter on one end of R phase bus and second lead on R phase of the
other end of the bus bar (through a connecting lead wire) and note down the reading Repeat the
above procedure for Y-phase, B-Phase and neutral bus bar (for LT) and record the readings.
The measured value of bus resistance should be around 20 micro ohm * Number of Joints.
1.4.2 INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST :
The test should be carried out up to outgoing terminals of each feeder, meaning all out
going and bus coupler breakers must be closed, incomers and PT trolleys inserted but PT fuses
removed. Take the test from any incomer breaker out going terminals.
►Then measure insulation resistance by Megger (2.5 kV) between Phase to Phase. Note down the
value.
►Repeat the procedure 2.2.1 for Phase to Earth and note down the readings in record sheet. The
value must be in Giga ohms.

1.4.3 HIGH VOLTAGE TEST :

This test is generally carried out on 6.6/11/33 kV panels
► During Hi-Potential test, fuse of PT should be removed.
► Normally this test carried out for all Breaker and busbar of switchgear in same time.
► Put all the breaker in service position and make sure all breaker in ON condition ,except
incomers bus bar and insulators are thoroughly cleaned and all nut bolts are
adequate tightened.
►Apply AC Voltage ( 80 Percent of 20KV)for 6.6kv bus bar across phase to phase and note down
the leakage current in record sheet.
► Repeat the procedure for phase to earth and all breaker should be made OFF and racked out.
TESTING EQUIPMENTS
► Multimeter.
► Megger.
► Micro-ohm meter.
► High voltage testing kit.
► Clamp on meter.
► Hand tools, etc.

1.5 TESTING OF HT / LT BUS DUCT

1.5.1TESTING OF HT / LT BUS DUCT

The testing of Bus Ducts can be taken up either after the installation is totally complete, including
connections at transformer and switchgear end or at a stage where all the installation is complete and
only connections at transformer and switchgear is balance.
The following tests are to be done :
Insulation Resistance Test, Contact resistance Test
High Voltage Test. Functional Test. Functional test of space heater
Functional test of silica gel breather
1.5.2 INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 107

► Ensure that the disconnected flexible at transformer and at switchgear end are well clear of both
equipments.
► Check the bus duct busbar support insulators are free of dust deposits.
► Take insulation resistance value of each phase (and neutral in case of LT) with respect to earth.
Use 2500 volts meggar for HT and 1000 v meggar for LT. The result again should be in Giga Ohm
range.
► Now take insulation resistance value between phases ( including neutral bus). Result again
should be in GigaOhms,

1.5.3 CONDUCTIVITY OR JOINT RESISTANCE TEST

► This test is taken to check the effectiveness of each joint and to ensure minimum voltage drop
in bus duct.
► Open bus duct covers at all busbar joints.
► Contact resistance can be measured using micro-ohm meter.
► To test, connect the leads of micro-ohm meter across busbar joint, taking care that complete
joint along with all coupler plates is covered.
► Read the resistance value when the reading is steady. Also note down the atmospheric
temperature at which test is done.
► Repeat the test for all joints and in all phases (and neutral for LT).
► Ideal value of resistance for each joint is 20 micro ohm.
► Result of each joint must be almost same.

1.5.4 HIGH VOLTAGE TEST

► Check the clearance of each phase flexibles at both ends of Bus Duct with transformer bushing
and switchgear busbars.
► Apply 10.5KV voltage for 5 minutes to 6.6kv bus duct to each phase and earth and 2kv for LV
Bus Duct.
► Read value of leakage current for each test.

1.5.5 TESTING OF SPACE HEATER OF BUS DUCT

► Test the entire space heater circuit for insulation resistance using 500V megger with 2 Pole main
supply ELCB off.
► Check the continuity of wires of the space heater circuit.
► Measure the resistance of each heater element individually after disconnection of each element
and also total resistance with all heating elements in circuit.

1.5..1 OPERATIONAL CHECK OF SPACE HEATERS

► Set the thermostat at 55 Degree Centigrade.

► Check the continuity of Space Heater from the junction box on
► Bus Duct. It will show continuity as atmospheric temperature is less than 55 degree celsius
meaning thermostat contact is closed.
► Give 230V supply to the space heater terminals in JB at Bus Duct.
► Measure current taken by the circuit using clamp n meter and compare the same with calculated
value from total space heater resistance.
► Reduce thermostat setting below atmospheric temperature and see the space heater gets off.
Again raise the setting to 55 degree Celsius and see the space heater draws current.

1.5.2. CHECKING OF SILICA GEL BREATHER.

► Check the breather for oil level in the cup, condition of silica ge crystals and its quantity in
the bottle.
► Check the mechanical installation of breather
LIST OF TESTING EQUIPMENTS

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 108

► High Voltage Test Set
► Micro Ohm Meter
► 2500V Megger
► 1000V Megger
► 500V Megger
► Multimeter
► Clamp On Meter.

1.6 TESTING OF SIEMENS SIPROTEC RELAYS

*TESTING OF RELAYS
The present testing module covers only Siemens relays installed on 6.6kv panels of Siemens and PCCs
of Larsen & Toubro make.

Siemens 6.6kv panels have following relays installed:-

Incomers 7SJ6411, K93 7UT6121, 7SD610
Bus Coupler 7SJ6411
Bus PT 7RW6000
TR FDR 7SJ6111
Motor FDR 7SJ6112
Motor FDR 7SJ6111, 7UT6121with Diff

LT Panels have following Relays installed :

Incomer Breakers 7SJ641, P&B make Relay for REF

Out Going Motor FDR 7SJ6112,
Out Going FDR to MCC 7SJ6111

INDEX

►GENERAL

1.6.1 GENERAL POINTS FOR SIEMENS RELAY

Ensure following points before testing

►Ensure that DC supply is off.

►Note down the details of CT TB as per availability of scheme drawing.
►Open the protection CT terminals link No 51 to 62 at (X1) for O/C and CT terminals link No 75 to
78 at (X1) for E/F to avoid current going to CT.
►Remove the relay terminal wires R3 & R4 of BO for connecting timer wires of relay test set.
►Remove the PT secondary side wires No 1,3,5 of F25 of MCB and open neutral link X-34 for under
voltage & over voltage test. Apply tape on wires, which are removed.
► After switching on DC supply, take back up of original setting of relay
to the Laptop computer through Digsi software.
► Marshal the relay BO 1 to 13 in device trip and LEDs 1to 14 for pick up and trip value.

1.6.2 TESTING EQUIPMENT:

► Laptop (or) system.
► Digsi software.
► Secondary current injection kit.
► 3Ph Variac.
► Multi meter.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 109

1.6.2.1 TESTING PROCEDURE FOR 7SJ641

► Over current I > IDMT stage 1 check

► Change setting of O/C (Address mode 1201) into “ON” condition.
► Set the value of I > 1A (Address mode 1204) & set Tripping time TI > 1 (Address mode 1205)
► Select the value of I >> at high value (Address mode 1202) compared to I > say 5A
► Gradually increase from 0 A current & note the pick up current & Actual trip time. Trip time is
around 1.0 Secs.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 2 for over current display.

1.6.2.2 TEST OF I >> IDMT STAGE 2 MODE

► Set the value of I >> 1A (Address mode 1202) and set trip time TI >>1Sec (Address mode
1203).
► Select the value of I > at high value (Address mode 1204), compared to I >>.
► Gradually increase the current till LED1 & 2 appears. Note the pick up current & Actual trip time
from relay. It will be at around set time –1.0 sec.
► Similarly take reading for other two phases.

1.6.2.3 TEST OF IP NORMAL INVERSE MODE

► Set current Ip=1A & set trip time TIp=1 (Address mode1208) Sec.
► Inject 2 times of set current (Ip=1A), (Address mode 1207) & note its tripping time to be nearly
equal to 10.03Sec.
► Inject 5 times of set current (Ip=1A), (Address mode 1207) & note down tripping time. It will be
nearly equal to 4.28 Sec.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 2 for over current which will glow.
► Similarly take readings for remaining two phase.
► At the end of test change the setting of O/C mode to “OFF” condition.

1.6.2.4 EARTH FAULT - IE CHECK FOR INSTANTANEOUS STAGE

Change the Earth fault status to “ON” (Address mode 1301).

► Select Test mode of IE > (Address mode 1304).

► Set the value of IE > 1A and TI E > 0 Sec, (Address mode1305).
► Select the value of IE >> at high set (Address mode1307),compared to IE >.
► Gradually increase from 0 A current & note the pick up current & Actual trip time.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault which will glow.
► Repeat the test for remaining two phases.
► Set the value of IE > 1A and TI E > 1 Sec, (Address mode 1305),
► Gradually increase current from 0 A & note the pick up current & Actual trip time.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault are displayed.
► Repeat the test for remaining two phases at TI E > at 1.

1.6.2.5 TEST OF IE >> INSTANTANEOUS STAGE 2 MODE: (ADDRESS MODE 1302).

► Set the value of IE >>1 (Address mode 1302) amps and TI E >> 1 Sec (Address mode 1303).
► Select the value of IE > at high Set. (Address mode 1304).
► Gradually increase current from 0.90A & note the pick up current and Actual trip time.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault which will glow.

1.6.2.6 TEST OF IE >>DMT MODE :(ADDRESS MODE 1307).

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 110

► Set the value of IE >>1 (Address mode 1302). amps and TI E >> 1 Sec (Address mode 1303).
► Select the value of IE > at high Set. (Address mode 1304)
► Gradually increase from 0.90A current & note the pick up current & Actual trip time.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault which will glow.

1.6.2.7 TEST IEP NORMAL INVERSE MODE

► Set current IEp =1A & set time TI Ep=1 (Address mode1305) Sec.
► Inject 2 times of set current I Ep=1A,(Address mode1307)& and note down its tripping time
nearly equal to10.03 Sec.
► Then Inject 5 times of set current (IE p=1A) (Address mode 1307) & note down its tripping time
nearly equal to 4.27 Sec.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault which will glow.
► At the end of test change the setting of E/F mode to “OFF” condition.

1.6.2.8 CHECKING OF OVER VOLTAGE SETTING OF RELAY

► Test of U > Over voltage Mode
► Set the value of U > 120V (Address mode 5002) & set time TU >0.5 S (Address mode 5004).
► Marshall spare LED 6 and spare BO 1 for Over Voltage trip.
► By using 3 Ph variac apply AC voltage to the terminal 1,3 and 5 of F25 MCB.
► Gradually increase the voltage up to 120V & note pick up value & Actual trip time when LED 6
glows and trip command is issued

1.6.2.9 TEST OF U >> OVER VOLTAGE STAGE 2 MODE:

► Set value of U >>125V (Address mode 5005) & set time TU >> 1.5 S (Address mode 5007). Set
U> at 130V. Marshall BO1 and LED 6 for U>>.
► By using 3 Ph variac, apply 110V to the primary side wires 1,3,5 of F25 MCB.
► Note voltage and time value from set when LED 6 glows trip command is issued.

1.6.2.10 UNDER VOLTAGE MODE STAGE 1

► Change setting of U/V (Address mode 5101) into “ON’ condition

► Test of U < : Under voltage Mode: Set the value of U < 80V (Address mode 5102) & set time
TU <1.5 (Address mode 5106).
► Marshall spare LED 6 and spare BO 1 for Under Voltage trip.
► By using 3 Ph variac apply AC 110V to the terminal 1,3 and 5 of F25 MCB
► Gradually decrease the voltage to 80V & pick up value &
► Record actual trip time when LED 6 glows and command is issued.

1.6.2.11 UNDER VOLTAGE U<< MODE STAGE 2

► Set the value of U<< 70 V (Address mode 5110) set time TU<< 1.5 (Address mode 5112)
► By using 3 phase variac, apply 110V to wires 1,3 and 5 of MCB.
► Decrease the voltage slowly to 70V and observe status of LED. Note down the time taken for trip
from relay test set.

1.6.2.12. BINARY OUTPUT.

Check the all BO are configured.
► After finishing the testing switch OFF DC supply.
► Reconnect all wires which were removed for testing and also connect the CTTB.
► Check all the connection and switch ON DC supply.
► Down load original, back up setting on relay with “Digsi software”.

1.6.3 TESTING PROCEDURE OF 7UT 612

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 111

 Checking operation of relay for instantaneous first stage

1.6.3.1. Testing Relay for I > function.

► Ensure that DC Supply is off.
► Fill up all the details of relay in format.
► Note down the connection details of CT TB & relay terminal which are to be removed for current
injection & timing.
► Open CT terminals 51 to 61 on TB X1 ( check with respective wiring diagram of panel )
► Remove wires at Q1, Q3 and Q5 terminals of relay.
► Set and power up the secondary injection kit & switch on DC. Check relay power up LED glows,
without any fault indication
► Marshal the relay for following parameters for testing the relay for differential mode. Protected
object (address 105) as 3Phase transformer Diff port (address 112) as enabled Diff port ( address
1201) as – ON
► Set the following functions to NON-Exist: Ext trip 1& 2 (address 186 &187) DMT/IDMT phase
(address 120)
► Set I diff-> (address 1221) to 0.2;Idiff>> (address 1231) to 0.5 (depending on transformer
rating) Time delay setting 0 at addresses 1226A & 1236A.
► Marshal LED 1 to 7 and BO 1 to 4.
► Inject current 0.2A to R Phase (of HT side indicated as I1) at CT terminal Q1 of relay, X1 – 55 as
per the set value. Note Pick-up current from testing set when LED 1 & 3 glows.
► Repeat the test with the other 2 phases using Q3, Q5 X1-55.
► Repeat steps 2.5.1.11 & 2.5.1.12. for HT side with test terminals as X1 – 81, 83, 85 & X1-84
(indicated as I1) & note the fault displayed- glowing of LED1 & 3.

1.6.3.2 Testing relay for I>> Function.

► Set I diff-> (address 1221) to 0.7; and T> as 1, Set I diff>> (address 1231) to 0.5 and T>> as 0
(depending on transformer rating).
► Keep LED 1 marshalling as it was in testing of I>.
► Repeat all the steps of testing for I> for testing for I>> and observe operation of LED 3 each
time.

1.6.3.3 Testing Relay for REF function.

► Remove CT Terminal Links at X1-11 to 22 and X1-71 to 73. Set I> and I>> at 0.5, T>, T>> at 1
and REF ON mode. Check the LED’s 1 to 7 are programmed as ON.
► Set REF pick up at address 1311 at 0.13A and Tref 0 at address 1312A
► Connect current leads of secondary injection kit at X1-71 and X1-73.
► Slowly increase the current till LED 2 & 4 glows. Note down the current on set and record the
same.
► Compare the reading with set value with permissible error.

1.6.3.4 Checking the relay for differential and stability.

► Short the secondary of transformer with proper size leads at Incomer Breaker out going side after
CT.
► Remove HT Box cable connection and connect 415V 3 phase supply with correct phase sequence to
HV terminals.
► Disconnect effectively earth strip connection to NGR out going terminal.
► Check 7UT and 7SD relay on same Incomer, which should be fully wired.
► Short CT Links of 7SD relay at terminals X1-91 to 98.
► Marshal 7UT relay for differential along with LED’s Set the I> = 415 / %Z* CTR. And T> at 0. Set
I>> at 1.
► Switch ON 415V with all safety precaution. Check relay has not operated, if yes, then increase the
I> set value
► Note current reading displayed by the relay.
► Create earth fault on one phase by closing the shorting link provided.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 112

► Note the current readings in all phases displayed by clamp meter and relay as well.
► Check the relay has not operated as this is fault outside zone.
► Remove earth fault connection. Check that relay has ‘no fault indication’ and it is healthy.
► Repeat the test for remaining two phases with same results.
► Repeat point.
► Create Phase to Phase fault by shorting link on phases.
► Confirm the results are same as.
Repeat the test for remaining two phases with repetition of steps of removing short on phases and
checking relay for any other indication.
► Check that the relay displays ‘no fault indication’ and system current is flowing due to 415V supply
at HV Terminals of Transformer.
► Create earth fault, on one phase before busbar shorting link provided.
► See the relay has operated with LED 1 and 3 glowing. Read all the current values under fault
condition from the relay. The operation is correct as the fault is in side zone.
► Repeat the test for remaining 2 phases and phase to phase fault for all 3 phases with result of
relay operation.

The following test equipment are required for testing of 7UT6121

a) Secondary Injection kit with Six Phase.

b) Digital / analogue multi meter
c) AC clamp-on-meter

1.6.4 OUT GOING TRANSFORMER FEEDER RELAY-7SJ6111

►GENERAL
►TESTING OF RELAY
►LIST OF TESTING EQUIPMENTS

1.6.4.1 GENERAL

►Ensure following points before testing:

►Ensure that DC supply is off.
►Note down the details of CT TB as per availability of scheme drawing.
►Open the protection CT terminals link No11 to 22 at (X1) to avoid current going to CT.
►Remove the relay terminal wires F8 & F9 for connecting to timing circuit of relay test set.
►Apply tape on relay wires, which are removed.
►Switch ‘on’ DC supply, take back up of original setting of relay to Laptop computer through Digsi
software.
►Marshal LED 1 to 14 and Binary output 1 to 13

1.6.4.2 OVER CURRENT CHECK I> :

► Set O/C (Address mode 1201) into “ON” condition.
► Set the value of I > 1A (Address mode 1204) & set time TI > 1 Sec. (Address mode 1205)
► Select the value of I >> at high value (Address mode 1202) compared to I >.
► Current Injection terminal for R ph, is X1-11&17, for Y ph, it is X1- 13 &19 and for B ph, it is X1-
15 & 21
► Connect current leads to Rph. Gradually increase current till LED 1 & 2 glow. Note the pick up
current & Actual trip time from relay set.
► Repeat the test for other two phases.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 113

1.6.4.3 TEST OF IDMT (NORMAL INVERSE)

► Set current Ip =1A & set trip time TI p=1 (Address mode 1208) Sec.
► Inject 2 times of set current (Ip =1A), (Address mode 1207) at R Ph terminals & note down its
tripping time nearly equal to 10.3Sec.
► Inject 5 times of set current (Ip =1A), (Address mode 1207) & note down its tripping time to be
nearly equal to 4.28 Sec.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 2 for over current which will glow.
► Similarly take reading for remaining two phases.
► At the end of test change the setting of O/C mode to “OFF” condition.

1.6.4.4 TEST OF I >> : INSTANTANEOUS MODE

► Set the value of I >> 1A (Address mode 1204) and set Tripping time
TI >> 0 (Address mode 1205)
► Select the value of I > at high value (Address mode 1202) compared to I >>
► Connect the Rph terminal 11&17, Yph terminal 13&19, Bph terminal 15 &
21 of X1 CT terminals.
► Gradually increase current and note the ‘Pick up current’ & ‘Actual trip time’.
► Check LED 1 & 2 for over current Alarm & Trip.
► Similarly take reading for other two phases.

1.6.4.5 EARTH FAULT CHECK: INSTANTANEOUS MODE:

Change the Earth fault to “ON” (Address mode 1301).
► Select Test of IE > (Address mode 1304).
► Set the value of IE > 1A and TI E > 0 Sec, (Address mode 1305).
► Select the value of IE >> at High set (Address mode 1307).
► Gradually increase from 0.90A current & note the ‘Pick up current’ & ‘Actual trip time’.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault.
► Earth fault check: DMT Mode:
► Select Test for IE > (Address mode 1304).
► Set the value of IE > 1A and TI E > 1 Sec, (Address mode 1305).
► Select the value of IE >> at high set (Address mode 1307).
► Gradually increase Injection current from 0.90A current & note the ‘Pick up
current’ & ‘Actual trip time’.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault which will glow.

1.6.4.6 TEST OF IE >> INSTANTANEOUS MODE:

► Set the value of IE >>1 (Address mode 1302) amps and TI E >> 1 Sec.
(Address mode 1303).
► Select the value of IE > at high Set. (Address mode 1304).
► Gradually increase current from 0.90A & note the pick up Current & Actual
trip time.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault which will glow.

1.6.4.7 Test of IDMT (Normal Inverse)

► Set current IEp =1A & set time TI Ep =1 (Address mode 1305) Sec.
► Inject 2 times of set current IEp =1A,(Address mode 1307) & and note down
its tripping time nearly equal to 10.03 Sec.
► Then inject 5 times of set current (IEp =1A) (Address mode 1307) & note
down its tripping time nearly equal to 4.27Secs.
► Check LED 1 for pick up and LED 3 for earth fault which will glow.
► At the end of test change the setting of E/F mode to “OFF” condition.
1.6.4.8 TESTING EQUIPMENT
► Laptop (or) system. ► Digsi software.
v Secondary current injection kit. ► 1Ph (or) 3Ph Variac.
► Multi meter, Clamp meter.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 114

Topic – 2

TESTING OF POWER TRANSFORMERS IN JERP CPP.

STEPS OF TRANSFORMER TESTING

► GENERAL
► This test procedure covers the tests generally carried out at Reliance site on various
transformers of 220kv, 33kv and lower voltage ratings. However the tests and the methods will
remain same, until they are 2 winding transformers, without Zig Zag connections.
▪ PRE-CONDITIONS
Ensure following points before testing:
► Transformer erection should be completed with all power and control cables connected at both
ends, earthing for the transformer and neutral through NGR is completed.
► Incomer HV breaker is OFF and racked out.
► Transformer LV breaker should be OFF and racked out .
► Tap change required during test is to be done manually and by power for transformers having
OLTC in its scheme.
► Disconnect the Earth Strip Connection to neutral grounding resistor (NGR).
► Open the LT box cover for disconnecting the transformer from LV bushings of transformer. Look
simultaneously for oil leakages from top / bottom of bushings.
▪ Also disconnect cables at HV Box.
► Transformer tap is kept on normal center tap.
► Prepare the 3-phase power supply through an ELCB or SFU to be connected to HV terminals.

2.1. WINDING RESISTANCE TEST

► 2.1.1 Connect the terminals of Ducter / Micro Ohm Meter on 1U1V, 1V1W and 1U1W one by one.
Read the meter when reading on meter stabilizes.
► 2.1.2 Next connect the terminals to 2U2N,2V2N,2W2N, one by one and measure the resistance
respectively, and note down in record sheet.
► 2.1.3 Note the temperature of oil at the time of test from OTI.
2.2 INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST

► 2.2.1 Before taking megger value ensures that the all HT and LT side connection are
Disconnected.
► 2.2.2 Take IR using (0 to 5 KV megger) hand or motor operated as under: HV to Earth, LV to
Earth and HV to LV Though HT / LT windings are internally connected to form the star or Delta as
the case may be, the test should be repeated for all phases, each time discharging the terminal to
earth after meggering and before testing next phase.

2.2. INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST

► 2.2.3 Note down the ambient temperature at the time of test, as the insulation resistance is
dependent on oil temperature.
► 2.2.4 The PI of HV and LV windings can be taken at this stage by noting 1 minute and 10 minute
readings of Megger and dividing 10 minute reading by 1 minute reading.
► 2.2.5 Record the readings for future reference.

2.3. RATIO TEST :

► 2.3.1 Connect the three phase 415V Power Supply RYB at the HT side bushing 1U,1V,1W
respectively. Check that the disconnected cable leads does not touch the transformer terminals.
Keep the tap on center tap position.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 115

► 2.3.2 Connect one cable each to 2U,2V,2W and Neutral 2N (LT side) for secondary voltage
measurements.
► 2.3.3 Apply three phase 415V AC supply to HT side, measure record voltages as under :
HV side 1U 1V, 1V 1W and 1U 1W.
LV Side 2U2N, 2V2N, 2W2N as well as
2U2V, 2V2W, 2W2U

► 2.3.4 Now switch OFF the ELCB and change the tap position to one step lower.
► 2.3.5 Repeat above steps 2.4.3 to 2.4.4 for all taps, all below and above center tap, each time
switching off the isolator for changing tap position
► 2.3.6 Calculate the ratio of applied HT (415V) and LT measured voltage for phase to phase
values and compare with the name plate value of voltage ratio. Secondary phase to neutral
measured voltage shall be 1/ √ 3 times secondary phase to phase voltage.
► 2.3.7 Record the value for future reference.

2.4 MAGNETIC BALANCE TEST :

►2.4.1 Apply 415V AC across (a)1U,1V and measure the

voltage across 1V,1W and 1W,1U.

►2.4.2 Repeat the above step for applied voltage between b)1V,1W
and measuring the voltage between 1U1V,1W1U
c) 1W1U and measuring the voltage between 1U1V,1V1W

►2.4.3 Generally,the percentages of measured voltages will be 70% and

30% of applied voltage in case of a), c) and 50% each for b)
(centre limb)

►2.4.3 Record the readings for future reference.

2.5 MAGNETISING CURRENT TEST

►2.5.1 Keep the secondary terminals 2U , 2V , 2W and N open and tap position at center tap.
►2.5.2 Connect the ammeter ( with mA range ) in series with power lead of 415V supply to HV or
use low range clamp on meter.
►2.5.3 Apply 415V AC to 1U,1V,1W note down the Magnetising current taken by HT side in all three
phases and Voltage applied to HT side.
► 2.5.4 Convert this current value at 415V, to rated primary voltage level.
►2.5.5 Compare calculated reading with the No Load test reading at vendor’s testing lab.
►2.5.6 Record the value for future reference.

2.6 Vector Group Test for Dyn11 / 1/ 0

► 2.6.1 Short 1U,2U and supply three phase power to

1U,1V,1W.
►2.6.2 Measure the voltage across 1u2n,1v2n,1u1v, 1w2n,1u2n,
1u1w, 1w2w,1w2v, 1v2v and 1v2w.
►2.6.3 Results
1u2n+1v2n = 1u1v
1w2w < 1w2v
Confirms vector group as Dyn11
1w2n+1u2n = 1u1w
➢ 1v2v < 1v2w
➢ 1w2w = 1w2v

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 116

➢ Confirms vector group as Dyn1

➢ 1w2w = 1v2v
➢ 1w2n = 1v2n
➢ 1w2v = 1v2w
➢ Confirms vector group as Dyn0

2.7 TRANSFORMER OIL TESTING

►2.7.1 Collect two samples each of bottom of Main Tank and Diverter Compartment (in case of on
load tap changer) in Vacuum dried, air tight glass or metallic bottles. While taking oil samples,
observe following points strictly.
2.7.1.4 Sample bottles are to be clean and dry and to be fresh or used previously only for
. transformer oil sampling
2.7.1.2 While taking samples, first allow some oil to flow out of the valve
2.7.1.3. Allow the oil from valve to fall on the side wall of the bottle. Fill the bottle fully and allow
it to overflow, rinse the cap of the bottle and close the bottle while still oil is flowing
. Close the bottom drain valve
►2.7.2 Test the samples taken, on oil testing set as follow :
1 Rinse the pot of oil testing set with oil sample by filling it
completely and then throwing away the oil.
2 Next pour slowly the oil in the pot from same sample,bottle, taking care not
to cause bubbling. Pour on side of pot.
3 Power up the oil testing set.
4 Allow the oil sample under test to settle for about 15 minutes.
5 After the settlement time of sample under test is over, increase the voltage of testing
set
slowly, observing any tracking between electrodes and hearing rattling/chattering
sound, till the sample breaks. Note down this value as the 1st test reading. If oil
sample
does not break, then continue raising voltage to full value of set and then decrease it
slowly to zero.
6 Repeat the test for 4 more times giving 5 readings.
7 Average of five readings is the Di-electric strength of oil. Accepted value of Di-electric
of transformer oil is 60kv
8 Ensure correct spark gap as per go / no go gauge Next test the oil sample from other
sample bottle for moisture content, in moisture analyzer test set. Accepted value 20-30 ppm for
distribution transformers and 15ppm for power transformers.
►2.7.4 Record the reading for future reference.

►2.8.1 Buchholz Relay.

►2.8.1.1 Close both side isolating valves of Buchholz relay.
► 2.8.1.2 Drain the oil from Buchholz relay by opening the Drain plug at the bottom of the relay. At
the Same time slowly open the air release valve of the relay.
► 2.8.1.3 As oil gets drained, Buchholz alarm is generated and when the complete oil is drained
Buchholz tripping command is generated. Check the both commands generated with respective
terminals in marshalling box.
► 2.8.1.4 Put back drain plug. Open the both isolating valves and close the air release valve after
oil starts coming out of it.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 117

2 .8.2 MAGNETIC OIL LEVEL GAUGE/SWITCH

► 2.8.2.1 Functionality test for level switch is better taken when conservator is empty , when alarm
/ trip contact will close or low oil level.
► 2.8.2.2 When conservator gets filled up to half level the low oil level alarm / trip contact will
open.
► 2.8.2.3 The status of alarm / trip contact can either be checked at conservator junction box or at
marshalling box.

2.8.3 OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR (OTI) & WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATOR

(WTI)

►2.8.3.1 Open the OTI cover, Set the alarm and trip setting on OTI and WTI as per Engineering
guidelines
►2.8.3.2 Hold the dial and slowly rotate clockwise, till mercury switch for alarm operates, note the
temperature at this point compare with the set value .Difference between operating and set values
should not be significant. Rotate the dial further till mercury switch for trip operates. Note the
temperature value at this point and compare it with the set value.
► 2.8.3.3 Repeat the test with WTI. The alarm generated by OTI and WTI can be checked at
respective terminals in marshalling box. Close the covers of the OTI, WTI and marshalling box.
►2.8.3.4 Check the calibration certificate given by vendor for accuracy of OTI, WTI readings. If this
is not available, then
►2.8.3.5 Calibrate both OTI and WTI by water bath taking readings of OTI / WTI and standard
thermometer with its bulbs inserted in water bath, when water is cooling down from boiling point
– 100°C, at every 10°C.
►2.8.3.6 Draw graph of percentage error at every reading versus standard reading. Use this graph
to correct the reading every time the meter is read.

2.8.4 PRESSURE RELEASE VALVE ( PRV )

► 2.8.4.1 Open the top cover of the PRV JB and operate the plunger of limit switch manually. Check
the tripping command has generated at respective terminals of JB and Marshalling Box.
►2.8.4.2 Release the plunger back to its earlier position. Check the trip command resets. Close the
cover of JB.
2.9. LIST OF TESTING EQUIPMENTS
►2.9.1 Multimeter.
►2.9.2 Clamp on meter.
►2.9.3 Micro ohm meter / Ducter tester.
►2.9.4 Megger (1kV, 5kV).
►2.9.5 Oil Testing Set 100kv
►2.9.6 Moisture Analyzer
►2.9.7 Hot water bath with standard thermometer, 0 to 120°C.
►2.9.8 Hand Tools, 63A TP Load Break Switch Fuse Unit and cut pieces of wires and copper flexible
cables.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 118

Topic – 3

TESTING OF HV/LVMOTOR

Following tests are carried out on motors:

► Tan-Delta Test only for HT Motors
► Di -Electric Discharge test only for HT Motors
► Winding Resistance
► Insulation Resistance
► PI – Polarization Index 10Min Insulation Resistance value /
1Min Insulation Resistance value
► Space Heater Check
► Functional test of switchgear
► No Load run of motor.

3.1 General Check for Motor

► Ensure following before testing of motor.
► Inspect the motor for completion of
► Double earthing with earth conductor as per drawing.
► Contact surface of earthing is full with motor body.
► Motor is uncoupled, half coupling can remain on motor shaft
► Cable Termination is as per installation standard.
► Motor tag mentioned on motor, tallies with drawing.
► Motor is suitable for category of hazardous Area
► Classification, as per relevant drawing.
► Check Local Control Station for its type, enclosure, earthing, termination, installation and
termination.
► Check for enough of working space around motor for maintenance, disconnection and removal
of motor.
► Check the base feet of motors for breakages and cracks.
► Rotate the motor by hand and see the fan is not touching the fan cover.
► Check all the bolts are provided and are fully tight on base feet, fan cover, MTB and bearing
cover.
► Check the condition of desiccators provided on MTB cover.
► Check zero error on ammeter of LCS.
► Check the motor body is clean and free of dust.
► Check temperature on dial guages of bearing temperature indicators and match the reading with
Ambient.
► Check the motor rating by name plate with motor Data Sheet.

3.2 Winding Resistance Measurement Test.

► Disconnect the motor cables from motor terminals after noting

down the connections of each cable and motor terminals.
► Remove Delta Links. For star connected motors, measure
winding resistance between phases RY, YB and BR.
► Check the motor terminal block for cracks / breakage.
► Confirm marking on motor leads for correctness.
► Take multi meter and select proper range for resistance
measurement and measure resistance of each phase winding.
Record the reading with ambient temperature.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 119

► Similarly, disconnect the space heater cable and measure its
resistance with noting of ambient temperature

3.3 Insulation Resistance Test.

Motor remains disconnected from previous test.

► Select megger of proper voltage rating and range.
► Measure Insulation Resistance of each phase winding
with earth – motor body. Note down 1 minute reading of
IR, leakage current and ambient temperature
► Continue test up to 10 minutes and Note down readings.
► Measure and record similarly phase to phase Insulation
Resistance of the winding. Note down again 1 minute reading.
► Take Insulation Resistance of space heater
► Check the bearing insulation.
► Method of Testing of Cables is covered under Cables.

3.4 Measurement of PI value

Motor remains disconnected from previous tests. This test is, continuation of IR Test.
► PI ratio is the ratio of 10 minute IR reading to 1 minute IR reading.
► Both 1 minute and 10 minute readings are taken in previous test of Insulation Resistance
Measurement. Find PI value, as suggested above.
► The ratio arrived, must not be less than 1.2.

3.5 Testing of space heaters.

The testing has been covered under winding resistance measurement test. It has been tested for
continuity, total resistance value and insulation resistance.
► Connect back the space heater wires.
► Put back delta links.
► Connect back power cables power cables, as per earlier connections. Make sure to use correct
size washers and spring washers.

3.6 List of Testing Equipments

► High voltage test set

► Micro Ohm Meter
► Clamp on Meter
► 2.5 KV Megger
► 1000V Megger
► 500V Megger
► Vibration Meter
► Tacho Meter
► Contact less Thermometer
► DB meter.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 120

Topic – 4

ELECTRIC SAFTEY HAZARDS

►To ensure the Electrical Safety success

►Reducing no of personnel injuries through prevention and Standardization
►Reducing the risk of major accidents
►Improving Productivity
►Increasing Profitability
►The use of electricity can create serious hazards that provide the potential for exposure to
electric shock, burns , fires and explosions
►According to Bureau of labour statistics, average of more than 4000 disabling and 3,600 non
disabling electrical contact work related injuries are recorded annually.
►On average 290 employees die from electric shock at work each year.
Electric Shock is the fifth ranking cause of death for all industries.
40% of Industrial fire are of the electrical origin.

Electrical Question Bank By : Satish Panchal 121

Site : www.electrotechnik.net
Q- What is inrush current in transformer?
Inrush current is when we charge the x'mer for the 1st time, the current taken by the x'mer
for magnetizing the core and to produce flux is called inrush current.

when we give supply to transformer, transformer charge and flux is produced and when the
supply is cutoff some flux is been remained which is known as residual flux.

when we again charge the transformer the flux produce is combination of charging flux and
residual flux and the current produced due to it is known as inrush current

Q- How to measure contact resistance in breaker?

The Visual inspection check involves examining the contacts of the circuit breaker for any
pitting marks due to arcing and worn or deformed contacts. The second check is the contact
resistance measurement. This involves injecting a fixed current, usually around 300 A
through the contacts and measuring the voltage drop across it.

Then, using ohm's law, the resistance value is calculated. The resistance value needs to be
compared with the value given by the manufacturer. The value should also be compared
with previous records.

Q-The Synchroscope is a device to check the phase angles of the two sources during the
process of synchronization. It plays a vital role in ensuring that the two power supplies
which are being synchronized are "in phase" with each other. The Synchroscope has a dial
with a pointer which can occupy different positions according to the difference in the phase
angle.

The positions are usually compared with the markings on the clock. Thus a 3 'O'clock
position would indicate that the voltages are apart by an angle of 30 degrees. The 6 'O'clock
position would indicate that the sources are apart by 180 degrees. When the pointer is at
the 12'O'clock position, it indicates that the difference in phase angle between the two
sources is zero. The breaker connecting the two sources can now be closed.

The dial of the synchroscope is marked with two arrows indicating the direction of rotation
of the pointer. These arrows indicate the clockwise and the anti-clockwise direction. The
clockwise indicating arrow is marked "Too Fast" while the anti-clockwise indicating arrow is
marked "Too Slow".
These arrows indicate the speed of the incoming source as compared to the bus bar. If the
incoming generator's frequency is more than that of the bus bar, the pointer rotates in the
"Too fast" clockwise direction. The machine then needs to be slowed down. If the frequency
of the incoming machine is less that that of the bus bar, the rotation of the pointer is in the
opposite "Too Slow" direction.

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During forward synchronization when the incomer is intended to supply power to the grid,
the pointer of the synchroscope is allowed to rotate in the clockwise direction before it
stabilizes at the 12'O'clock position after which the breaker can be closed. This is essential
to prevent the machine from tripping on reverse power should power flow from the bus bar
to the grid.

In the case of reverse synchronization, the direction of the rotation depends on whether
power needs to be exported from the bus bar to the grid or imported from the grid to the
bus bar. In the former case, the direction has to be clockwise in the latter case it is to be
anticlockwise.

In newer models of the synchroscope, the pointer is replaced by LEDS which blink
depending on the phase angle and give the appearance of "running lights".

Q-Forward Synchronization & Reverse Synchronization :

Synchronization is a process of matching the voltage, frequency, phase angle and sequence
of two AC power sources and running them in parallel. Depending on the direction, the
process of synchronization can be divided into two types, viz. forward and reverse
Synchronization.

Forward Synchronization

In Forward Synchronization, the voltage, frequency and phase angle of the incoming
generator is synchronized to match the values of the bus bar. This is generally used when a
generator needs to be synchronized with an already charged bus bar. as shown in the
diagram.

Reverse Synchronization

Reverse Synchronization or backward synchronization is generally done when a the supply

from a grid utility is needed to be synchronized with a bus bar in the factory. Since, it is not
possible to alter the voltage, frequency, etc. of the incomer, in this case, the grid. The
voltage, frequency, etc. of the bus bar are adjusted to match the incomer. (See drawing).

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Q-Transformer Oil Deterioration
The Oil inside power transformers have a vital role to play in the transformer's functioning.
The function of the transformer oil is two-fold, to provide cooling to the transformer
windings and to provide insulation. However, over a period of many years, the transformer
oil deteriorate owing to many factors. This deterioration causes a change in the physical and
chemical properties of the oil.
Some of the reasons for transformer oil deterioration are

Oxidation of the oil.

The transformer breather permits the entry of air into the transformer, although it filters the
moisture. The air which flows inside the transformer oxidizes the oil and forms a sludge of
hydrocarbons. This process, though, usually occurs gradually over a period of many years.
The sludge thus formed hinders the cooling of the transformer and causes heating. The
sludge, sometimes, blocks the cooling ducts of the transformer. Higher temperatures inside
the transformers, in turn, cause further sludge formation.

Thermal Decomposition
At high temperatures, the organic compounds in the transformer oil break down due to a
phenomenon known as pyrolysis. This results in the formation of unwanted carbon
compounds, sludge, etc.

Moisture contamination
Under ideal conditions, the oil in a transformer is protected against the entry of moisture by
means of the silica gel filter in the breather. The silica gel changes color from blue to pink
when it gets saturated with moisture. If the silica gel is not renewed in time, moisture may
pass through the filter contaminating the oil.

Q-What are the reasons for transformer overheating?

Transformers can get heated due to a variety of reasons. Excessive heating of the
transformer increases transformer losses, weakens the insulation and may result in reduced
transformer life. The principal reasons for transformer overheating are

Overload:-
Excessive loading can cause overheating. Transformers are rated in kVA. This kVA rating is
dependent on temperature. Some transformers have two kVA ratings. One rating is for
below a specific ambient temperature; say 45 degrees while another rating is above the
ambient temperature.
Excess current in the neutral of the transformer:-
Excess current in the neutral of the transformer is usually caused by high zero sequence
harmonic components. This can be resolved by proper grounding usually through a zig zag
transformer.
Problems in the Cooling system:-
Malfunctioning of the cooling equipment such as blockages in the cooling oil circuit. Failure
of the cooling fans to operate in the case of Forced Air cooling systems.
High Harmonic content in the power supply:-
High harmonic loads can also cause heating in the transformer. These loads need to be
identified and suitable remedial measures such as harmonic filters can be implemented.
Sustained Overvoltages;-
Overvoltages which exist for a long period of time can overexcite the transformer and cause
overheating.

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Q- Fault Level Calculation
When a short circuit occurs in an electric system, heavy current flows through all the sections
of the system which are in the path between the power source and the equipment. The short
circuit current is limited only by the impedance of the system.

This heavy current can damage the components of the electric system if they are not properly
rated. If circuit breakers are not able to interrupt the high short circuit currents in a system,
arcing and explosions may occur
.
The Rating of the components is done based on the maximum short circuit current. The short
circuit current is calculated from the fault level KVA of the System. The Fault Level in a
distribution system is a very important parameter. The kVA at the instant of a Fault should
be correctly calculated and the components of the distribution system such as bus bars, circuit
breakers, isolators, etc should be properly sized.

To calculate the fault current in a system it is first necessary to calculate the MVA during a
fault.

The MVA during a fault is given by

From this, the maximum current during the fault can be deduced as

All the equipments should be rated to withstand this current. The fault level should be
calculated every five years and after any modification to the system such as the addition of
any load or the installation of further sources of power such as transformers and alternators.

Q-Arcing Horns
Transmission and other electrical equipment can be exposed to overvoltages. Overvoltages
can be caused by a number of reasons such as lightning strikes, transient surges, sudden
load fluctuation, etc. In the event of an overvoltage, the insulating equipment such as the
insulators on a transmission line or bushings in a transformer can be exposed to high
voltages which may lead to their failure.

Arcing horns are protective devices that are constructed in the form of projections in the
conducting materials on both sides of an insulator. Arcing horns are fitted in pairs. Thus in

125
transmission lines they are found on the conducting line and the transmission tower across
the insulators. In transmission lines, in the event of a lightning strike on the tower, the
tower potential rises to dangerous levels and can result in flashovers across the insulators
causing their failure. Arcing horns prevent this by conducting the arc across the air gap
across them.

Arcing horns function by bypassing the high voltage across the insulator using air as a
conductive medium. The small gap between the horns ensures that the air between them
breaks down resulting in a flashover and conducts the voltage surge rather than cause
damage to the insulator. The horns are constructed in pair so that one horn is on the line
side and the other is on the ground side.

Arcing Horns are also used along with air insulated switchgear equipment. Air insulated
switchgear are vulnerable to damage due to arcing. Arcing horns serve to divert the arc
towards themselves thus protecting the switching equipment. The arcing horns serve to
move the arc away from the bushings or the insulators.

Q-Earthing in Potential Transformers (PT)

The Secondary of the potential Transformers are usually earthed. There are various
reasons for this. The first reason is concerned with safety. Since, the primary winding of
the potential transformer is connected to High voltage, there are chances for the high
voltage, in rare conditions, to get transferred to the secondary. This can occur due to
capacitance, insulation failure or any other damage. Such a scenario would be extremely
dangerous. For this reason, the secondary is usually earthed at the star point for star
connected transformers.

Another reason for earthing the secondary would be functional. For applications such as
synchronization where two PT voltages need to be compared, the synchronizing equipment
(dark lamp method and bright lamp methods) would function only if the star point of the
PTs are grounded.

126
Q-Thermography in Sub-stations
Thermography is an extremely useful tool in the maintenance of substations. Thermography
helps monitor the components in the substation. Using temperature-based imaging, it
identifies hot spots which can indicate potential problems. Thermography is an integral part
of predictive maintenance schedule. Thermography involves monitoring devices with a
thermal imaging camera. Thermal imaging cameras operate on the infrared spectrum which
is invisible to the human eye. The images formed by these devices show variations in
temperature in the object. These variations in temperature can be interpreted as

abnormalities and analyzed.

Thermal cameras work by measuring the wavelength of the radiation emitted by hot bodies.
The wavelength of the radiation depends on the temperature of the equipment.

Most electrical problems such as loose connections, overloading, etc are accompanied by a
rise in temperature. This rise in temperature can give timely warnings, which, if heeded can
avoid major failures and breakdowns.

Thermography is usually carried out in the early mornings to enable clearer differentiations
of the hot spots from the surrounding temperature. The components which are being
inspected should be in the normally loaded condition.

Inspection should start from the top of the

equipment and proceed downwards. This avoids omissions of any part of the equipment. It
is ideal to establish inspection routes in the substation, through which the engineer moves
across with the imaging camera. This ensures that all areas of the substation are covered.

Thermal images of all components should be recorded and temperatures noted. The
temperatures of two similar components carrying similar loads should not differ by more
than 17 degrees and the difference between any component and the surrounding
air(ambient temperature) should not exceed 40 degrees.

If any anomaly is detected, the thermal image should be recorded along with a ordinary

127
photograph. It is advisable to take the thermal images from different angles to obtain a
good perspective.

Q-Calculating the percentage impedance of a Transformer

The impedance of a transformer is defined as the percentage of the drop in voltage to the at
full load to the rated voltage of the transformer. This drop in voltage is due to the winding
resistance and leakage reactance.

Alternatively, the percentage of a transformer can be described as the percentage of the

nominal voltage in the primary that is required to circulate the rated current in the
secondary.

The impedance of a transformer can be measured by means of a short-circuit test.

The secondary of the transformer whose percentage impedance is to be measured is

shorted. The voltage on the primary is gradually increased from zero till the secondary
current reaches the transformer's rated value.

The percentage impedance of the transformer is calculated as

Z%= (Impedance Voltage/Rated Voltage)*100

Thus a transformer with a primary rating of 110V which requires a voltage of 10V to
circulate the rated current in the short-circuited secondary would have an impedance of 9%.

The percentage impedance of a transformer a crucial parameter when operating

transformers in parallel. It also determines the fault level of a system during faults.

Q- Open Delta Connection of PTs

The Open Delta Connection is used to connect PTs. The connection uses two transformers
one on each phase. The output current, though, is only 57.5 percent of a normal three
phase connection. The capacity is consequently reduced to 86.6% of a normal three phase
configuration.

The Open Delta connection can be used where one transformer of a three phase PT
assembly has failed.

128
The open delta connection is cheaper that a conventional delta connected PT. Another
advantage of the open delta connection is that it can be used service one transformer in a
connection while the system runs on the other two.

Q- Float and Boost Charging of Batteries

Float charging is used where the battery rarely gets discharged. A typical application where
float charging can be used would consist of the float charger, battery and the load in
parallel. During normal operation, the load draws the power from the charger. When the
supply to the charger is interrupted, the battery steps in.

Float charging of a battery involves charging the battery at a reduced voltage. This reduced
voltage reduces the possibility of over charging. The Float charger ensures that the battery
is always in the charged condition and is therefore considered "floating". The Float charger
starts by applying a charging voltage to the battery. As the battery gets charged, its
charging current reduces gradually. The float charger senses the reduction in charging
current and reduces the charging voltage.

If the battery gets drained, the float charger will again increase the charging voltage and
process continues. Float chargers can be connected indefinitely to the batteries.

Boost charging involves a high current for short period of time to charge the battery. It is
generally if the battery has been discharged heavily. Boost charge enables the quick
charging of depleted batteries.

For instance, a two volt lead acid battery which has been discharged will initially be boost
charged with a charging voltage of around 2.35-2.4 volts. However, as the battery voltage
rises, the charger will switch over to the float charge mode with a float voltage of 2.25
volts.

Most battery chargers come equipped with provisions for both boost and float charging.

Q- Overvoltage - Causes and Protection

Overvoltages occur in a system when the system voltage rises over 110% of the nominal
rated voltage. Overvoltage can be caused by a number of reasons, sudden reduction in
loads, switching of transient loads, lightning strikes, failure of control equipment such as
voltage regulators, neutral displacement,. Overvoltage can cause damage to components
connected to the power supply and lead to insulation failure, damage to electronic
components, heating, flashovers, etc.

Overvoltage relays can be used to identify overvoltages and isolate equipment. These
relays operate when the measured voltage exceeds a predetermined set-point. The voltage

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is usually measured using a Potential Transformers. The details of the ratio of the potential
transformer are also entered into the relay. These relays are usually provided with a time
delay. The time delay can be either instantaneous, fixed time or for IDMT (inverse definite
minimum time) curves.

Generally, overvoltage relays are provided with sufficient time delay in order to avoid
unwanted trippings due to transients (See article on Transients).
These relays can be used to isolate feeders and other equipment connected to the
network. In the case of generators, these relay also switch off the excitation system to the
generators thereby preventing voltage build-up.

Q- Single Phasing - its causes and effects

Single phasing is a condition in three phase motors and transformers wherein the supply to
one of the phases is cut off. Single phasing causes negative phase sequence components in
the voltage. Since, motors generally have low impedances for negative phase sequence
voltage. The distortion in terms of negative phase sequence current will be substantial.

Negative phase sequence currents cause heating of the motor and consequently motor
failure. Single phasing is caused by the use of single-phase protection devices such as fuses
and circuit breakers. Three phase loads should be protected by devices which cause the
interruption of power to all three phases simultaneously when a fault occurs.

Defective contacts in three phase breakers can also cause single phasing.

Single phasing can be identified by special protective relays which can identify and isolate
the connected loads. Smaller motors rely on overcurrent and negative phase sequence
relays. Motor protection relays for larger motors come readily fitted with protection against
single phasing.
Single phasing can sometimes cause excessive noise and vibration in motors.

Q- Specific Gravity Measurement in Batteries

Specific Gravity of the electrolyte is a vital parameter which needs to be periodically
measured and recorded. The specific gravity of the Electrolyte gives us an indication of the
level of charge in the battery.

Specific gravity of any substance is the ratio of the density of that substance to the density
of water. It does not have any unit as it is a ratio. Specific Gravity is also known as
Relative Density. Specific gravity is measured using a hydrometer (see picture).

A higher specific gravity of an electrolyte is caused when the water content in the electrolyte
is reduced either due to electrolysis or evaporation. A lower specific gravity would indicate
undercharging.
During the charge-discharge cycle of a battery, the specific gravity varies continually. It
increases when the battery gets charged and decreases when the battery gets discharged.

Specific gravity of the electrolyte also varies in accordance with temperature; it decreases
with increase in temperature and increases in colder conditions.

Q- Low Resistance Grounding

Low Resistance grounding involves connecting a low resistance in series with the grounded
neutral of the three phase system. Low Resistance grounding limits permits a fault current
above 10A but limits it to around 50A

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Low resistance Grounding is used in situations where quick operation of ground fault relay is
required. This form of earthing is used when faults need to be cleared quickly.

Low resistance grounding resistors have a time rating beyond which they may not be able to
maintain thermal stability due to the heat generated by the fault currents.

Low resistance grounding ensures that equipment and conductors are not exposed to the
electric and mechanical stresses during an earth fault.

However, the downside of low resistance grounding is that the system needs to be de-
energized after a ground fault.

These are usually used in medium and high voltage Systems

Q- Resistance Grounding

In Resistance Grounding, the three phase power system is grounded through a

series resistance. This resistance is intended to limit the fault current when there is an
earth fault. Resistance grounded systems are ideal as they enable quick identification of a
fault and clearance. The series resistors used to limit current are designed for
thermal stability during fault conditions. The resistors also have a time rating. They
are designed to be in circuit for a particular period of time till the fault is
cleared. Resistance grounded systems can be classified into

• High Resistance Grounding and

• Low Resistance Grounding

High Resistance Grounding restricts the ground fault current to less than 10A. These
systems are advantageous because the system can continue to run when there is a
fault between a phase and the earth. This ensures the system reliability and the system
continues to run while the fault can be identified and rectified. However, care must be
taken to ensure that the permitted ground fault current is greater than the charging current
of the line capacitances.

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This is essential to ensure that there are not transient overvoltages during
intermittent earth faults. The series resistors used in High resistance grounding are
designed for longer time rating as they may have to be in circuit as long as the system is
running with the fault still present.

High Resistance grounding Systems are not permitted in systems which feed single
phase loads.

Modern High Resistance Grounding Systems are equipped with a pulser circuit which
is activated when a ground fault is detected. This pulser circuits generates a
pulsating current which can be used to identify the exact location of the ground fault with a
handheld device. This is extremely useful in identifying the fault within a short period
and restoring the system.

Types of Earthing

A proper grounding scheme is vital component of any power system. Improperly grounded
systems can result in equipment failures, overvoltages, and flashovers. Grounding uses the
earth as a return conductor in the event of a fault. This helps to identify the
fault. Resistances can be used to limit the fault current to desired levels. Grounding
ensures system stability and prompt identification and clearing of faults.

In three phase systems, the neutral of the Star Point is usually grounded. In the case of
delta connected systems, a special grounding arrangement such as Earthing Transformers
or Zig-zag transformers are used.

On the basis of the grounding used, Power Systems can be classified into

• Ungrounded Systems
• Solidly Grounded Systems
• Low Resistance Grounded Systems
• High Resistance Grounded Systems

Q- Ungrounded Systems

Ungrounded Systems can function normally in the healthy condition. In the fault condition,
as one phase gets earthed, the voltage between the other two phases and the ground
increases to the line voltage(phase to phase voltage). This places the insulation of the
equipment connected to the system under excessive electrostatic stress. Ungrounded
systems are the most expensive for this reason.

Electric Equipment connected to ungrounded systems need to have insulation rated for the
line voltage. In the event of a fault on one phase, the fault current is fed by the
capacitance charging current flowing the other two un-faulted phases.

This current is usually less and power can continue to flow in the other two

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phases. However, if the fault is intermittent and the contact with the ground is of the
make-break type. The capacitances which form in the other two phases may charge and
discharge into the system causing high overvoltages, sometimes 5 to 7 times the normal
voltage. This can cause extensive damage to other devices connected elsewhere in the
system.

While the ungrounded system can run with the other two phases even when one phase is
faulty, a fault in any of the other two phases can cause a phase-to-phase short circuit via
the ground.

Q- What are the disadvantages of solidly grounded systems?

Three phase High Voltage electric systems connected to transformers or generators that are
solidly grounded may experience transient overvoltages during fault conditions due to the
line capacitances getting charged and discharged.

Besides, the intensity of a ground fault will be greater and will be accompanied by a
flashover. This may be dangerous to personnel who are in the vicinity.

The damage to the equipment is also extensive as a higher current flows in solidly grounded
system. The conductors carrying the current are subjected to extensive electrical and
mechanical stresses.

The ground current which flows through the soil can pose a danger to people if the step
potential exceeds the safe limits.

Q- Grounding Resistances - An Introduction

Grounding Resistors are used to limit the fault current in Transformers and Alternators.
When a phase to ground fault occurs, the fault current is limited only by the soil resistance.
This current, which can be very high, can damage the windings.

Grounding resistances can be classified into high and low resistances.

In high resistance grounding, the fault current is limited to less than 10 amperes. While, in
low resistance grounding, the current is limited to a value from 25 amperes or more.

The resistances are also categorized on the basis of time they can withstand the fault
current. Typical durations are 1 second, 10 second, one minute and 10 minute rating.

The Extended Time rating resistor is used in systems where the reliability of the system is
critical. This is true in petroleum industries, mines etc. In these situations, a high resistance
which can sustain the fault for a long period is used. When an earth fault occurs of one
phase, an alarm is generated. However, the system continues to run until the next
scheduled shutdown.
Resistance grounding is not used in systems where the phase voltage exceeds 15kV for cost
reasons.

Q- Shaft Currents in Motors and Generators

The magnetic field in a motor or a generator is ideally conducted along paths that are
symmetrical. However, sometimes the magnetic fields within an electric machine such as a
motor or a generator is asymmetrical. This asymmetry can be caused usually by variation in
the quality of the steel used in the motor construction or in some cases to shaft eccentricity.

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These asymmetrical magnetic fields which are varying over time can induce currents in the
shaft of the motor or generator. These currents which are induced in the shaft tend to flow
from one end of the shaft to the other through the bearings and then through the earth.

When these currents flow through the bearings, the tend to cause arcing and consequent
pitting in the bearings. This can lead to failure of the bearings.

Shaft currents can be prevented by insulating one of the bearings. A Teflon layer is usually
placed between the shell of the bearing and the bearing housing. This ensures that the shaft
voltage induced does not have a return path. This prevents shaft currents from flowing.

Q- Can Single Phase motors be reversed by changing the polarity?

Single phase motors have two windings, the main winding and the auxilliary winding. The
auxiliary winding is used to start the motor and may be disconnected once the motor picks
up sufficient speed.

Reversing a single phase motors cannot be done by reversing the polarity of the supply to
the entire motor. To reverse the single phase motor, the polarity of the supply to only one
of the windings needs to be changed.
This can be done by reconfiguring special links which may be provided in the terminal box of
the motor.

Q- Why are Power Cables Shielded?

Shielding in Power Cables involves covering the insulation of a single cable or a group of
cables by a conducting material usually a sheath which is grounded.

The objective of a shield is to ensure that the cable insulation is subjected to a uniform
electric stress. The shielding also prevents transient overvoltages which are induced along
the cable by ensuring a eliminating surge potentials and ensuring a uniform surge
impedance.

Shielding also protects personnel from dangerous shocks which may be caused by intense
electric fields.

Q- Proximity Effect
Proximity Effect is a phenomenon which is observed in conductors carrying alternating
current. When a conductor carries ac power, the constantly varying magnetic field induces
eddy currents in the nearby conductors. In conductors where the current flows in the same
direction, this results in increased current density in the nearby conductors due to the
changes in the current distribution across the cross-section of the conductor. Thus the
resistance of the conductor increases.

In the picture, the blue zone inducts the areas with high current density, the white zone
indicates low current density caused by mutual induction.

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When two conductors carrying current in the same direction are located close by, the
current density on the sides of the conductor adjacent to each other will be lesser than the
sides on the outside.

The reduces the net current carrying capacity of the conductor. This phenomenon is not
observed when dc current flows through the conductor as there is no induction in dc.

Thus the AC resistance of a conductor may be many times the DC resistance. The AC
resistance is directly proportional to the frequency of the power supply. The proximity effect
is an important factor considered during the design of transformers, motors and multi-core
cables.

Q- Noise in Transformers
Transformer Noise is caused by a phenomenon called magnetostriction which occurs inside
the transformers. Magnetostriction is a phenomenon by which a metallic objects experiences
a distortion in its shape when it is placed inside a magnetic field. The objects can experience
a change in the dimensions, expansion or contraction.

Inside a transformer, the core which is made in the form of laminated sheets also
undergoes expansion and contraction due to the changing magnetic flux. This expansion
and contraction occurs twice in an ac cycle. The fundamental frequency of the noise or
vibration is double that of the frequency of the power supply. Thus a supply with a
frequency of 50 Hz will cause noise or vibration whose fundamental frequency is 100 Hz.

In addition to the fundamental frequency, there are also harmonics whose frequencies are
odd multiples of the fundamentals such as the 3rd harmonic, 5th harmonic, etc. A proper
study of the noise and vibration spectrum is necessary to devise methods of reducing them.

Since, the core of the transformer is made of laminated steel sheets; these sheets
experience unequal expansion and contraction when exposed to the magnetic flux. Hence,
they rub against each other causing the distinct hum. The constant cyclic forces generated
in the transformer core cause vibration which is carried to the different parts of the
transformer body. In addition, they also cause noise. Thus when trying to reduce the hum
of the transformer, both noise and vibration needs to be addressed. The noise of the
transformer is measured in decibels (dB).

People can find the noise of a transformer disturbing and may oppose locating a transformer
near their residence. In such circumstances, measures for reducing the impact of the sound
may be explored.
Vibrations can be addressed by the fitment of supports or dampers. Noise can be reduced
by mounting baffles and planning the location of the transformer.

Q- Solutions for Noise and Vibration in Transformers

Noise and Vibration in Transformers are undesirable aspects of Transformer Operation.
Noise causes disturbance in localities where the transformer is located. Vibration in
transformers can affect other components connected to it. Sometimes, excessive vibration
can cause components inside the transformer to come loose.

Methods of Noise Attenuation:

Location of a transformer plays a crucial part in the level of noise. A transformer located in a
corner of a building with walls on three sides will have its noise amplified.

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If the transformer is to be placed in a solid mass such as concrete which cannot vibrate, a
solid mounting is preferred.

If the transformer is to be mounted on other surfaces such as a structural frame, a column

or a platform, flexible mounting pads would be ideal

The construction of a Wall around the Transformer can help contain the transformer noise
within a small area.

Use of Double Walls: Double Walls or limp walls are arrangements which contain two glass
plates between which is a viscous liquid. The viscous liquid helps in damping the noise as it
passes through.

A cheaper alternative would be the construction of a screening wall made of wood or

concrete which can reduce the transformer noise.

Reducing Vibrations in Transformers.

Vibration pads can be used to alleviate the issue of vibration.

All the components inside the transformer should be rigidly fixed by using spacers.
All external connections such as cables, etc should be attached by means of flexible
couplings.

Q- Ampacity - an introduction
Ampacity or 'ampere-carrying capacity' refers to the ability of a conductor such as wires,
cables or busbars to carry current without getting damaged due to overheating.

The ampacity of a conductor should be optimimum with respect to the application. A lower
ampacity would result in heating and damage to the insulation. An excessive ampacity
selection would result in unnecessarily high costs.

The ampacity of any conductor depends on the following factors.

• The temperature rating of its insulation or the insulation class.

• The electrical properties of the conductor such as resistivity, etc.
• The heat dissipating capacity of the conductor; this depends on the shape of the
conductor, the conductor location and ambient temperature, etc.

Q- Checking Lightning Arrestors

Lightning arrestors play a vital role in any substation by protecting equipment against
lightning strikes and other surges. Lightning arrestors require very less maintenance and
testing.

Lightning arrestors can deteriorate over a period of time due to factors such as dust, cracks,
moisture ingress, degradation of the zinc oxide elements inside, etc. This can lead to failure
of the lightning arrestor. When a lightning arrestor fails, it usually explodes causing a
flashover and damage to the other equipment such as PTs, CTs, etc. Hence, it is imperative
that the lightning arrestors in the system are kept in a healthy condition.

The usual tests carried out on Lightning arrestors are the Insulation Resistance Tests and

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the Hipot Test.

Harmonic Test (online test):

When the lightning arrestor is in line, a small leakage current flows through it. This current
can be analysed for Harmonics. Online harmonics analysers for lightning arrestors are
available. The leakage current is analysed for the presence of the 3rd Harmonic which
usually indicates a failure in the near future. An arrestor thus identified can be isolated and
sent for repair before any catastrophic failure can take place

The Insulation Resistance Test:

The tests are conducted with a High Voltage Meggar, usually 2500V. The value, usually in
the order of megohms, is compared with the previous values and the test values of the
manufacturers.

Hipot Test:
The Hipot test is conducted at about 175% of the rated voltage. In addition to these tests, a
visual inspection of the lightning arrestors for cracks, dust accumulation, broken fitments is
also useful. In the event of system overvoltages or adverse weather conditions such as
thunderstorms, the lightning arrestors need to be tested more frequently

Q- What are Surge Capacitors?

Surge capacitors are special capacitors connected to transmission lines. The function of
these capacitors is to absorb the surge caused by waves which travel along the transmission
lines.

The Surge Capacitor is always connected to the power supply. When the Surge appears it
absorbs the surge, holds it on for sometimes and then releases it into the system.

Surge Capacitors have a very fast response time as they are continually in circuit. However,
the limitation of the Surge capacitors is that it cannot absorb a high current surge. High
current surges can only be discharged by lightning arrestors. Hence, the Surge capacitor is
usually connected along with a lightning arrestor.

Q- What are Bleeder Resistors in Capacitors

Capacitors are devices which store charge as an electrostatic field. When the supply
connected to a capacitor is removed, the capacitor still retains the charge within itself.

Thus, when a capacitor is switched off, it still contains charge. Hence, an engineer working
on a capacitor that has not been discharged can get an electric shock. It is, therefore, vital
that all capacitors and other energy storage devices be discharged prior to service. Power
capacitors usually have a resistor known as a bleeder resistor connected in parallel. The

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function of this resistor is to discharge the capacitor once the power supply has been
removed.

These resistors are usually designed to reduce voltage across the capacitor to less than 50V
(the permissible safe voltage for humans) within 5 minutes.Hence, service work in a
capacitor should be started only after five minutes. As a final precaution, the capacitors
need to be discharged manually prior to starting the work.

Q- What are the reasons for Bulging in Capacitors?

Bulging in capacitors is caused due to pressure inside the capacitor body. This pressure can
be caused due to arcing between the capacitor plates and the resultant generation of gases.

Such capacitors need to be handled carefully. Always contact the capacitor manufacturers
on handling or disposing the capacitor units.

Vents are provided in some capacitors as a defence against bulging. Vents need to be
periodically checked for rupture which may indicate failure.

Q- Overfluxing in Transformers
The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between the primary and
secondary windings. The induction is caused by the constantly varying magnetic flux that
links the two windings. The flux density in the windings is directly proportional to the
induced voltage and inversely proportional to the frequency and the number of turns in the
winding.

Magnetic Flux α Voltage/Frequency

Overfluxing is a dangerous situation in which the magnetic flux density increases to

extremely high levels. The high flux density can induce excessive eddy currents in the
windings and in other conductive parts inside the transformers. The heat generated by
these eddy currents can damage the windings and the insulation. The high flux density also
causes magnetostriction inside the transformer core and produces noise. The powerful

magnetostrictive forces can also cause damage. The winding temperatures may also
increase due to the heat produced.

The magnetic flux density is dependent on the current flowing through the primary windings
in a transformer. This current is dependent on the voltage applied across the windings and
the winding impedance. The impedance is dependent on the frequency of the applied
voltage. If the nominal voltage is applied at a reduced frequency, the low inductive
reactance will cause a higher current to flow through the windings.

Overfluxing is usually encountered in Transformers which are directly connected to the

generator. It usually occurs when the generator is being started or stopped. As the rpm of

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the generator and consequently the frequency of the power falls, the same system voltage
induces a higher magnetic flux. Modern Automatic Voltage regulators are equipped with
V/Hz limiters which limit the voltage in accordance with the frequency.

Overfluxing can be prevented by the use of a Overfluxing relay. An overfluxing is an

adaptation of an overvoltage relay. The PT voltage is connected across a resistor and a
capacitor in series. The voltage sensing relay is connected across the capacitor. The relay
operates in the event of an overfluxing and isolates the transformer

Q- What are opto-coupler relays?

Optocoupler relays are relays in which the changeover of contacts is effected by the
switching on or off of a light source which is linked to a SCR or a TRIAC. The SCR or the
TRIAC is switched on or off when the LED is switched unlike conventional relays, where it is
done electromagnetically.

These relays are faster than electromagnetic relays. More importantly, the provide isolation
between the control and the power circuits.

These relays do not have any moving parts which can deteriorate due to arcing or
operational wear. However, they are expensive over conventional relays and hence still find
limited application.

Another advantage of the Solid state relay is that it can

open an AC circuit when the sinewave crosses zero. This ensures that the back-emf is
minimum and this ensures that there are no voltage kicks in the opposite direction when the
circuit is open due to inductance. This is because the Triac or the SCR used in the solid state
relays conduct current till the waveform reaches the zero point even after the optocoupler
LED has been switched off. This prevents premature failure of the contacts.

The Advantages of Optocoupler relays include

• Smaller Size
• Faster Response time
• Noiseless operations as there is no mechanical movement of the contacts.
• Optocoupler relays can withstand high vibration compared to conventional relays
• They do not generate Electromagnetic radiation as there is no coils to be energized.

However, they also have some disadvantages.

• They are more expensive

• They generate heat and require special heat-sinking fixtures.
• They cannot switch on very low currents
• When Solid state relays fail, they fail in the "closed position". In this situation, the
machine which is connected will continue to be in the operating condition and there
will be difficulty in isolating it. Electromagnetic relays usually fail in the "open"
position.

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Q- Zero-Switching of Transformers
When inductive loads such as transformers or motors are switched on, a sudden rush of
current into the winding is observed. This is known as the inrush current. Typically, the
inrush current is around 5 to 6 times of the rated value. This is due to the absence of the
back-emf when the winding when the power is first applied. This sudden surge of current
causes disturbances in the system voltage and sometimes spurious operation of relays. The
high current also causes stress on the windings of the machines.

There are a number of methods to address this problem. Adding resistors in series to the
winding and then gradually taking them out of circuit is one option. Another option is the
use of softstarters which raise the terminal voltage of the machines gradually. Zero
crossover switching is one method of addressing the issue of high inrush current when
switching on inductive equipment. The method involves the use of Static Relays consisting
of devices such as SCR or TRIACs. These devices switch on when the sinewave crosses the
zero point so that the voltage is gradually increased. This, in some circumstances, reduce
the inrush current.

However, this methods has its downsides too. There have been reports that if the zero cross
over switching is carried out on a core that is already saturated from previous operation,
extremely high currents can result.
Apart from inductive loads, inrush currents is also observed in resistive loads such as
filament lamps. In filament lamps the resistance when the filament is in the cold, that is,
switched off condition is lesser than the resistance when the lamp is in the switched on
condition. This is due to the positive temperature co-efficient of resistance. When the lamp
is switched on from the cold condition, there is a high surge of current which continues till
the temperature of the resistance increases. Zero-crossover switching in resistive loads can
ensure a smoother increase in current value to the steady-state condition.

This ensures a smoother increase in the current to the steady-state value.

Q- Zero-Switching of Transformers
When inductive loads such as transformers or motors are switched on, a sudden rush of
current into the winding is observed. This is known as the inrush current. Typically, the
inrush current is around 5 to 6 times of the rated value. This is due to the absence of the
back-emf when the winding when the power is first applied. This sudden surge of current
causes disturbances in the system voltage and sometimes spurious operation of relays. The
high current also causes stress on the windings of the machines.

There are a number of methods to address this problem. Adding resistors in series to the
winding and then gradually taking them out of circuit is one option. Another option is the
use of softstarters which raise the terminal voltage of the machines gradually. Zero
crossover switching is one method of addressing the issue of high inrush current when
switching on inductive equipment. The method involves the use of Static Relays consisting
of devices such as SCR or TRIACs. These devices switch on when the sinewave crosses the
zero point so that the voltage is gradually increased. This, in some circumstances, reduce
the inrush current.

However, this methods has its downsides too. There have been reports that if the zero cross
over switching is carried out on a core that is already saturated from previous operation,
extremely high currents can result.
Apart from inductive loads, inrush currents is also observed in resistive loads such as
filament lamps. In filament lamps the resistance when the filament is in the cold, that is,

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switched off condition is lesser than the resistance when the lamp is in the switched on
condition. This is due to the positive temperature co-efficient of resistance. When the lamp
is switched on from the cold condition, there is a high surge of current which continues till
the temperature of the resistance increases. Zero-crossover switching in resistive loads can
ensure a smoother increase in current value to the steady-state condition.

This ensures a smoother increase in the current to the steady-state value.

Q- AutoTransformers
Autotransformers are transformers which contain only one winding unlike two windings in
the conventional transformer. The same winding, therefore, serves as the primary and
secondary windings.

Autotransformers are advantageous over normal transformers as they are cheaper.

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Autotransformers are used generally for voltage conversion of equipments from one voltage
to another such as from 110V to 220V or vice versa.

However, the autotransformer does not provide isolation between the primary and the
secondary. Hence, there may a need to connect external filtering or suppression circuits.
Thus, in the event of a failure of the insulation between the turns of the winding, there are
chances of the primary voltage appearing on the secondary.

Another aspect which needs to be checked is the neutral point. If the neutral point is not at
ground potential in the primary, the secondary neutral wil also not be at ground potential.

The autotransformer has higher voltage stability and better overload transformers than the

ordinary transformers.

A Variac is a variable autotransformer with movable taps. Thus, it provides variable output
voltage for a steady input voltage. The taps can be adjusted by a movable knob.

Q- How Autotransformers work

In the autotransformer the primary and secondary windings are joined together, with part
of the winding belonging to both primary and secondary, and are wound on a single "leg" of
laminated core. The autotransformer uses the principle of self-induction.

Autotransformers find popular use in applications requiring a slight boost or reduction in

voltage to a load. The alternative with a normal (isolated) transformer would be to either
have just the right primary/secondary winding ratio made for the job or use a step-down
configuration with the secondary winding connected in series-aiding ("boosting") or series-
opposing ("bucking") fashion. Primary, secondary, and load voltages are given to illustrate
how this would work. In the "boosting" configuration. Here, the secondary coil's polarity is

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oriented so that its voltage directly adds to the primary voltage:

Next, the "bucking" configuration. Here, the secondary coil's polarity is oriented so that its
voltage directly subtracts from the primary voltage:

The prime advantage of an autotransformer is that the same boosting or bucking function is
obtained with only a single winding, making it cheaper and lighter to manufacture than a
regular (isolating) transformer having both primary and secondary windings.

Q- Freewheeling or Fly back diodes and their function

Freewheel or Fly back diodes are used across

inductive components such as coils to prevent voltage spikes when the power is turned off
to the devices.

When power to inductive loads such as coils and inductors is turned off, there is a sharp
voltage spike. The direction of this voltage is opposite to the applied voltage in accordance
with Lenz’s Law.

When a current flows through the coil of a relay, the coil gets electromagnetically charged.
The energy is stored in the magnetic field around the coil. When the power supply to the
coil is interrupted and the current in the coil tends to decrease, the magnetic field
discharges causing a surge in the voltage.

The voltage, thus induced, can jump across the contacts of relays connected to the coils.
The sparks and arcing produced can affect the life of the contacts. The voltage spikes can
also damage electronic components like transistors which may be driving the relay coils.

Freewheel diodes are connected in reverse bias vis-à-vis the supply voltage. Hence, when
the voltage spike appears in the opposite direction, they are short-circuited through the
diode. The voltage spike is thus short-circuited across the coil. This protects the connected
circuits.

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Q- What is the difference between Salient and Non-Salient Pole Rotors used in
Synchronous Generators

Rotors used in Synchronous alternators can be classified into 1)Salient and 2)Non-Salient
Pole Rotors. Salient pole rotors are used in application with speeds from 100 to 1500rpm.
They are alternative known as "projected pole" type of rotors. The poles mounted on the
rotor are made of laminations made of steel. The poles are connected to the rotor shaft by
means of dovetail joints. Each pole has a pole shoe around which the winding is wound. The
salient pole rotor is generally used in applications where the prime mover is a hydel turbine
or a combustion engine which have low or medium speeds. Salient pole rotors usually
contain damper windings to prevent rotor oscillations during operation.

Non-salient pole rotors are generally used in application which operate at higher speeds,
1500rpm and above.
The prime movers in these applications are generally gas or steam turbines. These are
sometimes known as "drum rotors". The rotor is a cylinder made of solid forged steel. The
slots on which the windings are fixed are milled on the rotor. The number of poles is usually
2 or 4 in number. Since these rotors are cylindrical, the windage loss is reduced. The noise
produced is also less. These rotors have higher axial length. These rotors do not need
damper windings.

Q- How does a dc clampmeter work?

Ordinary clampmeters used to measure AC

currents work on the principle of electromagnetic induction caused by the alternating
current flowing in the conductor which reverses direction causing a dynamically changing
magnetic field. However, in DC conductors, the current flows in a fixed polarity.
Consequently, the magnetic field around the conductor is fixed and does not change. Hence,
a conventional clamp meter will register no reading.

A DC clampmeter works on the principle of

the Hall Effect. The Hall Effect, named after Edwin Hall who discovered it 1879, states that

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when a conductor carrying current is placed in a magnetic field, a potential is induced across
the conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field
perpendicular to the current. It is caused as the charge

carriers, electrons or holes, experience a

force known as the Lorentz force and are pushed to the sides of the conductor.

A clampmeter which works on the Hall effect has a sensor known as the Hall element. The
Hall element is subjected to the magnetic field caused by the flow of current to be
measured. This causes a small voltage across the Hall element. This voltage is amplified and
measured.

Q- Corona and its Effects

Corona is a form of Partial discharge which is luminous and occassionally visible to the
Naked Eye.

Corona are caused when the air around an energized conductor gets ionized, causing a
discharge. Corona are caused when defects are present in the conductors such as jagged
edges or cracks which cause high local electric field. A hissing sound can also be heard
during the occurence of Corona.

The Nitrogen molecules in the air get excited and result and cause ultraviolet radiation.
Corona is sometimes visible as a hazy blue light around conductors, especially during the
night.

Effects of Corona

1. Corona is accompanied by the creation of ozone and nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxides
may react with moisture in the air and form nitric acid a potentially corrosive
substance.
2. Corona can cause damage to insulators used in High voltage applications.
3. Corona emissions are accompanied by the generation of radio waves which can
interfere with commercial radio transmission. Sometimes, Corona can also result in
noise which may disturb the neighborhood.
4. It can sometimes cause carbon deposits which may later result in arcing.

Corona can also be used to identify problems. Corona in power transmission lines indicate
the presence of dirt or other substances on power lines and may require cleaning.

Corona after commission an equipment may indicate improper installation.

The degree of corona will vary with the humidity. In high humidity conditions, corona can
develop into a flashover which can cause trippings and damage to equipment.

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Prevention of Corona
One of the means of reducing corona in transmission lines has been to increase the radius
of the conductors. This leads to decreased electrostatic field stress on the air around the
conductor and prevents the initation of the corona. ACSR conductors ( see article on ACSR
conductors) which have a greater radii than steel conductors suffer less from the effects of
corona.

Q- Skin Effect
Skin Effect refers to the tendency of alternating current(AC) to flow along the outer
surface(skin) of the conductor rather than through the entire cross-section of the conductor.

Skin Effect is caused due to eddy currents form due to the magnetic fields created when
current flows through the conductor. These eddy currents are strongest near the centre.
The magnetic fields oppose the flow of the current. Hence, the current finds it easier to flow
across the periphery of the conductor.
Conductors which carry AC such as busbars in substations are made hollow for this reason
as current flows only along the surface. The Skin effect becomes more pronounced at higher
frequencies. That is why radio antennae are made hollow.

Conductors in overhead lines and in cables are generally made of strands instead of one
solid conductor. Skin Effect does not occur when conducting DC.

Q- Partial Discharge
Partial Discharge is a type of electrical discharge which occurs in insulating materials which
are located between two conductors as in cables or windings. As the name suggests, the
discharge is partial without completely bridging the two conductors.

Partial discharges usually occur in voids in the insulation of cables and windings as the di-
electric constant of the voids are significantly lesser than the surrounding insulating media.
They can also appear across bubbles in liquid insulating media such as in breakers or
transformers. In gaseous media, they can appear as corona around an electrode. Corona
can be seen in wet weather in power lines.

Partial Discharge occurs usually in insulation which has been subjected to mechanical and
electrostatic stress or which has been weakened by premature aging due to adverse
environmental conditions. Once initiated, Partial Discharge results in the formation of
electrical trees which can accelerate the failure of the cable causing a short-circuit between
two conductors or an earth fault. They can appear as "tracking" or distinct pathways in the
cable insulation. Partial discharge can also be caused by improperly terminated/jointed
connections in HV cables and windings.

The currents which flow during Partial discharge are extremely small and last for very short
periods of time of the order of nanoseconds. This makes them difficult to measure. Partial
Discharges generally dissipate energy in the form of heat, light and sound.

There are a wide range of methods(Partial discharge Analtysis) to detect and monitor Partial
Discharge. Acoustic sensors detect the ultrasonic frequency noises which occur when a
partial discharge is taking place. There are also inductive and capacitive sensors which can
detect Partial Discharges

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Q- Flash-Overs
A Flashover or an arcing fault occurs when current flows between two conductors or
between the conductor and the ground or a neutral line. A sudden burst of Energy is
released during an arcing fault.

The high current which flows during a flash over can cause a sudden blast of energy in the
form of heat, light and sound.

Personnel who come in contact with the arc or are in the vicinity of the fault can face
serious injuries such as burns, damage to sight and hearing. Sometimes, Flashovers can
lead to death of personnel. The Flashover is usually accompanied by a tremendous pressure
blast which may throw pieces of equipment (shrapnel) over large distances increasing the
chance of injury to people nearby

Flashovers can be caused by a number of reasons such as making contact with energized
equipment accidentally, dropping tools into energized equipment such as busbars,
transformers when working on them. The accumulation of dirt, dust and moisture over
extended periods of time can also trigger flashovers in equipment.

Flashovers can be prevented by following standard safety procedures while working on

Energized equipment. Routine safety drills will also greatly reduce mistakes during work. It
must be ensured that all HV equipment are insulated. The minimum line-to-line and line-to-
ground clearances should be followed for all busbars. The Insulation Resistances of all
cables and windings need to be checked at scheduled intervals
The relays and other protective devices should be periodically checked for correct operation.

Q- Current Limiting Fuses

Current limiting fuses are used in systems where high fault levels can result in excessive
fault currents. The fuses function as normal fuses; however, they are designed to limit the
fault current to low levels when they operate.

During normal operation, the fuse has a low resistance. However, when the fault occurs and
the fuse ruptures, the heat created by the arcing inside the fuse causes the compacted
quartz sand to create a high resistance environment. This quenches the arc and ensures
that a very rapid fall in current.

The fault is thus cleared within the first half-cycle of the fault within 10 ms. Thus current-
limiting fuses also protect systems from voltage sag in the event of a fault in one part of the
system.

The current limiting fuses contains elements made of copper or silver. The elements are
designed to have constrictions at a number of places which will heat up in the event of a
fault. This enables quick operation. The arcing is also made to occur in a pre-determined
number. The arcing which occurs in many streams enables easy quenching instead of one
single arc. The quenching medium is usually compacted quartz sand.
Current limiting fuses also reduce hazards of arc-flashing, since they are extremely fast
acting and also able to restrict the currents.
Arc flashing occurs when different conductors accidentally come into contact. The resulting
arc can cause flashovers which generate tremendous amounts of heat causing danger to
personnel nearby.

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Q- Why is Gravel used to pave substation surfaces?
Gravel has many qualities which make it a preferred material for layering surfaces inside
substations. Its high resistivity helps ensure that the step and touch potentials remain
within limits.

It also prevents growth of weeds and small plants. It mitigates the chances of a fire in the
event of oil spillage. It can be easily excavated. Besides, it also prevents the entry and
movement of small animals and reptiles inside the substation. Gravel also prevents the
accumulation of water and the formation of puddles inside the substation. All these features
ensure that gravel is the material of choice for use in substations.

Q- Hipot Testing Method

Hipot Test is a high voltage test that is used to check the integrity of insulation for high
voltage equipments such as busbars, cables, motors etc. The term 'Hipot' is the shortened
form of High Potential. The Hipot test is used to ensure that an insulation can withstand a
high potential without risk of failure.

However, the hipot test carries with it the potential failure of the insulation during the
testing process itself. Weak insulation can fail during the test. Hence, many equipment
owners avoid conducting this test. The hipot test certifies that the insulation is sufficient to
withstand excess voltage during

operation. This is significant

in situations where the failure of a machine in service can cause serious damage or
downtime as compared to a failure during the testing procedure.

The Hipot test is alternatively known as Dielectric Withstand test. The test involves the
application of a high voltage usually about two times the
operating voltage. Thus a 6.6kV equipment will be tested at a voltage of 13kV.

The test is conducted for 1 minute or five minute. If the hipot test is conducted on a
transformer winding or an alternator winding, the test is conducted on individual phases.
The phases are separated and those phases which are not subjected to the hipot voltage are
grounded.

Test Procedure
Prior to commencing the hipot test, it is necessary to get the Insulation Resistance and the
Polarization Index values for the insulation. This ensures that the windings are free of any
moisture or contamination. A wet or contaminated winding is more vulnerable to fail during
the test.

The hipot test voltage is applied to the winding terminals to be tested. The voltage is

148
sustained for one minute or five minute and then reduced. The current during the test
period is also studied. Should there be a failure during the testing. There wil be a surge in
the current which will cause the MCBs in the hipot test kit to trip.
There are two methods of raising the voltage to the value of the test voltage. They are

Step Test
In this method, the test voltage is raised gradually in small incremental steps. This enables
the tester to abandon the test if he suspects that any current increase which may indicate a
weak winding.

Ramp test
In this method, the test voltage is raised gradually or ramped up at a specific rate. The
voltage can be increased to the rated voltage along with constant monitoring of the current.
The ramp method is the most effective test as it can avoid any insulation failure during the
test by identifying potential weaknesses in the winding early on.

The Hipot test does not offer scope for analysis such as the Insulation Resistance or the
Polarization Test. It is simple a pass-fail kind of test. It is significant in that it gives
operators the confidence that the equipment is strong enough to withstand the operating
voltage and transient overvoltages in the system.

The high voltage used during the test calls for high standards of safety. The area around the
test location should be cleared of all items not related to the test(clutter). The area needs to
be cordoned off to prevent the entry of unauthorized persons. Personnel should be stationed
at the main power switch so that the switch can be turned at the first sign of any
abnormality. The personnel conducting the test should be properly trained with awareness
of emergency first-aid procedures in the event of an electric shock. The device which is
being tested should be grounded after the test to discharge the capacitance.

Q- XLPE Insulation for Cables

XLPE is the acronym for Cross linked Poly-Ethylene. It is a form of polyethylene which has
crosslinks which join the individual polymer chains together. Polythene is a material that has
numerous applications in the modern world. However, it has the disadvantage of having a
low melting point. This downside is eliminated by "cross-linking" the polymer chains. The
cross linkings increase the melting point.

XLPE has many qualities which make it extremely useful for cable insulation. It is flexible
permitting smaller bending radius for the cables. It is light weight and water proof. It is also
tough which minimizes the need for armouring.

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XLPE cables are available for a wide range of voltage ranges from 600V to 154kV.

It is easier to handle and store compared to cables with paper insulation or lead insulation.

They are relatively maintenance free and have simple terminating and jointing procedures.

Some of the other features of XLPE are

1. It has a high softening temperature

2. It resists aging
3. It is light
4. It has resistance against stress cracking.

However, XLPE does have some disadvantages such as high cost, and the formation of
water trees in the insulation due to ageing which result in partial discharge. Hence, recently,
another polymer known as XLVLDPE(Cross linked Very Low Density PolyEthylene) is being
used for cable insulation

Q- ACSR Conductors in Power Transmission

ACSR is an acronym for Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced. These conductors are widely
used in High Voltage Power lines.

Aluminium is a good conductor of electricity besides being cheap. However, its mechanical
properties are not desirable. It is soft and cannot be hardened. It also has low tensile
strength

This problem is resolved by providing a core of steel stranded cables inside an outer layer of
aluminium stranded cables. The steel imparts excellent mechanical properties. Due to the
skin effect, the bulk of the power is transmitted through the outer aluminium layer of the

conductor which have better conductivity.

The amount of aluminium and steel strandings can be adjusted depending on the
requirement for mechanical strength vis-a-vis electrical conductivity.

The conductors are sometimes impregnated with grease to protect against corrosion.

The strength of ACSR conductors is greater than that of copper conductors. The ACSR
conductors also have a higher corona limit as they have a higer diameter.

Q- Losses in a Transformer
The Efficiency of the transformer is the given by

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(Power output/Power Input)*100

The Efficiency of the transformer is affected by the losses inside the transformer.
These losses can be categorized into three types

1. Iron losses, 2. Core Losses and 3. Stray losses

Iron Losses
These are losses caused by the heating of the conductor when current is passes through it.
They are also known as I2R losses as the heat generated is proportional to the formula
H=I2R

Core Losses
Core losses are the losses which occur in the core of the transformer. There are two kinds of
core losses, They are Hysteresis Loss and Eddy Current Losses

Hysteresis losses occur when the magnetic orientation of the molecules inside the core
are reversed when the magnetic field changes. This reversal of orientation of the molecules
results in the generation of heat.

Eddy current losses occur due to circulating currents in the form of eddies which are
generated in the core. These eddy currents generate heat.

Stray losses
These are losses which occur due to the leakage of the magnetic flux of the transformer.
This leakage can cause eddy currents in the fitments of the transformer such as the tank,
channels, bolts, etc.

Q- Voltage dependent overcurrent protection

Overcurrent protection is a crucial component of the generator protection scheme.
Overcurrent protection is used to protection the generator against overloading. It is also
used to isolate the generator in the event of a short circuit fault.

However, there is one issue to be considered when designing a protection for a generator.
In the event of a short circuit, the fault current is very high for a few milliseconds after a
fault. This heavy current causes the generator voltage to drop. This drop in voltage causes
the current to decay. Therefore, a high overcurrent setting may not operate in the event of
a short-circuit.

To solve this problem, voltage dependent overcurrent relays bias the overcurrent setting
with the measured voltage. That is, at normal voltage, the overcurrent relay operates if the
current exceeds the setpoint. However, if there is a voltage drop, the overcurrent setting

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also progressive
decreases according to the biasing. Thus, at lower voltages, the current required to operate
the relay is very low.

A variation of the voltage-dependent relay is the voltage controlled. This relay has an
undervoltage setting and a overcurrent setting. The overcurrent setting is set at a value less
than the rated current of the generator. For the relay to operate, both the undervoltage and
the overcurrent need to occur at the same time. This can occur only at the instant of a short
circuit.

Q- Transients - An Overview
A Transient can be defined as a momentary change in a parameter such as voltage, current
or frequency that occurs when a system changes from one steady state operating condition
to another. Transients occur during switching on and switching off loads, during starting
motors, etc.

Transients can be classified into : 1. Impulsive and 2. Oscillatory transients

Impulsive Transients

They are usually caused by lightning. These transients do not have any impact on the
system frequency. They cause a very sharp change in either the voltage or the current.
However, the change is in only one direction, the positive or the negative side i.e. they are
unidirectional.

They are characterized by a sharp rise followed by a decay. For instance a 1.5 x 60
microsecond, 2500V surge cause the voltage to rise to 2500V in a period of 1.5
microseconds. This will be followed by a decay to 50% of the voltage value in 60
microseconds.

The impulsive transient may appear differently in the waveform from different points in the
system as it is a fast-changing phenomenon. This is because the transient can be modified
by various components of the power system.

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Oscillatory Transients
They differ from impulsive transients in that they are bi-directional, they occur on both the
positive and negative sides of the waveform. Oscillatory transients can be classified into
High, Medium, and Low Frequency Transients depending on the primary frequency of the
transient.

High frequencies, with a primary frequency greater than 500 kHz, are caused by a reaction
of the system to an impulsive transient. Impulsive transient can excite the natural
frequency of the power system which can cause oscillations.

Medium Frequency Transients, with a primary frequency ranging from 5 to 500 kHz, are
known as Medium frequency transients. They are generally caused by switching capacitor
banks or charging large cables.

Low frequency transients have a primary frequency less than 5 kHz. They are usually
caused by transformer energization and Ferro resonance.

Q- Reclosers - An Introduction

Reclosers are switching equipment used in

transmission lines. A recloser can sense an overcurrent condition by itself and isolate the
system. It does not need an external relay to operate it. When the overcurrent condition is
cleared, it closes automatically in a pre-determined sequence.

Reclosers are useful in distribution lines, where some of the overcurrent conditions are
temporary in nature and clear quickly. They ensure that the system is normalized quickly.

After isolating a system, the recloser closes again after a preset time to see if the fault has
been cleared. If the fault persists, the recloser trips again. It closes again for a few more
times to see if the fault has cleared. Then it locks the system and permanently isolates it.

The recloser then may need to be reset.

Like circuit breakers, reclosers consist of an interrupting mechanism with an insulating

153
medium for arc extinction. They also contain coils for opening and closing, besides sensing
transformers.

The tripping coils of reclosers are powered by the fault current which flows through the
system. Unlike circuit breakers, where the closing coil is powered by an auxiliary supply, the
reclosers are powered by a transformer which is located on the source side.

Q- What will be the impact of undervoltage and overvoltage on induction motors?

An overvoltage in an induction motor will cause the reactive component of the current inside
to increase causing eddy current heating of the rotor and stress on the insulation.

In the case of an undervoltage, the low voltage causes the torque developed to reduce. This
results in an increase of slip and a reduction in speed. The motor tries to reduce the slip by
drawing more current. This overloads the motor and can cause overheating.

Q- Tan Delta testing - Principle and Method

Tan Delta is a a diagnostic test conducted on the insulation of cables and windings. It is
used to measure the deterioration in the cable. It also gives an idea of the aging process in
the cable and enables us to predict the remaining life of the cable. It is alternatively known
as the loss angle test or the dissipation factor test.

Principle

The Tan Delta test works on the principle that any insulation in its pure state acts as a
capacitor. The test involves applying a very low frequency AC voltage. The voltage is
generally double the rated voltage of the cable or winding.

A low frequency causes a higher value of capacitive reactance which leads to lesser power
requirement during the test. Besides, the currents will be limited

enabling easier measurement.

In a pure capacitor, the current is ahead of the voltage by 90 degrees. The insulation, in a
pure condition, will behave similarly. However, if the insulation has deteriorated due to the
entry of dirt and moisture. The current which flows through the insulation will also have a
resistive component.

This will cause the angle of the current to be less than 90 degrees. This difference in the
angle is known as the loss angle. The tangent of the angle which is Ir/Ic (opposite/adjacent)
gives us an indication of the condition of the insulation. A higher value for the loss angle
indicates a high degree of contamination of the insulation.

Method of Testing

154
The cable or winding whose insulation is to be tested is first disconnected and isolated. The
test voltage is applied from the Very Low Frequency power source and the Tan delta
controller takes the measurements. The test voltage is increased in steps upto the rated
voltage of the cable. The readings are plotted in a graph against the applied voltage and the
trend is studied. A healthy insulation would produce a straight line.
The test should be continued only if the graph is a straight line. A rising trend would indicate
weak insulation which may fail if the test voltage is increased beyond the rated voltage of
the cable.

Interpretation of the test data

There are not standard formulae or benchmarks to ascertain the success of a tan delta test.
The health of the insulation which is measured is obtained by observing the nature of the
trend which is plotted. A steady, straight trend would indicate a healthy insulation, while a
rising trend would indicate an insulation that has been contaminated with water and other
impurities.

Q- Earth Resistance Measurement

Measurement of Earth Resistance is a vital part of the maintenance of any electric
installation. The function of a sound earthing system is to ensure that all electric equipment
are connected to the ground potential. Hence, a well-maintained earthing system ensures
the proper functioning of protection systems, absorbs electrical noise and provides safety to
operating personnel. The earth resistance is measured using an earth meggar.

155
“Fall of Potential” Method:
The Earth resistance is measured using the “Fall of Potential” Method. The method works by
injecting a constant current between two spikes which are inserted into the ground and
measuring the voltage at points between them (as shown in the figure)

The “Fall of Potential” Method is a three terminal test. The electrode whose earth resistance
is to be measured is disconnected from the system or earthing grid. The earth meggar has a
current terminal, a voltage terminal and a common terminal. The common terminal is
connected to the electrode,
Equal lines of potential
When an electrode is inserted into the ground and current flows through it, the potential
around the electrode takes the form of concentric circles of equal potential.

It is essential that the equal lines of the common terminal and the current terminal do not
overlap. Therefore distance between the ground electrode to be tested and the current
terminal is vital. The distance should be sufficient so that the equal lines of potential of the
common terminal and the current terminal do not overlap.

Method of Measurement:
The readings are taken at points close to the ground electrode and then gradually away
from it. The resistance readings in ohms are plotted against the distance in a graph. The
graph should take the form as below. At around 62% of the distance between the ground
electrode and the current terminal, the graph levels off. This reading is taken as the value of
the earth resistance. This point should be outside the equipotential zones of both the
current terminal and the ground electrode

Q- Polarization Index
Polarization Index is an indicator which gives an idea of the cleanliness of the windings. It is
a ratio of the Insulation Resistance Measured for 10 minutes to the insulation resistance
value measured after 1 minute. Since it is a ratio; it does not have any units.

Polarization Ratio = Insulation Resistance after 10 minutes/ Insulation Resistance

after 1 minute

The Polarization Index should be above 2.0 to be permissible. Machines having PI below 2.0
cannot be operated. The Polarization Index does not have any significant relation with
temperature upto 50 deg. C. However, the Polarization Index test should not be conducted
at a temperature beyond 50 deg. C

Q- Insulation Resistance Measurement

Insulation Resistance Measurement is an important check in the maintenance of electrical
equipment such as motors, transformers. It is estimated that nearly 80% of all maintenance
activities in the industry is related to checking the insulation of machines. It is therefore
vital that the engineer has a fair idea of the principle behind the measurement of Insulation
Resistance and the methods used. Insulation resistance is measured using a meggar.

In the normal operation of machinery, the insulation is subjected to moisture, oil, dust,
electrostatic stress due to machine operation and a host of other elements. Hence,
insulation ages and deteriorates. It is vital that the health of the insulation be monitored
continually to avoid sudden, catastrophic failure of machines.
Principle of Insulation Resistance Measurement

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The method used to measure insulation resistance is based on Ohm’s law. A high voltage is
applied across the resistance; the current that flows through the insulation is measured. The
ratio of voltage and current gives the resistance. The value of the insulation resistance is
usually in the order of mega ohms

Instruments used in Measurement

The instrument used to measure Insulation Resistance is known as the Megger. It is similar
in principle to the ohmmeter except for the fact that a higher voltage is used. The typical
meggars have a test voltage of 500V, 2500V or 5000V. The Meggar has a high internal
resistance hence, there it is safe to use despite the high voltage generated. The meggar has

3 terminals. Line, Earth and Guard.

The test voltage appears on the “Line” Terminal. This terminal is connected to the winding
whose insulation needs to be checked. The “Earth” Terminal is connected to the ground. The
“Guard” Terminal is connected to the surface of the insulation to measure the surface
currents which tends to flow along the surface of the insulation.

Method of Insulation Resistance Measurement

The winding to be tested should first be isolated. The other windings of the machine which
are not being tested should be connected to the ground. The voltage is applied to the
winding and the reading is taken after about 60 seconds. The reading is noted. After the
test is over, the winding needs to be “discharged”. This is because the insulation acts as a
dielectric forming a capacitor between the winding and the earth. This can store charge and
can deliver a shock if not discharged. Discharging can be done by connecting to the ground.

What should be the value of the Insulation Resistance?

The Insulation Resistance thus measured is usually in the order of mega ohms. A general
rule of the thumb is that the minimum value should be greater than 1 mega ohm for every
1kV rating of the machine. Thus, for a machine rated for 11kV, the minimum acceptable
value would be 11 mega ohms. Temperature has a direct impact on the value of the
Insulation Resistance. The Insulation Resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
Thus the values should be normalized for a standard temperature.

That is, a value measured at 20 deg. C cannot be compared with a value measured at 30
deg. C. The value at 30 deg. C needs to be corrected. A general rule of thumb is that the
insulation resistance decreases by a factor of 2 for every 10 degree rise in temperature.

Hence, the value taken at 30 deg. C needs to be multiplied by a 2 to get a value corrected
to 20 degrees.

How do we ensure a good value of IR?

157
The Insulation Resistance of a machine depends chiefly on the dryness of the windings. The
entry of moisture into the windings lowers the Insulation Resistance. The ingress of
moisture can be prevented by ensuring that the windings are kept dry. Special heaters
known as anti-condensation heaters are provided in machines to keep them dry. It must be
ensured that these heaters are kept on.

How do we improve the Insulation Resistance value?

If machines are found with low Insulation Resistance values below the permissible limits,
heating the windings by connecting lamps around them is an effective method of driving
moisture from the windings. If no improvement is seen even after heating, other reasons
such as insulation wear or deterioration can be suspected.

Other parameters related to the health of the Insulation are the Polarization Index(PI), tan
delta, hipot test, step test, etc

Q- Core Balance Current Transformers

The CBCT or the Core Balance Current Transformer is a current transformer is used for
earth fault protection in grounded three phase systems. It is also known as the zero-
sequence current transformer. The CBCT is a current transformer through all the three
phases are made to pass as in the diagram. Thus the magnetic fluxes caused by the three
phase currents cancel each other.

The net resultant flux being zero does not induce any current in the secondary of the
transformer. Thus the secondary current of the core balance current transformerwhen all
the three phases are healthy is zero.

When an earth fault occurs in one of the phases, the zero-sequence fault current which
flows is not cancelled by the flux of the other two phases and hence induces a current in the
secondary.

The core balance current transformer can be connected to an earth fault relay which can be
used to generate the tripping signal.

158
Q- Checking the Polarity of Current Transformers
The Polarity of current transformers is extremely important. Just like a battery, a current
transformer too has a polarity. The polarity determines the direction of the secondary
current in relation to the primary current.

Wrong connection of the current transformers can cause false operation of the protection
relays. Hence, it is vital to ensure that the current transformers are connected with the
correct polarity.

The figure shows a setup to test the polarity of a current transformers.

A DC source is connected with the positive terminal to P1 and the negative terminal to P2.
An analog voltmeter is connected to the secondary terminal of the CT. The positive terminal
of the meter is connected to terminal S1 of the CT while the negative is connected to
terminal S2.

A contact is momentarily made through the switch. The contact is made for a second and
broken. This is important as continuous contact can short-circuit the battery. The
momentary make-break contact causes a deflection in the analog multimeter in the positive
direction, if the polarity is correct.

If the deflection is negative, it indicates that the polarity of the current transformer is
reversed. The terminals S1 and S2 need to be reversed and the test can be carried out.

Q- ratings be used together in series?

The ampere hour ratings of a battery indicate the rate at which the battery can be loaded.
For Example a 20Ah battery indicates that indicates that the battery can supply a current of
1 ampere for 10 hours.
Smaller batteries have their discharge rates indicated in mAh (milli ampere hour)

When batteries of different ampere hour ratings are connected in series, it is necessary to
ensure that none of the batteries is discharged beyond its capacity. This is because if a
battery connected in series in a battery bank is discharged to its maximum, the voltage of
this battery will become zero. This will cause a voltage from the other batteries to be
applied across the battery in the wrong direction. This can cause damage to the battery

159
Q- Dissolved Gas Analysis
Dissolved Gas Analysis is an extremely useful testing procedure that is used to give
information about the condition of the windings inside a transformer. It is also an effective
tool in diagnosing abnormal conditions that may arise during normal operation

During a fault inside the transformer, gases are created as the polymeric compounds of the
oil and the winding insulation, usually cellulose, are broken down to form simpler gases
such as ethylene, methane, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, etc.

The type and the quantity of the gas evolved is dependent on the nature of the fault inside
the transformer.

The reasons for the evolution of fault gases can be classified into three types ,

1. Pyrolysis or the breakdown of polymers due to high temperature

2. Arcing, caused by short-circuits or earth faults in the alternator
3. Partial Discharge or Corona

The type and quantity of the gas evolved is dependent on the nature of the fault.

Pyrolysis,
Pyrolysis refers to the splitting of large organic compounds in oil and the insulating cellulose
due high temperature.The pyrolysis of oil leads to the generation of gases such as methane,
ethane, ethylene and hydrogen. When cellulose is pyrolysed, it results in carbon-di-oxide or
carbon monoxide.

Arcing
Arcing is caused due to electrical faults in the alternator such as short-circuits or earth
faults. Hydrogen and Acetylene are the gases which are generally evolved during faults of
this nature.

Corona
Corona or Partial discharge is caused by the ionization of gas or oil around a high voltage
conductor. Corona in transformers causes the creation of gases such as hydrogen, carbon
monoxide and carbon di-oxide.

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA), as the name suggests, refers to the analysis of the various
gases which are created during a fault conditions and are present in a dissolved form in the
oil used for cooling inside the transformer. A sample is extracted from the oil of the
transformer. The gases dissolved are extracted for analysis. The nature and quantity of each
gas is analysed.

By identifying the type of the gas and the quantity, it is possible to identify the nature of the
fault which could have led to that particular gas.
A periodic or continual analysis of the evolved gas helps in the monitoring of the health of
the transformer. Hence, gas analysis occupies an important place in the maintenance
schedule of the transformer.

Q- Ripples in dc systems
Ripples are the constantly varying voltages found in the output of rectifiers. The output of a
rectifier produces a pulsating voltage, which rises from zero to maximum Vp and then to
minimum. This voltage is not suitable to be used in electronics as it contains ripples. The

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ripples need to be filtered by a filter circuit which is usually a capacitor connected in parallel

to the power source.

Ripple factor
The amount of ripples in a dc source is indicated by the ripple factor which is defined as the
ratio of the rms value of the ripple voltage to the absolute value of the dc voltage.

Ripple factor(γ)= (Vripple(rms)/Vdc)*100

Thus if we have 10V dc supply with a variation between 9.5 to 10.5 volts, the ripple factor
would be (.5/5)*100 which indicates a ripple factor of 5%.

The peak-to-peak value of the ripples at the output of a full wave rectifier is given by

Vpp=I/2fC

In the case of a half wave rectifier, the peak voltage is given by

Vpp=I/fC

where I is the current in the circuit, f is the frequency and C is the value of capacitance that
is connected in parallel to filter the ripples

Measuring Ripples
Ripples can be measured in the field by an ordinary multimeter. Set the multimeter to
measure AC voltage, and check the voltage at the output of the power supply. Any ripples
would reflect as an AC voltage. Now, set the multimeter to dc voltage and measure the
actual dc output. The Ripple factor is the ratio of the ac voltage to the dc voltage.

Effects of Ripples
Ripples can cause failure of components such as capacitors and can cause heating and
failure in certain electronic components.
In audio circuits, the ripples can be reflected as noise, as the frequency of the ripples is
within the audio band.
Ripples can also interfere in TV displays

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Q- Using Broken Delta Protection for Earth Faults

The Broken Delta configuration is used to protect against earth faults. It is a configuration
that works by monitoring the vector sum of the phase voltages.

It consists of a delta connection on the secondary of a potential transformer that is open at

one point as in the figure. In such a construction, when a balanced three phase voltage is
present in the star connected primary, the voltage across the broken point of the delta
connection would be zero, as it would be a vector sum of all three voltages.

In the event of a ground fault in one phase, the phase-to-ground voltage in the remaining
two phases is now equal to the phase-to-phase voltage with a displacement of 60 degrees.
The voltage at the broken delta becomes 3Vo or three times the phase-to-ground voltage.

This voltage can be measured by a relay and can be used to trip the power system. A
resistor is usually connected across the broken delta connection to prevent Ferro resonance,
a condition that occurs when the line capacitance and the inductance in the potential
transformers reach a state of resonance.

Broken delta transformers are usually marked as 11kV/√3:110 volts. It means that the
transformer is designed that in the event of a ground fault in the primary side, the
secondary output will be 110 V.

Q- Current Transformers – Burden and Classification

Current Transformers occupy a vital part in the measurement and protection scheme of any
electric installation.

Hence, it is imperative that the choice of CT is made with full knowledge of the application
and the number of relays and meters which are to be connected to it. A current transformer
with a wrong burden rating or a wrong accuracy class will seriously compromise the
effectiveness of the measuring or protection system.

Calculating the burden of a Current Transformer:

The burden of a current transformer is indicated in its nameplate. The burden is rated in VA.
such as 15VA or 25 VA. The rated VA indicates the load the transformer can take.

The current transformer is connected to a measuring instrument or a protective relay by

means of wires. The burden on the current transformer is imposed by the connected device
and the impedance of the connecting wires which connect it. The VA load of the device can
be obtained from the datasheet provided by the manufacturer. The total burden is the sum
of the burden of the connected devices and the resistance of the wires. The inductive
component of the wire impedance is usually neglected as it is minimal.

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The burden of a current transformer can increase over time as the resistance of the
connecting wires may slightly increase due to age, change in temperature and loosening of
connections. Hence, the current transformer should never be loaded to 100% of its
capacity.

Classification of Current Transformers

Depending on their application, current transformers can be classified into measuring and
protection current transformers.

Measuring transformers have high accuracy. However, they have a low saturation point.
They are deliberately designed this way, so that the measuring instruments are not
damaged by the high currents during a fault. During a fault, the measuring transformers get
saturated and the output stays within the range of the measuring instruments.

Measuring transformers are classified into 0.1,0.3, 0.5, 1. The values indicate the
percentage error at the rated primary current. Thus a 100/5 transformer with 0.3 accuracy
will have a maximum error of 0.3 when a current of 100 A passes through the primary.

The current transformers used for protection have lesser accuracy as compared to
measuring current transformers. They have a very high saturation limit. This is necessary as
they need to continue sensing the current even at high fault values.

Protection Transformers are classified as 5P10,10P10, etc. The first letter in the notation
indicates the maximum percentage error. The last number indicates the number of times
the rated current. Thus a 5P10 transformer would indicate a maximum error of 5 % at 10
times the rated current.

Q- Petersen Coils - Principle and Application

Peterson coils are used to in ungrounded 3-phase grounding systems to limit the arcing
currents during ground faults. The coil was first developed by W. Petersen in 1916.

Application:

When a phase to earth fault occurs in ungrounded 3 phase systems, the phase voltage of
the faulty phase is reduced to the ground potential. This causes the phase voltage in the
other two phases to rise by √3 times. This increase in voltage causes a charging current, Ic
between the phase-to-earth capacitances. The current Ic, which

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increases to three times the normal capacitive charging current, needs to complete its
circuit. This causes a series of restrikes at the fault locations known as arcing grounds. This
can also lead to overvoltages in the system.

A Petersen coil consists of an iron-cored reactor connected at the star point of a three phase
system. In the event of a fault, the capacitive charging current is neutralized by the current
across the reactor which is equal in magnitude but 180 degrees out of phase. This
compensates for the leading current drawn by the line capacitances.

The power factor of the fault moves closer to unity.

This facilitates the easy extinguishing of the arc as both the voltage and current have a
similar zero-crossing. IC=3I=3Vp/(1/ωC) =3VpωC

Where IC is the resultant charging current that is three times the charging current of each
phase to ground.
Consider a Petersen coil connected between the star-point and the ground with inductive
reactance ωL, then
The current flowing through it is given by IL =Vp/ωL

To obtain an effective cancellation of the capacitive charging currents, I L to be equal to IC.

Therefore, Vp/ωL=3VpωC

From which we get, L=1/ (3ω2C)

The value of the inductance in the Petersen coil needs to match the value of the line
capacitance which may vary as and when modifications in the transmission lines are carried
out. Hence, the Petersen coil comes with a provision to vary the inductance.

Q- Q- ANSI codes for Protection Functions

The ANSI(American National Standards Institute) has standardized the codes to be used for
protection relays. Each protective function is indicated by a specific no. such as 50 for
instantaneous overcurrent protection and 59 for overvoltage protection.

Following is the list of the functions. The codes are sometimes followed by an alphabet
which gives some additional information for instance, the code 51G may indicate an
overcurrent ground relay. 50N may indicate a ground sensitive overcurrent relay based on
neutral current measurement. 87T may indicate that a differential relay may be used for
Transformer protection.

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ANSI codes for Protection Functions

1 - Master Element
2 - Time Delay Starting or Closing Relay
3 - Checking or Interlocking Relay
4 - Master Contactor
5 - Stopping Device
6 - Starting Circuit Breaker
7 - Anode Circuit Breaker
8 - Control Power Disconnecting Device
9 - Reversing Device
10 - Unit Sequence Switch
11 - Reserved for future application
12 - Overspeed Device
13 - Synchronous-speed Device
14 - Underspeed Device
15 - Speed - or Frequency, Matching Device
16 - Reserved for future application
17 - Shunting or Discharge Switch
18 - Accelerating or Decelerating Device
19 - Starting to Running Transition Contactor
20 - Electrically Operated Valve
21 - Distance Relay
22 - Equalizer Circuit Breaker
23 - Temperature Control Device
24 - Over-Excitation Relay (V/Hz)
25 - Synchronizing or Synchronism-Check Device
26 - Apparatus Thermal Device
27 - Undervoltage Relay
28 - Flame Detector
29 - Isolating Contactor
30 - Annunciator Relay
31 - Separate Excitation Device
32 - Directional Power Relay
33 - Position Switch
34 - Master Sequence Device
35 - Brush-Operating or Slip-Ring Short-Circuiting, Device
36 - Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Devices
37 - Undercurrent or Underpower Relay
38 - Bearing Protective Device
39 - Mechanical Conduction Monitor
40 - Field Relay
41 - Field Circuit Breaker
42 - Running Circuit Breaker
43 - Manual Transfer or Selector Device
44 - Unit Sequence Starting Relay
45 - Atmospheric Condition Monitor
46 - Reverse-phase or Phase-Balance Current Relay
47 - Phase-Sequence Voltage Relay
48 - Incomplete Sequence Relay

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49 - Machine or Transformer, Thermal Relay
50 - Instantaneous Overcurrent or Rate of Rise, Relay
51 - AC Time Overcurrent Relay
52 - AC Circuit Breaker
53 - Exciter or DC Generator Relay
54 - High-Speed DC Circuit Breaker
55 - Power Factor Relay
56 - Field Application Relay
57 - Short-Circuiting or Grounding (Earthing) Device
58 - Rectification Failure Relay
59 - Overvoltage Relay
60 - Voltage or Current Balance Relay
61 - Machine Split Phase Current Balance
62 - Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay
63 - Pressure Switch
64 - Ground (Earth) Detector Relay
65 - Governor
66 - Notching or Jogging Device
67 - AC Directional Overcurrent Relay
68 - Blocking Relay
69 - Permissive Control Device
70 - Rheostat
71 - Level Switch
72 - DC Circuit Breaker
73 - Load-Resistor Contactor
74 - Alarm Relay
75 - Position Changing Mechanism
76 - DC Overcurrent Relay
77 - Pulse Transmitter
78 - Phase-Angle Measuring or Out-of-Step Protective Relay
79 - AC Reclosing Relay
80 - Flow Switch
81 - Frequency Relay
82 - DC Reclosing Relay
83 - Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay
84 - Operating Mechanism
85 - Carrier or Pilot-Wire Receiver Relay
86 - Lockout Relay
87 - Differential Protective Relay
88 - Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator
89 - Line Switch
90 - Regulating Device
91 - Voltage Directional Relay
92 - Voltage and Power Directional Relay
93 - Field Changing Contactor
94 - Tripping or Trip-Free Relay
95 - Reluctance Torque Synchrocheck
96 - Autoloading Relay

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Q- Zig Zag Transformers
Ungrounded systems that need protection against earth faults usually need a grounding
transformer. This is usually a delta-star transformer whose neutral can be earthed. An
alternative way of grounding the system is by using a zig-zag transformer.

The Zig-zag Transformer generally has a ratio of 1:1. It consists of six windings, two for
each phase – . The two windings for each phase(outer and inner windings) are wound on
the same core but in opposite directions.

The windings are connected in a zig-zag fashion. For instance, the primary winding of R
phase may be connected to the secondary of Y, the primary of Y phase would be connected
to the secondary of B. In a perfectly balanced condition, the magnetic fluxes in the primary
and the secondary are able to cancel each other; therefore, their magnetic fluxes cancel
each other out. However, in a fault condition, the magnetic fluxes may not be equal and
hence a fault current may flow through the neutral of the secondary

winding.

Zig-zag Transformers are used to provide earthing for ungrounded systems. They are
advantageous over delta-wye systems due to their low internal impedance and lower cost.

Apart from providing earthing to ungrounded systems, zig-zag transformers can be used to
filter harmonic currents. Zig-zag transformers are connected close the loads that cause
heavy harmonics. Since the transformer has opposing windings, the harmonic currents get
cancelled.

Q- Ingress Protection
Electrical enclosures such as panels,switch boxes and appliances need to be protected
against the entry of foreign objects and water for healthy operation and safety of the
operating personnel. The European Commitee for Electro-technical Standardization has
developed IP(Ingress Protection) ratings which specify the degree of protection the panels
provide.

The IP codes are defined in the IEC standard 60529. The ingress protection of each panel is
in the form of a code such as IP65. The first number indicates the protection against dust

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and other particles while the second numbers denotes the protection against water.

The first number indicates the following.

Object size
Level Effective against
protected against
0 — No protection against contact and ingress of objects
Any large surface of the body, such as the back of a hand,
1 >50 mm
but no protection against deliberate contact with a body part
2 >12.5 mm Fingers or similar objects
3 >2.5 mm Tools, thick wires, etc.
4 >1 mm Most wires, screws, etc.
Ingress of dust is not entirely prevented, but it must not
enter in sufficient quantity to interfere with the satisfactory
5 dust protected
operation of the equipment; complete protection against
contact
6 dust tight No ingress of dust; complete protection against contact

The Second letter indicates the degree of protection of the panel against the entry of water.

Level Protected against Details

0 not protected —
Dripping water (vertically falling drops) shall have no
1 dripping water
harmful effect.
Vertically dripping water shall have no harmful effect when
dripping water when
2 the enclosure is tilted at an angle up to 15° from its normal
tilted up to 15°
position.
Water falling as a spray at any angle up to 60° from the
3 spraying water
vertical shall have no harmful effect.
Water splashing against the enclosure from any direction
4 splashing water
shall have no harmful effect.
Water projected by a nozzle against enclosure from any
5 water jets
direction shall have no harmful effects.
Water projected in powerful jets against the enclosure from
6 powerful water jets
any direction shall have no harmful effects.
Ingress of water in harmful quantity shall not be possible
7 immersion up to 1 m when the enclosure is immersed in water under defined
conditions of pressure and time (up to 1 m of submersion).
The equipment is suitable for continuous immersion in water
immersion beyond 1
8 under conditions which shall be specified by the
m
manufacturer.

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Q- Neutral Grounding Resistors

Function: NGRs or Neutral Grounding Resistors are used to limit the fault current in a
generator or a transformer during earth faults.

In star connected 3 phase equipment such as a generator or a transformer, the star point is
grounded. In systems where the star point is directly grounded, known as solid earthing,
there is a chance of heavy currents in the windings during an earth fault as the net
resistance is only the soil resistance.

This heavy current, in the order of hundreds of amperes, can damage the windings. Hence,
a series resistance is introduced in the star point. This increases the net resistance in the
event of an earth fault and limits the current. This resistor is known as the Neutral
Grounding Resistor(NGR).

The current flowing in the Neutral Grounding resistor can be monitored. This can be used to
activate the Earth Fault Relay. It is generally mounted with a Current Transformer.

Types:
NGRs can be broadly classified into two types.
Low Resistance Grounding, which limits current to more than 100A and
High Resistance Grounding, which limits current to generally 5 to 10 amperes.

The Choice of the rating of the NGR is made taking into account different factors such as the
rating of the machine, overall fault level of the system and the system capacitance.

The rating of the machine should be kept in mind while deciding on the NGR value. Fault
current should be limited to a value that can be safely handled by the machine. It is also
essential that the fault feeds enough current which can be sensed by the earth fault
protection. Too high a value of the NGR would the limit the current to a very low value
which will not be able to activate the earth fault protection.

The system capacitance is another factor which should be kept in mind. A 3 phase star
connected system forms capacitances with the ground. In the event of an earth fault, this
capacitance can get charged with the line voltage and can cause transient overvoltages. The
value NGR should be chosen in a manner which will permit a let-through current and enable
the capacitances to discharge.

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Q- Why are the advantages of a three phase system over a single phase power
system?
The three phase power system has been adopted universally for transmission of AC power.
The advantages of a three phase system over a single phase system are:-

Higher power/weight ratio of alternators. A three phase alternator is smaller and lighter that
a single phase alternator of the same power output. Hence, it is also cheaper.

A three phase transmission system requires less copper or aluminium to transmit the same
quantity of power of a specific distance than a single phase system.
Three phase motors are self-starting due to the rotating magnetic field induced by the three
phases. On the other hand, a single phase motor is not self starting, it requires a capacitor
and an auxilliary winding.

In Single phase systems, the instanteous power(power delivered at any instant) is not
constant and is sinusoidal. This results in vibrations in single phase motors.
In a three phase power system, though, the instanteous power is always the same.
Three phase motors have better power factor compared to single phase motors.
Three phase supply can be rectified into dc supply with a lesser ripple factor.

Q- What are Softstarters?

When induction motors are started a very heavy current is drawn. This current, which can
be 5 to 6 times the rated current of the machine, occurs due to lack of back emf in the
windings. These currents cause sudden loading on power sources such as generators or
transformers. Besides, such heavy currents also cause voltage dips and a momentary drop
in frequency in generators which can trip other equipment connected to the power system.

Softstarters are equipment which limit the initial start current of the motors by controlling
the voltage. This is done by means of thyristors. This "soft" starting prevents the
occurence of the high inrush currents. The downside of using softstarters is that the
reduced voltage applied on the stator windings can result in increased slip causing heating
of the rotor.

Another advantage of the softstarter is that it can be used to gradually increase the
torque. In loads such as conveyor belts involving chains and other transmission gear, this
avoids jerks which over time can cause wear on the machinery. The voltage and the torque
are gradually increased to the rated value.
While stopping a motor, the softstarter usually provides the "softstop" function which
involves doing the starting process in reverse. The voltage is gradually reduced to zero this
gradually stops the system avoiding sudden jerky motions due to system inertia.

170
Q- Adding water to the electrolyte level of unsealed batteries.
The electrolyte in the battery is a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. The amount of water
in a battery can fall due to electrolysis or evaporation. This may cause in a drop in the level
of the electrolyte and consequently a drop in the battery output.

Hence, it is necessary to periodically inspect the level of electrolyte in the battery. If the
level of the electrolyte falls below the minimum level, it can be topped up by adding
water. Only distilled water should be added as ordinary water may contain a lot of
impurities and ions which may contaminate the electrolyte.

The level of electrolyte in the battery tends to fall as the battery gets discharged and tends
to rise as the battery gets charged. Hence, water should be added to the electrolyte only
when the battery is fully charged. If the water is added to the battery when it is in the
discharged condition, the level can increase beyond the limit when the battery is fully
charged and may overflow

The acid used as the electrolyte is extremely corrosive and should be handled with extreme
care. Proper protective outfits should be worn while handling them. Water can be added to
a container of acid. However, acid can never be added to container of water as the heat
generated can cause splashing.

Q- Back FlashOvers - An Introduction

Back Flashovers generally occur in transmission lines during lightning strikes when the
potential of the tower rises vis-a-vis the conductor. This causes the voltage across the
insulators to increase beyond the limits resulting in a flashover.

Lightning strokes have the ability to discharge thousands of amperes of current in very
short time. This high current needs to be discharged quickly into the earth to prevent the
potential of the tower from rising.

Back flashover occurs when the

lightning which has struck the tower is unable to get discharged to the earth. This can
occur due to high impulse resistance of the ground.

When a tower is struck by lightning, a travelling voltage is induced which moves many times
between the top and the bottom of the tower , the potential of the tower is thus raised. The
elevated voltage also appears on the cross arms of the towers. This can cause back
flashovers if the insulators are unable to withstand the voltage surge.

Back flashovers can be avoided by improving the impulse resistance of the earth point of
the transmission towers and improving critical flashover limits of the insulators.
Back flashovers are identified as line to earth faults.

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Short Circuit Breaking Current of Circuit Breaker
This is the maximum short circuit current which a circuit breaker can
withstand before it. Finally cleared by opening its contacts. When a short
circuit flows through a circuit breaker, there would be thermal and
mechanical stresses in the current carrying parts of the breaker. If the
contact area and cross-section of the conducting parts of the circuit breaker
are not sufficiently large, there may be a chance of permanent damage in
insulation as well as conducting parts of the CB. As per Joule’s law of
heating, the rising temperature is directly proportional to square of short
circuit current, contact resistance and duration of short circuit current. The
short circuit current continuous to flow through circuit breaker until the short
circuit is cleared by opening operation of the circuit breaker. As the thermal
stress in the circuit breaker is proportional to the period of short circuit, the
breaking capacity of electrical circuit breaker, depends upon the operating
time. At 160°C aluminum becomes soft and losses its mechanical strength,
this temperature may be taken as limit of temperature rise of breaker
contacts during short circuit. Hence short circuit breaking capacity or short
circuit breaking current of circuit breaker is defined as maximum
current can flow through the breaker from time of occurring short circuit to
the time of clearing the short circuit without any permanent damage in the
CB. The value of short circuit breaking current is expressed in RMS. During
short circuit, the CB is not only subjected to thermal stress, it also suffers
seriously from mechanical stresses. So during determining short circuit
capacity, the mechanical strength of the CB is also considered. So for
choosing suitable circuit breaker it is obvious to determine the fault level at
that point of the system where CB to be installed. Once the fault level of any
part of electrical transmission is determined it is easy to choose the correct
rated circuit breaker for this part of network.

Rated Short Circuit Making Capacity

The short circuit making capacity of circuit breaker is expressed in peak
value not in rms value like breaking capacity.
Theoretically at the instant of fault occurrence in a system, the fault current
can rise to twice of its symmetrical fault level. At the instant of switching on
a circuit breaker in faulty condition, of system, the short circuit portion of the
system connected to the source. The first cycle of the current during a circuit
is closed by circuit breaker, has maximum amplitude. This is about twice of
the amplitude of symmetrical fault current waveform. The breaker’s contacts
have to withstand this highest value of current during the first cycle of
waveform when breaker is closed under fault. On the basis of this above
mentioned phenomenon, a selected breaker should be rated with short circuit

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making capacity. As the rated short circuit making current of circuit
breaker is expressed in maximum peak value, it is always more than rated
short circuit breaking current of circuit breaker. Normally value of short circuit
making current is 2.5 times more than short circuit breaking current.

Rated Operating Sequence or Duty Cycle of Circuit Breaker

This is mechanical duty requirement of circuit breaker operating mechanism.
The sequence of rated operating duty of a circuit breaker has been specified
as
O – t – CO - t' - CO
where O indicates opening operation of CB. CO represents closing operation
immediately followed by an opening operation without any intentional time
delay. t' is time between two operations which is necessary to restore the
initial conditions and / or to prevent undue heating of conducting parts of
circuit breaker. t = 0.3 sec for circuit breaker intended for first auto re closing
duty, if not otherwise specified.
Suppose rated duty circle of a circuit breaker is 0 – 0.3 sec – CO – 3 min –
CO. This means, an opening operation of circuit breaker is followed by a
closing operation after a time interval of 0.3 sec, then the circuit breaker again
opens without any intentional time delay. After this opening operation the CB
is again closed after 3 minutes and then instantly trips without any intentional
time delay.

Rated Short Time Current

This is the current limit which a circuit breaker can carry safely for certain
specific time without any damage in it. The circuit breakers do not clear the
short circuit current as soon as any fault occurs in the system. There always
some intentional and an intentional time delays present between the instant
of occurrence of fault and instant of clearing the fault by CB. This delays are
because of time of operation of protection relays, time of operation of circuit
breaker and also there may be some intentional time delay imposed in relay
for proper coordination of power system protection. Even a circuit breaker
fails to trip, the fault will be cleared by next higher positioned circuit
breaker. In this case the fault clearing time is longer. Hence, after fault, a
circuit breaker has to carry the short circuit for certain time. The summation
of all time delays should not be more than 3 seconds, hence a circuit breaker
should be capable of carrying a maximum faulty current for at least this

173
short period of time. The short circuit current may have two major affects
inside a circuit breaker.
1. Because of the high electric current, there may be high thermal stress in
the insulation and conducting parts of CB.
2. The high short circuit current, produces significant mechanical stresses in
different current carrying parts of the circuit breaker. A circuit breaker is
designed to withstand these stresses. But no circuit breaker has to carry a
short circuit current not more than a short period depending upon the
coordination of protection. So it is sufficient to make CB capable of
withstanding affects of short circuit current for a specified short period. The
rated short time current of a circuit breaker is at least equal to rated short
circuit breaking current of the circuit breaker.

Rated Voltage of Circuit Breaker

Rated voltage of circuit breaker depends upon its insulation system. For
below 400 KV system, the circuit breaker is designed to withstand 10%
above the normal system voltage. For above or equal 400 KV system the
insulation of circuit breaker should be capable of withstanding 5% above the
normal system voltage. That means, rated voltage of circuit breaker
corresponds to the highest system voltage. This is because during no load or
small load condition the voltage level of power system is allowed rise up to
highest voltage rating of the system.
A circuit breaker is also subject to two other high voltage condition.
1) Sudden disconnection of huge load for any other cause, the voltage
imposed on the CB and also between the contacts when the CB is open, may
be very high compared to higher system voltage. This voltage may be of power
frequency but does not stay for very long period as this high voltage situation
must be cleared by protective switchgear.
But a circuit breaker may have to withstand this power frequency over voltage,
during its normal life span.
The Circuit Breaker must be rated for power frequency withstand voltage for
a specific time only. Generally the time is 60 seconds. Making power frequency
withstand capacity, more than 60 second is not economical and not practically
desired as all the abnormal situations of electrical power system are definitely
cleared within much smaller period than 60 seconds.

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2) Like other apparatuses connected to power system, a circuit breaker may
have also to face lighting impulse and switching impulses during its life span.
The insulation system of CB and contact gap of an open CB have to withstand
these impulse voltage waveform amplitude of this disturbance is very very
high but extremely transient in nature. So a circuit breaker is designed to
withstand this impulse peaky voltage for microsecond range only

Highest Power Frequency

Nominal System Impulse Voltage
System Withstand
Voltage Level
Voltage Voltage

11 KV 12 KV - -

33 KV 36 KV 70 KV 170 KV

132 KV 145 KV 275 KV 650 KV

220 KV 245 KV 460 KV 1050 KV

400 KV 420 KV - -

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