Inspire Cast Final 2021 Treinamento

EBOOK
LEARN CASTING AND

SOLIDIFICATION WITH
ALTAIR INSPIRE CAST
Fundamental to advanced approaches into the exciting and
challenging world of Casting Simulation using Altair Inspire Cast.
© Altair Engineering, Inc. All Rights Reserved. / altair.com / Nasdaq: ALTR / Contact Us
eBook / Learn Casting and Solidification with Altair Inspire Cast
Contents
CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................... 2
1. ABOUT THIS BOOK ............................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Model Files ............................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Software ................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Support ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Free eBooks ............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Learning & Certification Program.......................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Acknowledgment..................................................................................................................................... 8
1.7 Disclaimer ................................................................................................................................................ 8
2. HISTORY OF METAL CASTING ............................................................................................ 9

3. METAL CASTING ................................................................................................................. 11
3.1 Introduction to Metal Casting .............................................................................................................. 11
3.2 Design Factors for Metal Casting ........................................................................................................ 12
3.3 Solidification of Metal Casting ............................................................................................................. 16
3.4 Niyama Criterion for Predicting Shrinkage Porosity ......................................................................... 14
3.5 Casting Processes ................................................................................................................................ 16
3.5.1 Sand Casting ................................................................................................................................... 16
3.5.2 Investment Casting.......................................................................................................................... 17
3.5.3 Die Casting ...................................................................................................................................... 18
3.5.4 Gravity Die Casting ......................................................................................................................... 18
3.5.5 High Pressure Die Casting .............................................................................................................. 19
3.5.6 Low-Pressure Die Casting............................................................................................................... 21
3.5.7 Centrifugal Casting (Industrial)........................................................................................................ 21
3.6 Casting Components ............................................................................................................................ 24
3.6.1 Core Plug ........................................................................................................................................ 24
3.6.2 Riser Casting /Feeder ..................................................................................................................... 24
3.6.3 Insulating or Exothermic Sleeve ...................................................................................................... 27
3.6.4 Overflow Risers (Cavity/Passages)................................................................................................. 27
3.6.5 Casting Coolers ............................................................................................................................... 28
3.7 Pouring Techniques .............................................................................................................................. 29
3.8 Molding ................................................................................................................................................... 31
4. DEFECTS ON CASTING ...................................................................................................... 32

4.1 Casting Defects Due to the Evolution of Gases................................................................................. 32
4.1.1 Blow Holes ...................................................................................................................................... 32
4.1.2 Pin Hole Porosity ............................................................................................................................. 33
4.1.3 Rat Tails or Vains Defects ............................................................................................................... 33
4.1.4 Dispersed Shrinkage ....................................................................................................................... 34
4.1.5 Blister............................................................................................................................................... 34
4.2 Casting Defects Due to Pouring of Melt.............................................................................................. 35
4.2.1 Misrun .............................................................................................................................................. 35
4.2.2 Cold Shut ......................................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.3 Elephant Skin .................................................................................................................................. 37
4.3 Inclusions............................................................................................................................................... 38
4.3.1 Solid Inclusions ............................................................................................................................... 38
4.4 Casting Defects Due to Metallurgical Factors .................................................................................... 40
4.4.1 Hot Tears ......................................................................................................................................... 40
4.5 Casting Defects Caused by Molding Materials .................................................................................. 40
4.5.1 Scab ................................................................................................................................................ 40
4.5.2 Metal ................................................................................................................................................ 41
4.5.3 Fusion .............................................................................................................................................. 42
4.5.4 Flash ................................................................................................................................................ 42
4.5.5 Run Out ........................................................................................................................................... 43
4.5.6 Lug................................................................................................................................................... 43
4.5.7 Shrinkage Cavity ............................................................................................................................. 44
4.6 Casting Defects Caused by Other Factors ......................................................................................... 44
4.6.1 Mismatch ......................................................................................................................................... 44
4.6.2 Hot Cracking .................................................................................................................................... 45
5. INSPIRE CAST MODULES .................................................................................................. 46

6. GRAVITY CASTING (GDC) .................................................................................................. 47
6.1 Introduction to Gravity Casting ........................................................................................................... 47
6.2 Defining Ingate Systems ...................................................................................................................... 47
6.3 Gravity Casting Simulation Set-Up...................................................................................................... 48
6.4 Selection of Material ............................................................................................................................. 49
6.5 Pre-Process Parameters (Components)/Basic Set-Up ...................................................................... 50
6.6 Tutorial: Brake Caliper .......................................................................................................................... 52
7. LOW-PRESSURE DIE-CASTING (LPDC) ............................................................................ 90

7.1 Setting up of LPDC................................................................................................................................ 92
7.2 Tutorial: Wheel Rim............................................................................................................................... 94
8. HIGH-PRESSURE DIE-CASTING (HPDC) ......................................................................... 106

8.1 Setting up of HPDC ............................................................................................................................. 108
8.2 Tutorial: Wash Basin........................................................................................................................... 109
9. INVESTMENT CASTING .................................................................................................... 129

9.1 Introduction to Investment Casting................................................................................................... 129
9.2 Tutorial: Brake Caliper ........................................................................................................................ 130
10. GRAVITY TILT POURING .................................................................................................. 142

10.1 Introducing to Tilt Pouring ................................................................................................................. 142
10.2 Tutorial: Gear Housing ....................................................................................................................... 145
11. GET CERTIFIED ................................................................................................................. 156

12. APPENDIX A ...................................................................................................................... 157
1 About this Book

This book aims to focus on fundamental to advanced approaches into the exciting and challenging world of Casting Simulation
using Altair’s Inspire Cast. The main objective of writing this book is to provide professional engineers, foundrymen and researchers
with a practice resource on the design and analysis of casting simulation, with recent high utilization of casting structures in –
automotive, aerospace, marine structures, etc. This eBook is aimed at helping those engineers, foundrymen, and researchers to
help gain knowledge in a short period of time and focus on obtaining a practical understanding of the software, basic knowledge of
casting techniques and simulations as opposed to real-life experimentation.
This book is written as a self-based training course which discusses the types of casting and its different modules like gravity
casting, low pressure die-casting, high pressure die casting, tilt pouring and investment casting. This eBook also contains brief
details of history of metal casting, design of metal casting, solidification of metal casting, Niyama Criteria, geometry modification,
casting manufacturing process, designated gating system for metal casting, defects during the casting, core plugs, centrifugal
casting for industrial applications, Die casting chillers, risers feeders, insulating and exothermic sleeves, cavity/passages during
casting, molding, casting coolers, short sleeve and crucible pouring.
The developments in information technology, especially the steady and rapid enhancement of speed and memory in affordable
computers, have changed the world of design and production of cast metal parts. Today, simulation is an essential tool in modern
foundries and cast shops for mold and process design, process control, and design and process optimization. Based on a
comprehensive literature survey and the experience in using some of the available commercial codes, an attempt is made here to
summarize the concepts of modeling and simulation of the casting process to enrich the knowledge of foundry engineers and
researchers. In recent years, simulation has been accepted as a standard tool in the new process development and in-process
optimization studies. Although, most of the foundry engineers are aware of the tangible benefits of casting simulation, as per their
survey, the use of simulation software was only 30% compared to a 75% use of CAD/CAM software and 100% use of the Internet.
Conceiving these facts, this book summarizes the concepts of modeling and simulation of the casting process to benefit the
understanding of students, foundry engineers and researchers.
Computer-aided casting design and simulation give much better and faster insight for optimizing the feeder and gating design of
castings. Key inputs, steps, and results are discussed in this book. Casting simulation, however, poses several challenges:
technical as well as non-technical (resources) for students and industrial users. We highlight the best practices based on our
experience with several casting theoretical simulations of Altair Inspire Cast, and directions for further research in this area to make
casting simulation more easy, accessible, and economical for industrial users.
Thanks, Altair University Team
“The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you
learn, the more places you’ll go”
- Dr. Theodor Seuss Geisel
Springfield Massachusetts, US
1.1 Model Files
The models (geometry) referenced in this book can be downloaded using the link provided in the exercises, respectively. You can
download the Inspire model files from HERE These models are compatible with the latest version.
1.2 Software
Obviously, to practice the “Simulation-Driven Design Process” you need to have access to Inspire. As a student, you are eligible to
download and install the free Student Edition
https://altairuniversity.com/free-altair-student-edition/
Note: From the different software packages listed in the download area, you just need to download and install Inspire.
1.3 Support
In case you encounter issues (during installation but also how to utilize Altair Inspire) post your question in the moderated Support
Forum: https://community.altair.com/community
It’s an active community with several thousands of posts – moderated by Altair experts!
1.4 Free eBooks

In case you are interested in more details about the “things” happening in the background we recommend our free eBooks.
Currently, we offer more than 16 different titles for free.
https://altairuniversity.com/free-ebooks-2
1.5 Learning & Certification Program
Many different eLearning courses are available for free in the
Learning & Certification Program
https://certification.altairuniversity.com/
1.6 Acknowledgment
This book is a result of the joint effort of many colleagues who contributed in numerous different ways to get this edition published.
Sourav Das the Author of this eBook, for the entire content.
Rahul Ponginan, for reviewing and editing this book.
Pablo Manuel Torne Fernandez and Basavaraj Koppad for Review and suggestions, Ravi Kunju, Martin Solina for their support
Matthias Goelke, Rahul Rajan, Priyanka Nagaraj, Smitha Ramaiah, and Prasanna Kurhatkar for their constructive comments and
warm encouragement.
Nelson Dias, Pavan Kumar CV, Vishwanath Rao, Mike Heskitt and Sean Putman, for their support.
The entire Altair Inspire Cast Documentation Team, for putting together the many pages of documentation.
Please note that a commercially released software is a living “thing” and so at every release (major or point release) new methods,
new functions are added along with improvement to existing methods. This document is written using Inspire Cast 2021, Any
feedback helping to improve the quality of this book would be very much appreciated.
Dr. Matthias Goelke
On behalf of the Altair University Team
1.7 Disclaimer
Every effort has been made to keep the book free from technical as well as other mistakes. However, publishers and authors will
not be responsible for loss, damage in any form and consequences arising directly or indirectly from the use of this book. © 2021
Altair Engineering, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed, or translated to
another language without the written permission of Altair Engineering, Inc. To obtain this permission, write to the attention Altair
Engineering legal department at:
1820 E. Big Beaver, Troy, Michigan, USA, or call +1-248-614-2400.
2 History of Metal Casting

(This chapter is entirely based on History of Metal Casting-http://www.metaltechnologies.com/docs/default-
source/education/historyofmetalcasting.pdf )
Metal casting has played a critical role in the development and advancement of human civilization and culture since its discovery.
Metal casting plays an important role in our everyday lives and is more essential than it has ever been. Origins of Metal Casting
was recorded 3200 B.C, a copper frog, the oldest known casting in existence. Iron was discovered in 2000 BC. The first Chinese
production of cast iron was found in 800-700 B.C. Sand molding was known in 645 B.C in China. In 500 A.D, cast crucible steel
was first produced in India, but the process was lost until 1750 when Benjamin Huntsman reinvented it in England.
Middle Ages to 1800
In 1455, Dillenburg Castle in Germany was the first to use cast iron pipe to transport water. Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539),
the "father of the foundry industry," in Italy was the first man to document the foundry process. In the year 1642, Saugus Iron
Works, America's first iron foundry was established near Lynn, Massachusetts. The first American iron casting, the Saugus pot,
was made. In 1709, Abraham Darby created the first true foundry flask for sand and loam molding. In 1720, Rene Antoine de
Reaumur developed the first malleable iron, known today as "European Whiteheart cast iron". In 1730, Abraham Darby is the first
to use coke as fuel in his melting furnace in England. In 1750 Benjamin Huntsman reinvented the process for making of cast
crucible steel in England. This process was the first, in which the steel is completely melted, producing a uniform composition.
Since the metal is completely molten, it also allowed for alloy steel production, as the additional elements in the alloy can be added
to the crucible during melting. In 1794 First use of the Cupola in an iron foundry.
The 19th Century
A.G. Eckhardt of Soho, England in 1809 was the first to develop Centrifugal casting. In the year 1815, the cupola is introduced in
the United States in Baltimore, MD for steel production. First cast steel was produced in 1818, by the crucible process in the U.S.
at the Valley Forge Foundry. In 1825 Aluminum, the most common metal in the earth's crust is isolated. 1826 Seth Boyden of
Newark, NJ, is the first to develop a process for and produce "blackheart" malleable iron. 1831 In Cincinnati, OH, William Garrard
establishes the first commercial crucible steel operation in the U.S. In 1837 First dependable molding machine is marketed and
used by the S. Jarvis Adams Company in Pittsburg. In 1845 The open-hearth furnace is developed. 1851 Sir Henry Bessemer and
William Kelly both invent a simple converter that uses blasts of air to burn out the impurities such as silicon, manganese and
excess carbon in the pig iron. Although Kelly is the first to use a converter, Bessemer obtains the U.S. patents. 1863 Metallography,
the etching, polishing, and microscopic evaluation of metal surfaces are developed by Henry C. Sorby of Sheffield, England. It is
the first process to physically examine the surface of castings for quality analysis. 1867 James Nasmyth develops a gear-tilted
foundry ladle, increasing worker safety, and operational economy. 1870 Sandblasting is first used to clean large castings by R. E.
Tilghman of Philadelphia. 1880-1887 The Sly tumbling mill is developed. It is the first cleaning machine for small castings. This mill
greatly reduced the time needed for hand cleaning operations and produced a finer finished product. 1896 American Foundrymen's
Association (renamed American Foundrymen's Society in 1948 and now called the American Foundry Society) is formed. In 1897
Investment casting is rediscovered by B.F. Philbrook of Iowa. He used it to cast dental inlays.
Early 20th Century
In 1906, electric arc furnace was first used in the United States of America at Holcomb Steel Co. in Syracuse, NY. 1913 First
stainless steel was melted by Harry Brearley in Sheffield, England in the tear 1913. Crucible Steel Casting Co.'s Lansdown, PA
plant installed the first low-frequency electric furnace for special melting purposes in 1913. The International Committee of Foundry
Technical Associations was formed in 1923 in Zurich, Switzerland. In 1924 Dr. W.H. Hatfield invents 18/8 stainless steel (18%
chromium, 8% nickel). In 1930, the University of Michigan invented Spectrography for metal analysis.
The first high-frequency coreless electric induction furnace was installed in the US in the Lebanon Steel Foundry in Lebanon, PA in
1930. In 1940 Wood floor was introduced into foundry practice as a sand additive. 1947 the Shell Process was invented in 1947 by
J. Croning of Germany during World War II, is discovered by U.S. officials and made public. 1948 Development of ductile iron, a
cast iron with a fully spheroidal graphite structure. The ductile Iron was invented in 1949 and a U.S. patent was granted to K.D.
Millis, A.P. Gagnebin and N.B. Pilling of International Nickel Company. In 1953, the Hotbox system of making and curing cores in
one operation was developed, eliminated the need for dielectric drying ovens. In 1958 H.F. Shroyer is granted a patent for the full
mold process, the expendable pattern (lost foam) casting process. In 1964 the first Disamatic molding machine was introduced. In
1965 The Scanning Electron Microscope is invented by the Cambridge University Engineering Department in England. In 1965
Cast metal matrix composites are first poured at International Nickel Company in Sterling Forest, NY, by Pradeep Rohatgi. The
Cold Box Process is introduced by L.
Toriello and J. Robins for high production core making in 1968.
Late 20th Century
In the early 1970s, the Semi-Solid Metalworking (SSM) process was invented at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It
combines the aspects of casting with the aspects of forging. In 1971, the Japanese developed a Vacuum molding Process. This
method used unbonded sand and a vacuum. 1971 Rheocasting was developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1971
U.S. Congress passes the Clean Air Act and OSHA, the Occupational Health and Safety Act. In 1972, the first production of
Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) component was recorded by Wagner Castings Company. In 1974 Fiat introduces the in-mold
process for ductile iron treatment. In 1976 compacted graphite iron (CGI), an iron with elongated graphite particles with rounded
edges and roughened surfaces is developed in the U.K. It has characteristics of both gray and ductile iron. The Warm Box binder
system was introduced in 1982. The first foundry application of a plasma ladle refiner (melting and refining in one vessel) occurs
at Maynard Steel Casting Company in Milwaukee, WI in 1993. In 1995 Babcock and Wilcox, Barberton, OH, patent a lost foam
vacuum casting process to produce stainless steel castings with low carbon content. In 1996 Cast metal matrix composites are first
used in a production model automobile in the brake rotors for the Lotus Elise. In 1997 Electromagnetic casting processes
developed by Argonne and Inland Steel Corporation.
References:
(This chapter is entirely based on History of Metal Casting-http://www.metaltechnologies.com/docs/default-

source/education/historyofmetalcasting.pdf )
10
3 Metal Casting
In metalworking and jewelry making, casting is a process in which a liquid metal is delivered into a mold (usually by a crucible) that
contains a negative impression (i.e., a three-dimensional negative image) of the intended shape. The metal is poured into the mold
through a hollow channel called a sprue. The metal and mold are then cooled, and the metal part (the casting) is extracted. Casting
is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.
Casting processes have been known for thousands of years and have been widely used for sculpture (especially in bronze), jewelry
in precious metals, and weapons and tools. Highly engineered castings are found in 90 percent of durable goods, including cars,
trucks, aerospace, trains, mining and construction equipment, oil wells, appliances, pipes, hydrants, wind turbines, nuclear plants,
medical devices, defense products, toys, and more.
Traditional techniques include lost-wax casting (which may be further divided into centrifugal casting, and vacuum assist direct pour
casting), plaster mold casting and sand casting.
The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken
down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.
3.1 Introduction to Metal Casting
(This section is entirely based on Civilization of Metal Castinghttps://bernierinc.com/brief-history-metal-casting/)
The story of metal casting begins some five and a half thousand years ago in Mesopotamia, the cradle of civilization. The process,
which involves pouring molten metal into a mold, was used by the Mesopotamians to create all manner of things including tools and
weaponry, typically out of the copper-tin alloy, bronze. Civilization had finally dragged itself out of the Stone Age and metal casting
was to play a significant role. Within a thousand years, the Bronze Age had spread to most corners of the globe. There is evidence
that the Egyptians had invented bellows that allowed them to heat the metal to temperatures previously unattainable. These
primitive devices were capable of pumping hot air into furnaces, revolutionizing the way metal was worked and cast. There is
evidence from this period, however, that the Hittite empire was using a primitive batch method furnace.
Aluminum was named after alum, which is called 'alumni' in Latin. This name was given by Humphry Davy, an English chemist,
who, in 1808, discovered that aluminum could be produced by electrolytic reduction from alumina (aluminum oxide), but did not
manage to prove the theory in practice. Aluminum has several characteristics that can be controlled to maximize casting properties.
Specialized molten metals processing and casting techniques can help enhance mechanical properties. Molten aluminum is
sensitive to trace elements, but this sensitivity can be used as an advantage by adding trace amounts of materials to create
beneficial changes in casting microstructure. Grain refining and silicon modification can improve mechanical properties in the final
component. During solidification, aluminum freezes in long columnar grain structures. These grains will grow until they impinge on
another grain. The mechanical properties can be improved through periodizing constituent phase particles and by precipitation
hardening.
11
The relationships between microstructures and mechanical properties for cast metals and alloys have been discussed by many
investigators, and the relationships between microstructure with solidification cooling rate for aluminum alloys have been reported.
With recent high utilization, the phenomenon of casting solidification accompanied by volumetric contraction, leads to several major
defects in casting including shrinkage porosity, cracks, and distortion. In short freezing range alloys, especially those poured in
permanent molds, the shrinkage tends to concentrate at the hot spots. In long freezing range alloys, especially those poured in
sand molds, the shrinkage tends to be distributed all over the casting, though more of it still appears around hot spots. The location
and extent of shrinkage porosity can be predicted by identifying regions of high temperature (hot spots) and low gradients (short
feeding distance). Unfortunately, castings can be of complex shapes, and the heat transfer from all faces of the mold may not be
uniform. Other factors, such as air gap formation at the metal-mold interface, convection in liquid
metal, application of feed aids, presence of cores, gating system design and pouring parameters also affect the location of
shrinkage porosity, making its prediction difficult, if not impossible, manually.
In recent years, computer simulation of casting solidification has gained much ground, owing to the constant and painstaking efforts
of researchers to make such software tools more reliable and easier to use. A significant number of real-life case studies are also
available in technical journals and proceedings of conferences related to casting. Still, only a handful of aluminum foundries are
using these software tools today. This is owing to several challenges posed by first-time users. We first present an overview of
computer-aided methods. This is followed by the difficulties faced by foundry users, and how to overcome them through best
practices gleaned from our experience with several simulation projects and consultants.
3.2 Design Factors for Metal Casting

The materials used for casting should be selected according to their physical, mechanical properties and some chemical properties
like melting point, corrosion resistance, and tensile strength.
The metals used for casting are characterized by their casting properties like:
• Fluidity, Slag formation
• Solidification capacity,
• Pouring temperature.
The above factors affect the quality of the casting product by their Dimensional strength & internal reliability.
12
Preliminary Design
• Geometry
Detailed Design
Conceptual Design • Materials
Analysis
• Quality
Specification Optimization
• Product
Requirement
Methoding
Process Selection
Gating Design
Process selection Tooling type
Feeding Design
Process Parameters
Tooling Design
An efficient and experienced metal casting designer is always looking for a simple mold that can produce a casting of the desired
shape. A casting designer always looks for energy efficient and a cost-effective process to make a component. The variables in
metal casting design are discussed in the following sections.
(K.G. Swift, J.D. Booker 1999,pg 336).
Fluidity may be defined as an empirical measure of the distance a liquid metal can flow in a specific channel before being stopped
by solidification. Fluidity can also be defined as the ability of a liquid metal to flow freely and thus to feed a mold cavity and
produce the desired contour before freezing occurs.
Factors affecting fluidity:
Freezing range of alloy: Fluidity is inversely proportional to the freezing temp. range.
Short Freezing Range: Total Fluidity Length: Lf = tf .V (tf is the time and v is the velocity.
Long Freezing Range: (Lf) = x. tf. V (x<1)
Alloy Composition: Eutectic composition has better fluidity
Inclusions: Insoluble particles can increase viscosity and decrease fluidity.
Surface Tension: Decreases fluidity
Latent heat of fusion of alloy: Higher latent heat increases fluidity(Si has higher H than Al, Al-Si alloy has better fluidity.
13
Shrinkage: is the contraction rate of molten metal as it is solidifying from the liquid state. Liquid shrinkage describes the contraction
rate when the metal first solidifies. solidification shrinkage describes the point in time when the solid metal starts cooling. Liquid
shrinkage is taken care of by a riser and solid shrinkage is compensated by proper pattern allowances
Slag or Dross: Slag and dros formation are mainly due to the presence of non-metallic inclusions in a casting. In steel melting, the
inclusions are lighter than the liquid metal and float on the surface and are removed along with the slag/dross. Some of the
inclusion particles are trapped inside the liquid metal and are detrimental to the properties. The slag inclusions can be removed by
using ceramic filters.
Pouring temperature: Pouring temperature is the temperature at which a given metal/alloy is poured in a mold for casting
purposes. An experienced metal casting engineer always checks the temperature before pouring the liquid metal into the mold.
This is one of the important parameters as far as the casting design is concerned. Pouring temperature should always be 50-100
oC more than the melting point of the metal/alloy.
Heat transfer: Heat transfer rates affect how quickly a metal solidifies within a mold. One is the dispersion of heat of the metal
through itself, and the other the rate of heat transfer from where the casting touches the mold. Heat transfer in the liquid metal, at
the metal/mold interface, and heat transfer through the mold are the controlling parameters to optimize the solidification rates. The
heat transfer coefficient (h) is an important factor for achieving defect-free casting. Metal is a better conductor than a mold. The
solidification rate depends upon the thermal properties of mold. As soon as the hot metal at temperature Tm is poured in the mold,
it immediately reaches at temperature Tm within no time (t=0). The relation between the thickness of the metal solidified and the
time is given by the relation. The below figure shows the temperature – distance profile of a casting process with thermal resistance
at the mold.
2 (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇0 )
𝑆𝑆 = √ 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶√𝑡𝑡
√𝜋𝜋 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻
Distance, X
Temperature – distance profile of a casting process with thermal resistance at the mold.
14
Where, s=thickness of metal solidified at a time ‘t’, TM is the melting point of the metal T0 is the ambient temperature ρs is the
density of solid, ‘H’ is the heat of fusion, Km is the thermal conductivity of the mold material, ρm is the density of mold material and
cm is the specific heat. S ∞ (t)1/2 This is valid for sand mold and high conductivity metals like Cu, Al, Mg, etc. ‘S’ can be replaced
by (Vs/A), where Vs is the volume of solidified metal at time ‘t’ and ‘A’ is an area of mold/metal interface. Considering t=tf where ‘tf
‘is the total solidification time for a volume of casting Vs,
𝑣𝑣 2 𝑇𝑇𝑀𝑀 − 𝑇𝑇0
= √ 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚√ 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓
𝐴𝐴 √𝜋𝜋 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻
Metal Mold
Tf = C (V/A)2 where C is the constant (mold and metal), V is the volume and A is the area of cross-section. This relation is known
as Chvorinov’s rule. Using this rule, one can find out the thickness of melt solidified in time ‘t’.
In die casting, the liquid metal solidifies immediately, as soon as it comes in contact with the metallic die and here mold/metal
interface is the controlling factor. Resistance to heat flow across the mold/metal Interface is large compared to resistance in the
metal and in the mold and heat flow is h controlled. h is the heat transfer coefficient. The relation between solidified metal and the
time of solidification is given by the relation.
𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 = (𝑉𝑉/𝐴𝐴)(ℓ𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻)/ ℎ(𝑇𝑇𝑀𝑀 − 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇)
The temperature – distance profile is shown below
15
Temperature – Distance Profile in Die Casting
Solidification Patterns
Usually, a casting cools more quickly where it is touching the mold, crystallizing from the edge inward. Knowing the crystallization,
heat transfer, and shrinkage rates of a given metal allow a design engineer to predict the pattern of crystallization through the
casting. When looking to minimize problems with shrinkage, molds are designed with these solidification patterns in mind. Parts of
the mold may be cooled with chills to minimize shrinkage in a section. Other parts of the casting might be connected to reservoirs,
called risers, which slowly feed liquid metal into a cooling casting to prevent cavities forming as the solidifying metal shrinks.
Mold Stability
The mold materials must be stable in all the severe casting conditions when the liquid metal cools from its liquid state. The mold
materials must be stable and not expand due to absorbing heat from liquid metals. It should also have the property to release
gases evolving from the mold during pouring that gets trapped in the solidifying casting. The materials used in the mold must be
able to withstand the metal in all states, without fracture or collapse.
Surface Finish Capability
Casting finish is one of the most important factors of product development. Different molding methods produce various kinds of
finishes. The cost of the product will be high if one needs a fine finish. In some cases, the cast product is subjected to the machine
for a fine finish. Very smooth finishes tend to come from more intensive and therefore more expensive molding processes.
Drafts
Drafts are the taper in the vertical walls of the casting so as to remove the casting without breaking the side walls. Draft allowances
are given in the pattern that are replicated in the casting. These are necessary so that a pattern, which is the “positive” image of
the object being designed, can be removed without disturbing the walls of the mold.
Cores
Cores are used in the casting processes to create intentional holes. After completion of casting the mold along with the core and
internal hole is exposed out. Core dimensions are very carefully designed in order to get exact dimensions of the hole or internal
cavities.
While designing a product a detailed communication and exchange of scientific and technical views among the designers,
engineers, and casting people should be organized to achieve a superior defect-free cast product.
3.3 Solidification of Metal Casting
Solidification process means crystallization of liquid metals/alloys to a solid phase during the cooling process. Solidification of
metals and alloys occurs by nucleation and growth process. Hence cooling curve is an important phenomenon following the
transformation from liquid to solid. In general, the cooling curve is a graph between temperature and time and represents the
16
change of phase from liquid to solid. In pure metals and alloys with eutectic composition, solidification occurs at a constant
temperature. In the case of alloys, the temperature does not remain constant during solidification and it occurs over a range of
temperatures. In pure metals, the free energy of the liquid phase and the solid phase is the same at melting point and hence liquid
metal phase must undercool for initiation of solidification. Undercooling is the Difference Between the Melting Point and the
Temperature at Which Nucleation Occurs as shown in Figure in the right end.
Cooling curve of pure metals Crystallization of pure metal
Reference : https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-349-00088-3_1
Cooling curve of an alloy (left alloy phase diagram and right cooling curve.
Reference : https://iopscience.iop.org/book/978-1-6817-4473-5/chapter/bk978-1-
6817-4473-5ch3
At the melting point, the free energy of solid and liquid are the same and it is not favorable for transformation. Hence, the liquid has
to be undercooled to an amount ΔT, as shown in Figure below. The ΔG is the driving force for solidification. If there is no
undercooling at the equilibrium temperature, no transformation can occur.
13
Free energy – Temperature diagram

Reference : http://www.ndhu.edu.tw/ezfiles/29/1029/img/2888/Chapter1.pdf
Once the condition of the spontaneous occurrence of phase transformation is satisfied, the formation of solid starts. Further, more
and more atoms from liquid phase leave and join the solid phase. Transformation is taking place in two major processes one is
nucleation and the other one is growth. Nucleation refers to a process in which very small solid particles known as nuclei are
formed when the liquid metals /alloys cooled below its liquidus temperature. Hence, nucleation is a process in which a tiny solid
exceeds a critical size. Below this critical size, it dissolves in liquid and above this size, it becomes a solid particle. Nucleation
generally takes place by two major processes; one is homogeneous nucleation and the second one is heterogeneous nucleation.
Homogeneous nucleation occurs spontaneously without the
help of any addition of foreign particles. On the other hand, heterogeneous nucleation occurs with the help of externally added
particles such as a nucleating agent. In Al alloys Ti compounds are used as a nucleating agent, in Mg alloy Zr, C is used as a
nucleating agent, in stainless steel Ca/Mg cyanides and in Cast iron, sulfur compounds are used.
Heterogeneous nucleation requires less supercooling. As soon as the liquid metal meets the mold, it freezes immediately by a
heterogeneous nucleation process with equiaxed grains and this zone is referred to as a chill zone. Then, the liquid solidifies by
homogeneous nucleation as columnar grains from the surface to the center. The remaining liquid in the middle solidifies as
equiaxed grains. These equiaxed grains are usually larger than the equiaxed grains in the middle of the casting.
3.4 Niyama Criterion for Predicting Shrinkage Porosity
The Niyama criterion is well-known for the shrinkage function prediction in steel castings. The function is based upon the
temperature gradient and solidification rate/cooling rate. Niyama found that the temperature gradient divided by the square root of
the cooling rate predicts the presence of shrinkage defects in castings. If the ration is lower ~0, then the probability of shrinkage
defects is more
i.e. lower the Niyama value higher the probability of defects. When the ratio is 1 or higher, there is little or no shrinkage porosity in
the castings. A value of Niyama function ~0, predict the higher probability of the presence of solidification shrinkage. However, one
must take a detailed interpretation of the Niyama criterion for prediction of shrinkage. The Niyama criterion is based only on heat
transfer and does not consider the effect of gravity. Niyama criterion, however, is still used extensively in many non-ferrous
applications (typically in aluminum alloys).
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Micro-shrinkage porosity in aluminum casting was predicted by computer simulation using three criteria functions and a shrinkage
porosity model. Three process simulations were carried out for the porosity prediction. To validate the simulation, three identical
blocks were cast and were analyzed by computer tomography. The results depicted that both simulations and porosity models are
needed for reliable porosity prediction. Porosity in aluminum sand casting alloy was analyzed using three different simulation
approaches and it was concluded that three porosity criteria namely Niyama, dimensionless Niyama and BLJ and a fully coupled
shrinkage porosity model well agrees with the experimental computer tomography results. The figure below shows the simulation
result.
Simulation results of Niyama Criteria for V rod
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3.5 Casting Processes

3.5.1 Sand Casting
Sand Casting: Sand casting is used to make large parts (typically Iron, but also Bronze, Brass, Aluminum). Molten metal is poured
into a mold cavity formed out of sand (natural or synthetic).
The various parts of sand casting are described below:
Pattern: The cavity in the sand is formed by using a pattern (duplicate of the real part), typically made from wood, metal.
Core: is a sand shape inserted into the mold to produce the internal features of the part such as holes or internal passages.
Riser: is an extra void created in the mold to contain excessive molten material. It feeds the molten metal to the mold cavity as the
molten metal solidifies and shrinks, and thereby prevents voids in the main casting.
Cope & Drag: In a two-part mold of sand castings, the upper half, including the top half of the pattern, flask, and core is called
cope and the lower half is called drag.
Sprue: The vertical part of the gating system connected to the pouring cup.
The diagram shows different parts of sand-casting methods
Advantages:
• Low capital investment
• Use of sand cores allows complex shapes to be cast
• Large components can be produced
• Suitable for small batch production.
Disadvantages:
• The process has a high unit cost, it is labor-intensive & time-consuming.
• The sand-casting leaves bad surface finish requires further processing.
• Cannot make thin sections
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Not suitable for mass production
Applications engine blocks, gear blanks, crankshafts, brake drums, etc.
Cast Structure
The diagram shows a typical cast structure.
References: https://studylib.net/doc/10213089/fundamentals-of-metal-casting
3.5.2 Investment Casting
The investment casting process, also called the lost-wax process, was first used during the period 3500-4000 B.C. The pattern is
made of wax or plastic such as polystyrene.
The sequences involved in investment casting are shown in Figure. The pattern is made by injecting molten wax or plastic into a
metal die in the shape of the object. The castings allow the production of components with accuracy, repeatability, and versatility in
a variety of metals and high-performance alloys.
Investment Casting of Turbine Blades
Turbine blades have a complex geometry and contain many areas of double curvature. Therefore, the blades must be precisely
manufactured by the precision casting process of investment casting. Ceramic cores for the cooling channels are positioned within
a master mold pattern. Wax is then injected into the mold cavity to produce a preform of the turbine blade. Next, the preform is
coated with multiple layers of ceramic, ultimately forming a thick casing around the preform. The assembly is heated to melt out the
wax and then dried to strengthen the ceramic. Finally, the mold assembly is preheated prior to casting the turbine blade in the
cavity.
17
Advantages of Investment Casting:
• Many Intricate forms with undercuts can be cast.
• A very smooth surface is obtained with no parting line.
• Dimensional accuracy is good.
• Certain un-machinable parts can be cast to preplanned shape.
Disadvantages of Investment Casting:

• This process is expensive, is usually limited to small casting, and presents some difficulties where cores are involved.
• Investment castings require very long production-cycle times versus other casting processes.
• This process is practically infeasible for high-volume manufacturing, due to its high cost.
Applications:
• Investment casting is used in the aerospace and power generation industries to produce turbine blades with complex
shapes or cooling systems.
• It is widely used by firearms manufacturers to fabricate firearm receivers, triggers, hammers, and other precision
parts.
3.5.3 Die Casting
Die casting equipment was invented in 1838 for the purpose of producing movable type for the printing industry. The first die
casting-related patent was granted in 1849 for a small hand-operated machine for the purpose of mechanized printing type
production. In 1885, Otto Mergenthaler invented the Line type machine, an automated type-casting device that became the
prominent type of equipment in the publishing industry. The die-casting machine, manufactured in Brooklyn, NY was the first
machine sold in the open market in North America. In 1966, General Motors released the process.
3.5.4 Gravity Die Casting
Gravity die casting is a simple casting process that uses reusable metallic molds. This type of casting is generally used for light
alloys but can be used for steel and cast irons. The process is most suited for simple shapes with some basic cores only. In this
casting process, the metal is poured into the cavity at atmospheric pressure only which is unlike the pressure die casting where the
pouring is done above atmospheric pressure. The metallic molds consist of two halves which when combined gives the required
cavity.
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Motor Block Casting
Advantages
• Achieve good surface finish Due to the use of permanent mold
• The solidified casting can be easily removed by opening the halves
• Scrap metals can be recycled.
• Secondary machining operations can be reduced.
• Thinner sections can be manufactured.
Disadvantages
• Only simple sections can be cast not complex shapes profile.
• Initial costs are high.
• Large scraps are produced Applications
• Manufacture of automotive parts such as Engine bracket, torque rods, intake pipes, cylinder heads, and brake
calipers.
• To manufacture industrial equipment.
• Manufacture of parts for power transmission.
3.5.5 High Pressure Die Casting
This is a process for producing metal parts by forcing molten metal under high pressure into reusable steel molds. This leads to a
quick fill of the die, so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities are avoided. This
creates the problem of air entrapment because there is little time for the air to escape hence even in a highly refined process there
will still be some porosity in the center of the casting.
19
Advantages
• High-speed production can be achieved as the whole process is completely automated.
• Very small thicknesses can be easily filled as the liquid metal is injected under high pressure.
• Very good Mechanical properties & surface finish can be obtained.
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for all materials because of the limitations of the die materials & the alloys used must have a low melting
point.
• High porosity is common & heat treatment is difficult.
• The main disadvantage of die casting is a very high capital cost. Both the casting equipment required, and the dies
and related components are very costly.
Applications
• *Instruments measuring device * Power & hand tools
• *Marines, pumps & compressors * Engines
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3.5.6 Low-Pressure Die Casting
Low-pressure die casting uses a die which is filled from a pressurized crucible underneath. The process is suited for thin casting
rotationally symmetrical products such as automobile wheels.
Advantages:
• Controlled mold filling and no turbulence
• Metal in the furnace is in a closed vessel under a protected atmosphere. Less Hydrogen Absorption and other
impurities
• Operator errors are minimized due to the automated process.
Disadvantages:
• Cannot be used for large castings as the casting machine capacity is limited.
• Prevents any heat treating or welding, because the heat causes the gas in the pores to expand, which causes micro-
cracks inside the part.
3.5.7 Centrifugal Casting (Industrial)
Centrifugal Casting mold is rotated at high speed so that the centrifugal force distributes the molten metal at the outer region of the
die cavity. Pipes, uniform hollow section casting, etc. are made commercially by centrifugal casting method without using any core.
Centrifugal casting method can be classified as (i) True centrifugal casting, (ii) Semi-centrifugal casting and (iii). Centrifuging
True centrifugal casting: In the True centrifugal casting process, mold is rotated about a horizontal or vertical axis. Liquid metal is
introduced into the mold through an external source. The mold is rotated at a high speed and centrifugal force acts on the molten
21
metal which forces the liquid metal at the outer wall of the mold. The mold rotates until the whole liquid metal solidifies. The slag
particles containing the liquid metal which are lighter than the liquid metal forced towards the central portion of the casting. These
slag particles are later removed by the machining process. Fig. 1a shows the schematic diagram of the horizontal centrifugal
casting machine. This process is used to make hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc. which are axisymmetric with a concentric
hole.
True Horizontal Centrifugal Casting Machine
True Centrifugal Casting Machine
Reference : https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/engineeringtechnology/manupedia/centrifugal-casting
Horizontal Centrifugal Force (F) = mV2/R, Where m= mass, V = velocity and R =
External Radius
The G Factor (GF) = Centrifugal Force / weight (mg)
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2/𝑅𝑅/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑉𝑉2/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
V (Velocity) = 2π RN/60 = π RN/30, N= RPM
GF = R/g (πN/30)2 N = (30/ π) [g (GF)/R]1/2
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If G factor is too low in centrifugal casting, then the liquid metal will not be forced against the mold wall during the upper half of the
circular path but will rain inside the cavity i.e., slipping occurs between the mold wall and the molten metal. This means that
rotational speed is less than the molten metal. GF should be around 60-80 for successful casting.
Vertical Centrifugal Casting: The vertical centrifugal casting machine is shown in Fig. 1b.The effect of gravity acting on the liquid
metal causes the casting wall to be thicker at the base than at the top (Fig. 1c). The difference in inside radius between top and
bottom is related to the speed of rotation.
30 2𝑔𝑔
𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏 = � 2 𝐿𝐿 2
𝜋𝜋 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 − 𝑅𝑅
L = Vertical length of the
casting, Rt = Inside radius at the top, Rb =Inside radius at the bottom
Semi-Centrifugal Casting: In this process, the centrifugal force is used to produce solid casting rather than tubular parts. The
rotational speed is set in such a way that the G factor would be around 15. The density of metal is more at the outer than the
center.
Semi Centrifugal Casting Method
Reference : https://docgo.net/embed/centrifugal-casting-velocidad
Semi centrifugal casting process is used to cast large size axisymmetric components. In this process, mold is placed horizontally
and allowed to rotate along the vertical axis as shown in Fig. 1d. A core is inserted at the center which is used to cast hollow
section components. When the mold is rotated, the outer portion of the mold fill by purely centrifugal action and as the liquid metal
approaches the center, the centrifugal component decreases, and the gravity component increases. Thus, a core is inserted at the
center to make a hollow cavity at the center without centrifugal force. In this process centrifugal force is used for a uniform filling of
axisymmetric parts. Gear blanks, flywheel, etc. are made by this process.
Centrifuge Casting: In this process, there are several mold cavities connected with a central sprue with gates. This process uses
higher metal pressure during solidification. It is used to cast shapes which are not axisymmetric. This process is suitable for making
small objects. Reference: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e20a/b58a7f24fd5a3a695bdbfd4a119b2ae6ec61.pdf
23
3.6 Casting Components

3.6.1 Core Plug
“Sand cores are used to form the internal cavities when for example the engine block or cylinder head(s) is cast. These cavities are
usually the coolant passages. Holes are designed into the casting to support internal sand forms and to facilitate the removal of the
sand after the casting has cooled. Core plugs are usually thin metal cups press fitted into the casting holes but may be made of
rubber or other materials. In some high-performance engines, the core plugs are large-diameter cast metal threaded pipe plugs.”
(Monroe, 1996, p111)
3.6.2 Riser Casting /Feeder
A riser is a reservoir for supplying molten metal to the casting cavity to compensate for the shrinkage (volumetric contraction) taking
place during the solidification process. If we consider the elements of casting, we come across seven kinds of elements namely (i)
pouring cup, (ii) Sprue (iii) Sprue well (iv) runner (v) Gating system (vi) casting and (vii) Riser. Figure below shows a typical casting
system with all seven elements.
A typical casting system showing seven elements
Reference : https://www.slideshare.net/chicharitobale/c2-casting
The Sprue of the Gating System: The vertical channel through which metal enters is known as sprue. The aspiration of mold
gases is likely to occur through a sprue. The aspiration can be minimized by tapering the sprue so that the metal does not pull
gases from the mold wall as it moves downwards.
For the free-falling of liquid metal, the velocity of liquid metal (v) increases with the height of the sprue.
V = (2gh) where h is the height of sprue.
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Let A1=Cross sectional area of entrance of sprue A2 = Cross-sectional area of exit of sprue h1 = pouring basin height h2 = Sprue +
pouring basin height.
So, the condition for no aspiration is A1 / A2 >= (h2/h1)
Figure below shows the two conditions of liquid metal flow through the sprue. In condition (i) straight-sided sprue in which there is
every possibility for aspiration of gases. In condition (ii), the sprue is tapered and there is no aspiration of gases.
i ii
Figure above shows the schematic diagram of the condition (i) with straight sided
sprue and condition (ii) with tapered sprue.
Reference : https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/casting-process
Riser: A riser is made above the cope portion and can supply liquid metal to fill the shrinkage cavity resulting due to volumetric
contraction. The riser must be kept open to the atmosphere to attain positive pressure and placed in such a location to supply liquid
metal in all the sections of the casting. The shape of the riser is cylindrical, and the volume of the riser would be enough to supply
enough liquid metal. Usually, the volume of the riser is three times the contraction volume. There are two types of risers, one is
open riser (top riser) and the other is a blind riser. In open riser, the top portion of the riser is open to atmosphere, hence the gravity
and atmospheric pressure causes the liquid metal to flow into the solidifying casting. The blind riser is completely enclosed in the
mold cavity and not exposed to the atmosphere. The liquid metal cools slowly and retains a liquid state for a longer time and feeds
the solidifying casting by gravity only.
25
Side
Mold
Schematic diagram showing open riser and blind riser.
Riser design is very important because of the following reasons:
• An undersized riser could lead to shrinkage defects and ultimately a rejection of casting
• An oversized riser requires excess molten metal. Needs more power/fuel consumption for melting practice
o Necessary and enough conditions for riser design
• Necessary Condition: Vr > 3 Vsc
• Vr= Volume of Riser and Vsc= Volume of Shrinkage
• Sufficient Condition triser > tc triser , Solidification time of riser metal > tc , Solidification Time of Casting
• Location of Riser: Easy flow of liquid metal to the casting
• The shape of Riser: Minimum surface area.
Riser Efficiency: The riser efficiency can be improved through the following:
• Use of insulating materials around the riser
• Use of chills.
• Use of Exothermic materials in the riser so that it provides heat to maintain the metal in a liquid state for more time.
26
3.6.3 Insulating or Exothermic Sleeve
Insulating or exothermic sleeves are used to increase the yield in foundry practice. Each of the sleeve manufacturers provides a
large variety of sleeves in different sizes. An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that is accompanied by the release of heat.
It gives out energy to its surroundings. The energy needed for the reaction to occur is less than the total energy released. During
the pouring of mold, an exothermic reaction sets in as molten metal fills an exothermic sleeve riser. It is possible to reduce the riser
size considerably as compared to sand riser system as the exothermic reaction helps in maintaining the riser metal temperature
over an extended period.
Yield: Use of Exothermic sleeves enables improving the yield by more than 30%
Benefits:
• Permits use of substantially reduced riser size without compromising on quality.
• Cost savings due to high foundry yields.
• Significant saving in energy and costly foundry inputs due to the minimization of feed metal.
• Higher productivity.
3.6.4 Overflow Risers (Cavity/Passages)
Overflows are cavities and passages in the die which act as vents for air to escape and traps for excess metal flow. Overflows
reduce/prevent porosity in the diecasting and promote complete metal fill into the far sections of the cavity.
27
Overflow
3.6.5 Casting Coolers
The casting exposed by the Shakeout is too hot to handle. Thus, they are passed through a Casting Cooler to reduce their
temperature. This can be a standard Vibrating Conveyor with a top cover that induces cool air to flow over the hot castings and
exhaust out of the hooded cover.
Casting collers
28
3.7 Pouring Techniques
Crucible melting is one of the oldest and simplest processes of melting furnaces. It is the simplest furnace used for melting of
metals and alloys in foundry practices. The furnaces use a crucible made of graphite + silicon carbide + clay + resin etc. The
heating fuel used in crucible melting is coke, oil or gas. The charge (metal /alloy to be melted) is heated via conduction of heat
through the walls of the crucible. The crucible is placed in a chamber with the walls made of insulating ceramics. Crucible melting
is commonly used where small batches of low melting point alloy are required.
Crucible Furnace
Types of Crucible Furnaces
There are three types of crucible furnaces with coke/oil/gas and the classification of crucible furnaces is based on the method used
for removal of the metal from the crucible. The first category of crucible furnace is Lift-out crucible. In this type, the crucible is lifted
out and then poured it into the mold. The second category of crucible furnace is known as Stationary pot in which the molten metal
is ladled out of the mold. The third category of crucible furnace is tilting –pot furnace in which a mechanically tilting mechanism is
used to take out the liquid metal.
Lift-out Crucible Stationary Pot Tilting –pot furnace
Typical image of Crucible Furnace
Reference: http://www.anthonydpmann.com/types-of-crucible-furnace/
29
The advantages of crucible furnaces are,
• Low installation cost,
• low melting losses,
• Uniform heating of the charge
• Ease of operation
• Continuous operation.
However, in recent times the use of crucible furnaces is declined and electric induction melting furnaces which offer precise melting
temperature and easy control of the chemistry of alloys is favored.
Application of Crucible Furnace: Crucible furnace is useful for melting non-ferrous metals and alloys.
Crucible Pouring in Inspire Cast
Crucible poring
Crucible/tilt pouring
30
3.8 Molding
Varieties of molding sand

available in the module
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the
mold to complete the process. Basically, molding is the process by which we take an object and create an impression of it in some
sort of material. Generally, initially soft material is poured or spread around the object and allowed to harden or set, creating a
negative imprint of the object. Moldings can be made in either one piece or multiple pieces. While the type of molding material used
depends on the size and shape of that object, some popular options include plaster and silicon.
References:
• Monroe, T, 1996, Engine builder's handbook: inspection, machining, reconditioning, valvetrain assembly, blueprinting,
degreeing cams, tools, engine assembly, HP Books, p. 111,
• K.G. Swift, 2003.,J.D. Booker, in Process Selection (Second Edition)
• K.G. Swift, 2013, J.D. Booker, in Manufacturing Process Selection Handbook
31
4 Defects on Casting
During the casting process, the liquid melt is solidified in a mold (sand mold or permanent mold) to achieve the shape of the desired
components. During solidification of the melt, defects may arise due to irregularities in either casting materials or casting process.
Some of these defects may be tolerated, repaired or else would be rejected. The casting defects arise due to many reasons and
are classified as below
• Due to the evolution of gases
• Due to the pouring of the melt into the mold
• Due to Metallurgical Defects
• Caused by molding materials
• Due to Shrinkage
• Due to other factors
All the above-mentioned defects are described in detail in the sections to follow.
4.1 Casting Defects Due to the Evolution of Gases
The solubility of gases in liquid metals and alloys is much higher as compared to the lower temperature. Because of this reason
liquid metal is treated with gas purging and addition of degasser to remove the dissolved gases. On the contrary, the dissolved
gases, if not removed, results in defects in solid casting. Defects due to entrapped gasses are generally known as blowholes,
pinhole porosity, rat tails, blister, etc.
4.1.1 Blow Holes
The essential causes of blow holes casting defects are (i) Excess moisture in the mold (usually 3-5% moisture) (ii) slag in the
metal reacts with carbon in the metal and liberates CO which entrapped in solidified metal and (iii) Iron Oxide in the mold wall react
with carbon in the metal which evolve CO gas.
These defects can be minimized by the following ways: (i) avoid excess moisture in molding sand (ii)avoid excessive compaction of
the
mold, (iii) avoid using rusted chills and chapters, (iv) Provide vent holes, (v) Removal of slag from the liquid metal. When the blow
holes casting defects are found inside the casting it is called Blow Holes. On the other case when the defects are found on the
surface of the casting, it is called Open Blows. Below Figures show the typical photographs of Blow Holes and Open Blows
respectively.
32
The Shape of the defects may be spherical, Flattened or Elongated cavities and the
size in the range of 0.5-3 mm.
Reference : http://www.iron-foundry.com/casting-defects-pictures.html
4.1.2 Pin Hole Porosity
Many tiny holes of a size similar to pinheads appear on the surface of the casting. The main causes of pinhole porosity are the
absorption of gases like hydrogen, oxygen, etc. by the molten metal inside the melting furnace and molds. During solidification, the
temperature gets reduced and liberates the dissolved gases. Copper, Gold, silver usually absorb oxygen and Palladium, platinum,
Aluminum, absorb hydrogen resulting in pinhole porosity. The dissolved gases may be removed from the molten metal by using
one of the melting practices such as (i) vacuum Melting practices (ii) vacuum Degassing (iii) avoid very high pouring temperature.
A typical photograph of pin-hole porosity is shown in the following figure
Photograph of typical pinhole porosity (this is due to high moisture content in the sand)
Reference :https://maritime.org/doc/foundry/part3.htm
4.1.3 Rat Tails or Vains Defects
It is an irregular depression on the surface of the castings like rat a tail impression. The causes of such kind of depression are
essentially due to the following reasons: (a) as the molten metal is poured in a sand mold, the moisture in the molding sand
evaporates and is converted into steam. (b) When the mold cools down the steam condenses and forms a thin layer of moisture
between the mold surface and the solidified metal. (c) As the hot sand expands, the wet layer of steam shears to allow the
expansion. The small ridge of sand that extends into the mold cavity can create a line on the surface (Depression on the surface)
33
which looks like a Rat`s tail. Fig. below shows a typical photograph of rat tails. To minimize the defects, care should be taken to
minimize mold wall movement and additives like wood flour may be added with sand to reduce sand expansion.
Long, shallow, angular depression in the surface of the flat casting looks like a rat tail Reference :
https://maritime.org/doc/foundry/part3.htm
4.1.4 Dispersed Shrinkage
Dispersed shrinkage is a kind of defect that looks like cavities dispersed throughout the casting. It is caused due to excess moisture
content in the molding sand and large pouring temperature of the metal. To minimize the defects appropriate moisture content and
pouring temperature should be used.
Components show dispersed shrinkage cavities (Arrow marked)

Reference : https://www.giessereilexikon.com/en/foundrylexicon/Encyclopedia/show/dispersed-
shrinkage3866/?cHash=9bec6921187bcf58644b31364b458157
4.1.5 Blister
These kinds of defects show up as a swelling on the casting surface. The size of the defects is found in the range of 1 to 20 mm in
diameter and 0.5 to 5 mm in height. If they appear on a visible surface of the casting, it is rejected and there is no scope of
repairing. Blisters are caused when gas is trapped inside the casting at the time the cavity is filled with molten metal. The most
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likely source of the gas is the air, which was initially present in the cavity, runners and shot sleeve in the die casting process. Figure
shows a typical blister formation on the surface of the casting.
When the plunger comes to the end of its stroke, it compresses the metal, and any gas trapped inside it, to very high pressure –
typically 20 to 70 MPa. This causes the gas to be compressed to very small bubbles, trapped on the casting surface. Tiny gas
bubbles are called porosities, but larger gas bubbles are called blowholes or blisters. Such defects can be caused by air entrained
in the melt, steam or smoke from the casting sand, or other gasses from the melt or mold.
Formation of Blisters on the Casting Surface
Reference : https://www.cwmdiecast.com/blog/2015/08/18/porosity-at-a-glance/
4.2 Casting Defects Due to Pouring of Melt

4.2.1 Misrun
In die casting the most common defects are misrun. This defect is caused by the following reasons: (a) cold dies (b) low metal
temperature (c) dirty metal (d) lack of venting, etc. This defect is caused due to incomplete cavity filling and the reasons can be: -
(i) inadequate metal supply, (ii) too-low mold or melt temperature, (iii) improperly designed gates, or length to thickness ratio of the
casting is too large. When molten metal is flowing from one side in a thin section, it may lose sufficient heat resulting in loss of its
fluidity, such that the leading edge of the stream may freeze before it reaches the end of the cavity. The figure below shows a
typical photograph of a misrun. The defects formed due to misrun is shown by the arrow mark.
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The photograph shows misrun defects due to improper flow of metals.

Reference : https://www.ijert.org/research/causes-of-casting-defects-with-remedies-
IJERTV4IS110511.pdf
4.2.2 Cold Shut
A cold shut is caused, when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming a
discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through the more-than-one gate, multiple liquid
fronts will have to flow together and form one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together but will leave
a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold shut. The figure below shows the casting defects due to Cold shut.
(a)
(a) The photograph shows cold shut defects due to insufficient flow of metals (b) Showing the flow of liquid metal in
opposite direction (arrow marked) but due to
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lower temperature could not fuse together.

Reference : https://www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how-toprevent-them-in-your-products
4.2.3 Elephant Skin
Elephant skin is a surface defect and this kind of surface defects form due to the presence of magnesium silicate contamination in
the melt. This kind of defect is caused when separate streams meet, and the surface films will not allow complete fusion and results
in the formation of an elephant skin-like surface. Photograph below shows the surface defects of casting resemble elephant skin.
This kind of defects can be avoided by removal of slag inclusions from the melt.
The photograph shows a typical elephant skin type defect.
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4.3 Inclusions
4.3.1 Solid Inclusions
The formation of solid inclusions is generally caused due to turbulence in the molten metal giving rise to sand or slag inclusions.
Sand inclusions are caused by bulk turbulence in gating channels or mold cavity whereas slag inclusions are due to surface
turbulence in the path of molten metal.
Bulk turbulence - It is the ratio of inertia to viscous pressure in a fluid and is expressed by the equation - Reynolds Number (Re) =
ρ v l / µ. The flow is usually turbulent when Re is more than in 2000.
Ρ = Density of metal, v = velocity of pouring melt, l = Characteristic Length, µ = Viscosity of melt.
Surface turbulence - It is the ratio of inertia to surface tension pressure in a fluid and is expressed by the equation
We (Weber No.)= ρv2l/σ.
The flow is turbulent when We number is more than 100. Here σ is the surface tension of the melt. Figure (a) and (b) show the
inclusion content in the casting. This kind of hard inclusion results in crack nucleation and propagation. Inclusions particles are
shown by arrow marks.
(a) Slag Inclusions (b) Sand Inclusions
(a) the photograph shows the slag inclusions in the metal matrix (arrow marked)
(b) Shows sand inclusions in the metal matrix (Arrow Marked)
Inclusions content can be reduced by using the correct grade of molding sand and proper skimming to remove impurities. The use
of filters is used in most of the casting industries to remove the inclusions. Figure below shows typical ceramic filters used for
cleaning of liquid metal and remove the inclusions.
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The figure depicts the ceramic filters for removing the inclusion content in liquid metal (a), (b) and (c) are the three different
arrangements for the filtering of inclusions in liquid metal.
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4.4 Casting Defects Due to Metallurgical Factors

4.4.1 Hot Tears
Hot tears are quite a common type of casting defect due to differential contraction of the casting during solidification. It may be
caused when the casting could not undergo shrinkage freely during solidification due to complex casting design. The presence of
sulfur in steel also promotes hot tearing. It may also be noted that long freezing range and decrease in the quantity of eutectic
influence hot tearing. Example: Al-Sn alloy. Al-10 Sn alloy is more susceptible to hot tearing. The figure below depicts the hot tear
shown by the arrow mark.
The hot tearing problem in casting can be suppressed by using an exothermic pad, control of Composition for example addition of
Mn in steel minimize sulfur content, use of grain refiners namely Al-Ti, Al-B, etc. refine the grains and reduce the hot tearing. It was
observed that the addition of Ni reduces the hot tear by locking neighboring grains.
Hot tear at the corner junction shown by the arrow mark.
Reference : https://www.ecodiecasting.com/die-casting-defects-causes-andtroubleshooting/
4.5 Casting Defects Caused by Molding Materials
Molding materials generally consist of molding sand, clay, and moisture. A little amount of coal and or wood dust is also added for
the easy breaking of the mold material.
4.5.1 Scab
Scab is a type of defect generally found on the surface of the casting. Scabs are rough, irregular projections on the surface of
castings containing embedded sand. Scabs occur formed when a portion on the face of mold or core lifts and the metal flows
underneath in a thin layer. They are caused by using too fine sand grains or using sand of low permeability or moisture content. A
scab may also be caused by uneven mold ramming or by intense local overheating. Figure below shows the scab defect shown by
the red circle mark. Scabs can be reduced by mixing additives like sea-coal, wood flour or dextrin in the sand, providing uniform
ramming and pouring with a correct velocity of liquid metal.
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The photograph shows a typical scab formation on the surface of the casting.
Reference : https://www.giessereilexikon.com/en/foundry-
lexicon/Encyclopedia/show/scab-4013/?cHash=a0a63600b9e09b473829e740b17ebf36
4.5.2 Metal
Metal penetration is an unwanted projection of metal above the casting. It is caused mainly when the sand grains used are coarse
in size and of insufficient composition. It may also be caused due to metal poured at a very high temperature. The liquid metal can
enter the spaces between the sand grains up to some distance. Such sand gets tightly wedged in the metal and is difficult to
remove afterward. Figure below shows the metal penetration defects by the arrow mark. This kind of defects can be minimized by
using fine sand grains, reduce casting temperature, apply enough compaction of mold and use additives in the molding sand.
A typical photograph shows the penetration defects caused by metal penetration.
Reference : https://www.foundrymag.com/feature/new-coating-additive-concepts-
defect-and-residue-free-castings
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4.5.3 Fusion
When the molding sand does not have enough refractoriness or the metal is poured at very high temperature or the facing sand is
of poor quality, the sand may melt and fuse with the casting surface. This makes it difficult to clean the castings and gives
them a rough glossy appearance. This kind of defects can be avoided by using sand of enough refractoriness and pouring of
liquid metal at a suitable temperature not very high. Figure below shows the flush defects. The fused material can be seen by arrow
marks and in red circle.
Fusion molding sand on the casting surface.
4.5.4 Flash
Flash is a casting defect caused due to improper compaction of molding sand along the parting line. Due to this reason, a minor
gap will exist between cope and drag, and liquid metal flew away through the gap. This will form a flash defect. Figure shows the
typical flash defects. This is simply a projected portion out of the component. This type of defects can be alleviated by leveling
molding sand properly along the parting line.
Photograph showing a typical defect of Flash.
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4.5.5 Run Out
It has been observed that in some instances molten metal leaks out of the mold during pouring and casting practices. This is
caused by the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid metals which lifts the cope due to insufficient weight on the cope. Due to this
pressure, liquid metal will flow along the parting line. Figure shows the runout defects i.e.; extra metal comes out from the parting
line. This kind of problem can be minimized by modifying the molding system by putting some weight on the cope.
(a) Showing run out defects (b) Putting weight on the cope portion
(a) Showing the run-out defects and (b) Putting loads on the cope so that cope
portion should not move up due to pressure.
Reference : https://www.backyardmetalcasting.com/defects.html
4.5.6 Lug
Lug is one of the casting defects that appears when some of the portions of the cast contour are broken off in the mold area during
the withdrawal of the pattern. i.e., the mechanical breaking of mold. Hence this kind of defects can be minimized by repairing the
mold and checking the mold before the pouring of liquid metal. Figure below shows a photograph of casting defects lug.
A photograph depicting broken edges due to broken mold corners (wheel lug)
Reference : http://www.metallurgist.com/lug-nut-failure.html
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4.5.7 Shrinkage Cavity
Shrinkage cavity is caused due to the following reasons:
• The insufficient size of riser- If the riser volume is less than shrinkage volume then shrinkage defect will arise.
• Improper position of the riser: If the riser is positioned improperly, then also shrinkage defects will form.
• Pre-mature freezing of liquid metal in the riser
• The abrupt change in casting design
The figure above depicts the typical shrinkage defects.

Reference : https://www.backyardmetalcasting.com/defects.html
The shrinkage defects can be minimized by the following techniques:
• Sufficiently large riser dimensions
• Ensure Directional Solidification
Use of Exothermic Compound /materials e.g., Ni, Co, Cu, Mn, Fe, etc.
• 4Fe2O3 + 8Al = 4 Al2O3 +8Fe + Heat (4500 0C)
• Use of insulating coatings
4.6 Casting Defects Caused by Other Factors

4.6.1 Mismatch
Mismatch is a casting defect caused due to the improper placing of cope and drag parts of the casting. This may happen due to
lose box pins, inaccurate pattern dowel pins or carelessness in placing the cope on the drag. Figure shows a typical photograph of
a mismatch of cope and drag. The upper portion i.e., Cope portion is shifted towards right.
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Photograph showing typical Mismatch defects.
4.6.2 Hot Cracking
Hot Cracking is a casting defect that occurs due to the non-uniform cooling of the casting. It may also occur during knocking out of
the casting from the mold and during the heat treatment cycle. Figure below shows a typical photograph of hot cracking.
The crack propagation is shown by arrow marks. This kind of defect occurs due to uneven cooling and differential contraction. To
minimize the hot cracking defects one should use chills, filters, and avoid rough handling.
Photograph showing hot cracking in valve casting.
Reference : http://www.iron-foundry.com/casting-defects-pictures.html https://www.ecodiecasting.com/die-casting-defects-causes-

and-troubleshooting/
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5 Inspire Cast Modules
Altair Inspire Cast Modules are Fast, Easy, Accurate & Affordable, using Altair Inspire Cast for casting simulation allows us to
quickly perform iterative improvements on our projects, reducing the time necessary to achieve an optimal casting process. This
reduction in design time is reflected in the reduction of tooling development costs.
Altair Inspire Cast was developed with its end-users in mind. We strive to make casting simulation as easy as possible by using
‘foundryman’s language’ in our software. Every word in the interface comes from the casting process world. Not only is the software
incredibly easy to use, but it is also highly accurate and powerful. Get started with Altair Inspire Cast today to further investigate
and explore your casting process with just a few clicks, it is much easier and timesaving.
Casting as a manufacturing process to make complex shapes of different materials in mass production may experience many
different defects such as shrinkage porosity, sink, cavity, and incomplete filling. A well-designed feeding system is important to
ensure better quality of castings. The design of the feeding system also involves the decision about the correct location of risers
and the number of risers to be used. Generally, the gating system controls the velocity of molten metal that affects turbulence and
flowability of casting. Solidification of metals stands as a marvel of ultimate significance for metallurgists, casting engineers and
physicists which hampers the quality of castings, material yield and cycle time. Casting defects are decreased through casting
simulation software and an intellectual feeding technique. Altair Inspire Cast is a casting simulation software which can simulate
thermal changes and heat transfer in the solidification process of a casting and much more. The simulation software offers
functions to help guide a user in producing gating and riser designs and have functions that produce visual outputs showing
possible problem areas, Microporosity, and defects which may occur in a casting. It can help shorten the lead time and reduce the
loss in the trial casting stage prior to manufacturing.
Now we will discuss simulating each casting process discussed so far using Inspire Cast
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6 Gravity Casting (GDC)
6.1 Introduction to Gravity Casting
Gravity Casting is the pouring of metals under gravity and is generally an extremely damaging process and creates defects in the
casting which limit properties and performance, but the damage can be limited to some extent by extreme care. In contrast,
counter-gravity casting has the potential to fill molds without the production of any defects. Historically problems which have
impaired success with gravity casting were analyzed and Counter-gravity is recommended as the process for the future. Gravity
casting flow covers both the kinematics of the fluid propagation in the mold geometry and assessment of the test fluid physical
properties. The mold cavity fills with no force other than gravity; the filling can be controlled by tilting the die. Undercuts and cavities
can be incorporated into the component with the use of sand cores. This process gives a better surface finish than sand casting as
well as better mechanical properties, both due to rapid solidification.
6.2 Defining Ingate Systems
The gating system refers to all those elements which are concerned with the flow of molten metal from ladle to mold basin cavity.
The various elements that come under the gating system are:
• Pouring basin/cup
• Sprue base wall
• Runner
• Runner extension
• In-gate
• Sprue well
• Down Sprue
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Pouring Basin /
Down sprue
base wall
Multiple In-
Runner
Sprue Base cup
6.3 Gravity Casting Simulation Set-Up
Altair’s Inspire Cast has five basic steps in setting up a gravity casting simulation.
• Defining ingates
• Defining the parameters
• Run Analyze
• Cast final part
Defining ingates Defining parameters Run Analyze
Components
• Core
• Chiller
• Riser
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• Sleeves
• Overflow
• Mold
• Cooler
• Filter
• Short Sleeve
• Crucible
Material
Selection
Click on the Cast part
6.4 Selection of Material
Varieties of standard materials are available in Altair Inspire Cast. The properties of these materials can be edited. Clicking the icon
material viewer, pops the material database, also using my materials one can add new customized materials.
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Customized material
6.5 Pre-Process Parameters (Components)/Basic Set-Up
Basic Setup
• Initial Velocity
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By clicking in preprocess parameter one can set the initial velocity
• Filling time
Filling Time is nothing, but the time required to cast or mold a product. The efficiency of the casting is normally affected by two
scenarios.
Slow Filling: If the velocity of the fill is very slow, it leads to cold shuts and misruns. The slow filling is avoided because of the
early freezing in thin sections before the complete filling.
Fast Filling: The fast filling is governed by the onset of surface instability. The optimal filing time lies in-between this fast & slow
filling. It also depends on the following factors like:
• Cast metal
• Weight
• Pouring temperature
• Minimum section thickness.
Gravity Process
• Constant liquid level on a sprue
• filling time
• flow rate
Other parameters
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• average thickness
• element size
• speed and accuracy
• type of analysis
Advanced
• Component Mesh factor
• Element size ( will be only for a part)
6.6 Tutorial: Brake Caliper
Brake Caliper Casting
The filling requirements of gravity casting are like those of other processes: avoid turbulence during filling and have a
homogeneous liquid advancing front. If possible, fill the component from the bottom to the top to avoid turbulence and the free fall
of liquid.
Ingate for gravity casting
Use the Add/Edit ingate option to design your virtual ingates.
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Ingate
Once you have positioned the ingates, you need to design the filling system (sprue). Inspire Cast is an excellent tool for analyzing
the sprue to prevent turbulence, which creates air bubbles that travel through the mold.
Ingate
The initial setup process for gravity casting
There are different options for setting up gravity casting in Inspire Cast:
Using Basic Parameters
• Initial Velocity: defining the velocity at the predefined ingate. In gravity casting, velocities tend to be around 0.5–1.0
m/s. If you don’t know what the velocity is at the ingate, use a similar value and then check solidification at filling
results to decide if the selected velocity is correct (no early solidification would occur).
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• Filling Time: use this option if you have calculated the exact filling time required for your process. Units must be in
seconds. Inspire Cast internally converts the filling time to velocity as input.
𝜈𝜈
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 =
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑉𝑉
• You can use the Advanced Ingate option to avoid designing ingates in CAD and save time.
Gravity Process
• Use the Gravity option for gravity sand or die casting.
• Gravity sand casting has few limits on size, shape, and weight, with low pattern and material costs.
• It is generally less accurate than die casting and has a low production rate due to the destruction of the molds.
• Gravity sand casting generally uses ferrous metals such as stainless steel, carbon steel, cast iron…
• Gravity die casting is a type of permanent mold casting generally used to produce small, simple metal parts such as
gears, pistons, and wheels.
• It is like gravity sand casting but with a permanent mold, making it a better choice for high production volumes.
• Gravity die casting generally uses non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys, although
iron and steel parts can also be cast using graphite die molds.
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• Specify Basic Parameters
o Filling Time, Spoon Height or Flow Rate
• Process Parameters Options
o Filling Time: to calculate the exact filling time required for your process. Inspire Cast internally converts the filling
time to velocity as input.
𝜈𝜈
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 =
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑉𝑉
o Spoon Height: the flow rate depends on the area defined as the ingate. You can also choose the ladle pouring height
(mm) with respect to the mold. Spoon height is the distance between the ladle and the mold when the liquid is being
poured. If you don’t know this value, use a value around 10– 30 mm.
𝑣𝑣2
𝐻𝐻 =
2𝑔𝑔
o Flow Rate: is the poured metal volume in kg divided by the filling time in seconds. This parameter can be calculated
when using an auto-pour ladle, bottom-pour ladle, or stop-and-rod ladle, etc.
Q=A ingate. V. ρ
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Example Simulation Gravity Casting of Brake Calipers
Final Design:
Technical Background:
Gravity Sand Casting Process
Sand casting is one of the most common casting processes, as it can be used to produce a variety of parts from simple gears and
pulleys to complex components such as automobile engines. The process uses an expendable sand mold to form metal parts
called castings, which can be made of nearly any alloy. The metal is melted in a furnace and then poured into the cavity of the sand
mold. Once the casting is solidified, it is removed from the sand mold. Gravity sand casting has few limits on size, shape, and
weight, with low pattern and material costs. However, it is generally less accurate than die casting.
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Step 1
• Start Inspire Cast.
• Click on New Model.
• Click on Open Model.
• Browse to and select file Exercise5-gravity.x_b
Step 2: Let’s select the Casting Part.
• Click on Cast Part.
• Select the geometry.
• Change the Casting Material to Steel and select the 14903 alloy
• Click on the Material Property viewer to see the Material Properties.
• Click on the right mouse button to exit the context and confirm the selection.
Note: Gravity Die Casting and Investment Casting processes are also available in Inspire Cast. The only difference is the mold
settings selection (Steel mold material for gravity die Casting and Shell thickness for Investment casting).
Step 3
• Click on the Gravity button to move the part with respect to its position in the mold.
• Click on the second option of the new Windows.
• Click on the bottom Surface.
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• The part will be automatically positioned with the Gravity perpendicular to the selected Surface.
Step 4
• Click on
• Click on Add/Edit Gate to create an inlet.
• Change the radius of the inlet area to 6mm.
• The inlet will automatically change to the new shape.
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Note: Inlet (gate) is the area where the material enters the component.
Step 5
• Click on the Move button.
• Click on the top arrow to pull the inlet until it reaches 8mm.
• Click and drag the rotation axis on Y-axis until 20º to tilt the inlet.
• Click on the right mouse button to exit the context and confirm.
Step 6
• the components button to open the components selection bar.
• Select the Core Component.
• Core candidate surfaces will be highlighted.
• Click on the Core Surface to automatically create the core volume and select the core material and temperature.
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Step 7
• Now Click on the Mold button from the component’s selection bar.
• Select “Green Sand” as a Mold Material and 20ºC.
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Step 8
• Click on the Basic Setup button to select to enter the simulation parameters.
• Enter 1m/s as initial velocity. This will be the velocity at the inlet during all the filling of the mold cavity.
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Step 9
• Click on Run Analysis to set up the calculation parameters.
• Select Filling Analysis.
• Enter an element size of 3mm.
• Click on the Run button to start the calculation.
Step 10
• Click on View Now to open the simulation results.
• It’s is also possible to open the simulation results once the calculation has finished by clicking on the green flag.
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Step 11
• Click on Temperature results.
• Click the Play button to start the animation
Note 1: We can observe how the liquid is falling from top to the bottom and this can result in turbulence.
Note 2: Temperature results will show temperature evolution during the filling, but it is also very useful to analyze the behavior of
the fluid entering the mold.
Note 3: Switch off the Core component in Legend Manager to view the correct colormap
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Step 12
• Filling time result.
• Click the Play button to start the animation.
Here we can also see the differences in time to fill right and left regions
Note1: Here we can also see the differences in time to fill right and left regions so let’s go back and change the inlet position to
avoid this issue.
Note2: Filling time shows the time it takes the material to reach different areas within the part, based on a color legend. Filling time
is also useful to analyze the behavior of the liquid entering the mold.
Step 13
• Click on Add/Edit Gate.
• The previously created inlet will be highlighted.
• Click on the Delete button of the keyboard to delete the inlet. Let’s create the inlet at the bottom of the geometry.
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• Click on the center of the surface shown at the right image. Inlet will be automatically created
Note: In case the inlet is not automatically highlighted, just select it manually.
Step 14
• Select Filling Analysis.
Click on the Run button to start the calculation
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Step 15
Step 16
• Click on Temperature results.
• Click the Play button to start the animation
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With Core
Without Core
Note: Now we can see how the liquid is entering the mold much more stable, the fluid rises homogeneously and without turbulence.
Step 17
• Click on Mold Erosion result.
• Set the minimum value to 0.5 m/s.
Move the arrow of the legend to better see the higher velocities.
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Mold erosion
Note 1: Using Mold Erosion, you can predict which areas will exhibit excessive mold degradation due to high velocities.
Note 2: Using Mold Erosion, we can also detect how the liquid is directly colliding the sand core because of the inlet design. To
avoid this problem, it could be a good idea to change the inlet attack.
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Step 18
• Click on the Solid Fraction result.
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Note: Using Solid Fraction, you can determine if there will be any solid areas during filling. A value of 0 corresponds to a completely
liquid material, while a value of 1 corresponds to a completely solid material. Since there are no solidified areas during the filling,
we have a margin to decrease a little bit the inlet velocity avoiding the direct collision with the sand core.
Step 19
• Click on Add/Edit Gate to modify the inlet.
• Click on Gate move tools to modify the angle of attack of the inlet.
• Rotate the inlet around X-axis 20 degrees.
• Click on the right mouse button to confirm.
Step 20
• Select Filling and Solidification Analysis.
• Click on the Run button to start the calculation.
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Step 21
Step 22
• Click on Solidification to open the Solidification result.
• Click on Solid Fraction, the percentage must be in 0.7
• Click on the Play button to start the animation.
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Note: Liquid Fraction helps you understand the solidification behavior within the part. In the animation, solidified material (above
0.7) is transparent, while liquid material (below 0.7) is shown in color. Shrinkage porosity is more likely to occur in isolated liquid
regions.
Step 23
• Click on Porosity to open the Solidification result.
• Move the Porosity percentage to 20%
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Note: This result means that blue regions have 20% of porosity (void). Increase the percentage value to see real porosity size.
Step 24
• Now, let’s create a real filling system.
• First, we’ll need to delete the previous inlet. Click on Add/Edit Gate and press the delete keyboard key.
• Open the Geometry tools.
• Inside Circles, select the button “circle by center and point”.
• Click on the Surface showed in the right image to start designing the Filling system.
• Click on Create New Part.
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Step 25
• Create a circle of diameter 18mm.
• Click on Push-button.
• Select the created circle and pull until it reaches 70mm long.
• Click on the Move button.
• Select the cylinder we have created.
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Step 26
• Click on the center of the end of the cylinder and drag the cylinder to the center of the surface where we had
previously created the ingate.
• Select the arrow and move the cylinder along Y-axis -60mm.
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Step 27
• Click on the revolve face button.
• Select the end surface of the cylinder to revolve.
• Select the line showed at the right image as the rotation axis.
• Rotate the Surface 90º.
Step 28
• Click on the circle by center and select the extreme of the created geometry.
• Select the center of the circle.
• Select the perimeter of the circle.
• Click on Push-button.
• Select the Surface Previously created.
• Pull the Surface until it reaches 170mm.
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Step 29
Once we have designed the filling system, let’s exit the geometry tools and go back to casting tools.
• Click on Casting.
• Click on the designate filling system.
• Select the geometry Previously designed.
• Click on Designate Surfaces as Gates.
• Select the top Surface of the Filling system to create the inlet.
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Step 30
• Click on Components.
• Click on Riser's button.
• Click on the region where we had problems with Porosity.
• Change the risers Modulus to 0,8 cm to increase its size.
• Repeat the same actions to create a second riser.
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Step 31
• Click on the Mold button.
• A new message will pop up to resize the old mold size. Click on Yes.
• The mold will be automatically resized.
Step 32
• Click on Basic Setup.
• Change the initial velocity to 0.5 m/s.
• Click on the Run Analysis button.
• Select both Filling and Solidification analysis and click Run.
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Step 33 Analyzing Temperature with respect to filling
• Let’s Analyze the results.
• Click on Temperatures
• Click play to start the animation.
Note:
Switch off the Core component in Legend Manager to view the correct color map.
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Step 34
• Analyzing Solid Fraction
• Click on Solid Fraction
• Click play to start the animation.
It’s important to discard that we don’t have early solidification during filling to avoid casting defects like misruns. In our case, it looks
like filling in 6 seconds, is not providing us this kind of problem and there are solidified areas during filling.
Step 35
• Click on Last Air.
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The last air is showing as most of the air inside the mold is being trapped inside the risers. Despite air trapped is not a big issue in
sand molds because its permeability, risers will also help to prevent this kind of defects in our component.
Step 36 Solid Fraction
• Click on Solid Fraction under solidification results.
• Set the percentage to 0.7%
Note: We can see how risers are feeding material to the top region during the solidification.
Step 37 Check Porosity
• Click on Porosity.
• Set the percentage to 100%
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Riser filling will be

removed to neglect
the porosity
Risers, filling system

and core will be
removed, and the part
will be free of defects.
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Analyzing porosity in percentage
20 % 60% 100%
• Porosity percentage shows areas where the ratio of voids to solid areas is greater than or equal to the specified value.
Click twice to change the percentage value.
• To remove/reduce/relocate shrinkage defects in high pressure die casting:
• Reduce the area of the critical zone to obtain a faster cooling rate.
• Place runner gates close to the critical zone.
• Enlarge the gate and/or runners to feed the critical zone.
• Add ribs to the cast walls to improve feeding.
• Increase pressure on the metal.
• Place cooling channels to cool the critical zone.
Step 38 Analyze Velocities
• Velocities represent the filling process using vectors, allowing you to detect turbulence and velocities. Click twice to
change the visualization mode and set maximum and minimum values.
• Besides using velocities during mold filling, you can use callout points to analyze the filling behavior in different areas
and to prevent turbulence due to poor design.
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Step 39 Cold Shuts
• Cold Shuts shows in colored areas where two fronts of material meet and what the temperature difference is. This
option is useful for predicting cold unions. Set the maximum and minimum values to check the differences.
• How to solve cold shuts:
• Adjust pouring metal.
• Modify the design.
• Modify the gating system.
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Step 40 Filling time
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Step 41 Analyze Pressure
• Pressure displays changes in pressure during filling (Pascals).
• Inspire Cast solvers are biphasic; that is, the pressure of the air inside the mold is computed in addition to that of the
liquid.
• You cannot plot the air pressure in Inspire Cast, open the H3D file in HyperView to visualize the air pressure.
Step 42 Analyze Niyama Criteria
• The Niyama criterion function is commonly used by foundries to detect solidification shrinkage defects.
• Click once to display the total values; however, remember that each material has a different range of critical values,
so click again to select the maximum value. In this case, for aluminum, select 0.3.
• Make sections along the geometry to analyze microporosity inside the part.
• Remember that the lower the value, the higher the possibility of microporosity. So, values close to 0 will show areas
with higher porosity.
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Niyama value under 0.3 Original Niyama value
Since microporosity results from microporosity, the best way to prevent microporosity is to eliminate solidification shrinkage.
Step 43 Analyze Mold Temperature
Mold Temperature shows temperature changes in the mold during the solidification process
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7 Low-Pressure Die-Casting (LPDC)
Low pressure die casting is a variant of the casting process also known as counter gravity filling (low velocity of injection) where
you have better control of the fluid during filling. The ingate position should be at the bottom of the part, and the material must fill
from the bottom to the top.
Low pressure die casting is a metal casting process generally used in situations that require high-quality manufacturing.
In low-pressure casting, molten aluminum is slowly drawn into a metal mold or die through a riser tube while kept under constant
and controlled pressure.
This process helps avoid oxidation, cold currents, and air inclusions, generally producing the excellent surface finish and highly
accurate dimensions.
It is much slower and therefore more costly than high pressure die casting.
Low pressure die casting steps
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Final component
Original design Inspire cast setup with best setup
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lling Requirements:
• Avoid turbulence during filling
• Homogeneous advancing front line
• Fill from the bottom to the top
7.1 Setting up of LPDC
• Select the Low-Pressure option to simulate the low pressure die casting process.
• To set up low pressure die casting, enter values for the machine pressure curve
• This is a low-pressure machine curve. In Inspire Cast, you must consider the curve for the pressure inside the
cavity.
• In this machine pressure curve, the absolute pressure (prel+1 atm) is used, but in Inspire Cast you need to enter the
relative pressure (starting from 0).
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• Then enter the distance between the free surface in the crucible and the mold (ingate).
• Distance: enter the distance between the free surface in the crucible and the mold (ingate).
Note: Enter the distance between the ingate and the free surface of the crucible.
Pressure curve values will be entered in the mbar.
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7.2 Tutorial: Wheel Rim
Step 1
• Click File/Open Exercise6-lowpressure.x_b
Step 2: Lets select the casting part
• Click on cast part
• Select Geometry
• Set the casting material as Aluminum and select the AC-42100 alloy.
• Click on the Material Property viewer to see the material properties.

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Step 3
• Click on the Gravity button to move the part with respect to its position in the mold.
• This time the part is correctly aligned with the Gravity direction so just click on the right mouse button to confirm the
current direction.
Step 4
• Click on the designate gate.
• Click on the middle of the front of the Wheel
Note: Inlet (gate) is the area where the material enters the piece.
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Step 5
• Set distance value to 600 mm and enter the pressure curve.
Note: Define the Distance from the free surface (vertical distance between the liquid free surface in the crucible and the mold
ingate).
Pressure
Time (s)
(mbar)
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0.0 140
Step 6
3.0 160
5.0 180
7.0 200
• Click on the Run Analysis button.
• Select both Filling and Solidification analysis.
• Set the element size to 5mm.
• Click on Run.
• They stalk, the sleeve, and the mold will be automatically created after the click
Step 7
• Click on Temperatures
• Click Play to start the animation
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Step 8
• Click on Solid Fraction under filling results.
• Click Play to start the animation
Note 1: 0 value represents liquid material, areas where there will be no filling issues and 1 represents solidified areas during the
filling.
Note 2: The solid fraction result shows like there are no solidified regions inside.
Step 9
• Click on Velocity under filling results.
• Click Play to start the animation.
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Note. We can observe turbulences at the union between the wheel and the stalk due to the high velocities (around 7 m/s) so based
on velocities result and since there are no problems of early solidification during the filling (as we have seen at the previous slide)
we could decide to decrease the pressures to fill slower the wheel and avoid the turbulences.
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Step 10
Note: The last air is showing as most of the air inside the mold is being trapped at the top surface. This is not a big issue because
there’s a partition line and the air will scape but probably forming a flash defect in the region.
Step 11
• Click on Cold Shuts under filling results.
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Note. Cold shuts result is showing the temperature difference between the average of two fronts and the initial temperature (inlet
temperature).
Step 12
• Click on Solid Fraction under solidification results.
• How do I analyze velocities in Inspire Cast?
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• In tilt pouring, the velocity factor is not much important compared to gravity or HPDC. Here, we can see velocity of
flow is close to 0 m/s.
Step 13 Cold Shuts
Cold Shuts shows in colored areas where two fronts of material meet and what the temperature difference is. This option is useful
for predicting cold unions. Set the maximum and minimum values to check the differences.
• Modify the gating system
Step 14 Filling Time
• Filling Time shows the time it takes the material to reach different areas within the part, according to a color legend.
• Analyzing the filling time results, you can determine if you need to modify the design of the right channel to avoid the
isolated front of liquid.
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Step 15 Solid Fraction
Solid Fraction displays areas where solidification will occur. These multicolored areas will not fill completely and are therefore prone
to a shortage of material. Based on the results, you may need to increase the pressure, increase the velocity, or reduce the filling
time to prevent shortage of material.
POROSITY
SURFACE EFECTS
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A value of 0 represents liquid material, while 1 represents solid material.
Step 16 Pressure
liquid. You cannot plot the air pressure in Inspire Cast, open the H3D file in HyperView to visualize the air pressure.
• Clamping force is the pressure the machine has to exert to keep the mold closed during the filling/solidification of the
die. Clamping force is used to estimate the machine tonnage. It can be calculated as the metal pressure
• times the projected area.
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴
*Note: Negative Pressure will appear when relative pressure is under atmospherical pressure
Step 17 Niyama Criterion
The Niyama criterion function is commonly used by foundries to detect solidification shrinkage defects. Click once to display the
total values; however, remember that each material has a different range of critical values, so click again to select the maximum
value. In this case, for aluminum, select 0.3. Make sections along the geometry to analyze microporosity inside the part.
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Remember that the lower the value, the higher the possibility of microporosity. So, values close to 0 will show areas with higher
porosity.
Niyama value under 0.3 Original Niyama Value
Note: Since microporosity results from microporosity, the best way to prevent microporosity is to eliminate solidification shrinkage.
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8 High-Pressure Die-Casting (HPDC)
High-pressure die casting uses a machine to inject molten metal into permanent metal dies under high pressure. It is a good
technique for manufacturing complex parts with a high degree of accuracy, particularly lightweight parts with thin walls that require
consistent dimensions. The high pressure is needed to fill the mold completely and avoid solidification during the casting process.
High-pressure die casting utilizes two distinct velocities. The molten metal is first pushed at a low velocity (1st velocity) in order to
avoid turbulence and the formation of bubbles. Just before the material enters the mold, the velocity increases (2nd velocity) and the
molten metal is injected very quickly into the die assembly to fill it completely.
• Filling behavior is very important in high-pressure die casting.
• A homogeneous front line is crucial to obtaining a cast component that is free of defects.
• Moving air from one side to the other is the main concern if you want to avoid front collisions, which will cause
turbulence and air inclusions in the part.
Filling requirements:
• Move air to a specific location
Use the Advanced Ingate option to design your virtual ingates and avoid designing ingates in CAD and save time.
The ingate will be positioned perpendicular to the selected point, and it will be projected over the curved surface after meshing.
• An overflow is commonly placed at a location of trapped air.
• Overflows are cavities in the die, which act as vents for air to escape and traps for excess metal flow.
• Using the simulation results, you can predict where to place the overflows to prevent porosity.
Overflows
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• Once you position the ingates, you need to design the filling system (runner).
• Inspire Cast is an excellent tool for analyzing the runner to prevent turbulence, which creates air bubbles that travel
through the mold.
• In Inspire Cast, you can optimize the runner design.
• Using the Velocity Vectors option, you can analyze filling patterns, velocities, and the time it takes the liquid to
reach the part.
• Use these simulation results to redesign the runner.
Filling requirements:
• Fluid must reach the ingates at the same time.
• Avoid turbulence when filling the runner.
• Avoid low/high velocities at the ingate.
When setting up high-pressure die casting in Inspire Cast, three scenarios are possible:
• Part + runner
• Part only
• Part + half of the runner
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8.1 Setting up of HPDC
Original Inspire Design Final Design without defects
Process Parameters Options
• By point
• Initial Velocity: enter values in meters per second. Typical values for Initial Velocity are 0.2 – 0.5 m/s.
• Second Phase Velocity: enter values in meters per second. Typical values for Second Phase Velocity are 2.0 – 5.0
m/s.
• Phase Change Point: click Select to designate. Click any point on the filling system to specify where the initial velocity
changes to the second phase velocity.
Note: Make sure to set the phase point for the second velocity before the material arrives at the casting part.
• By time: define the piston velocity profile. You can enter values in the table or edit the points on the graph. Use the
buttons below the table to add a new row after a selected data point, add a new row after the last
data point, or delete a selected row. Time is in seconds and velocity in meters per second.
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8.2 Tutorial: Wash Basin
Step 1
• Click on Open Model Exercise7HPDC.x_b
Step 2
• Select Length units (mm) from the right bottom corner.
• Click on Cast Part to designate the casting part.
• Define Cast Material (Aluminum AC-42100) and Temperature (718°C)
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Step 3: The next step is to define the gravity direction for the casting.
• Define Casting Gravity.
• Modify direction according to user requirements.
Step 4
• Click the Add/Edit Gate icon to provide ingate.
• Select pre-existing ingate or select surface to generate one.
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• Set the size and shape of ingate
Step 5
• The Mold icon in the Component process setup to generate mold.
• Define Mold Material and Temperature as shown in the picture
Note: User can also add or designate other components as shown
Step 6
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• Under the Casting setup icon selects Basic Setup.
• Select Initial velocity or Filling time.
Step 7
For Analysis, User can select Filling/ Solidification or Both at the same time.
• Here, Element Size needs to be defined before going for analysis. This function creates meshing for geometry.
• Click Run.
• Once the simulation calculation Will is finished, Green flag Will appear on analyzing icon.
• Users can also select results by clicking the view button.
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Step 8
• Using analysis explorer, user can Access different type of results for both filling and solidification stage.
• By Clicking the Play button, we can start the animation of the process.
*Note: User can modify the value of min and max temperature within range to see different values at various points.
Step 9
• Let’s change the minimum temperature to 680 and 700o C in our design and observe the flow behavior.
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Note: We can observe that due to design or gating system flow front is different at various places. In some area’s fluid cools down
earlier than other spots. This can end up causing some casting defects. Our next objective is to redesign the part and gating
system to avoid this kind of situation.
Step 10
• In the previous design, star-shaped fines on the top of the model were designed such a way that during the filling
process it was causing turbulence inflow front.
In the latest design, this shape was oriented with some angle which can possibly avoid problems associated with previous flow
simulation. As well as gate was also redesigned
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Note: Design of part and gating before. Note: Design of part and gating after.
Step 11
• Performing the same steps to analyze the modified model.
• Simulation results are shown below:
• The next step is to check the air entrapped and porosity.
• From the result, we can observe the defects of last air trapped inside the final product.
• To overcome this problem, a more advanced gating system and overflow vents were introduced.
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Note: We can observe that in our modified design flow front and temperature distribution is significantly steady.
Step 12 Run analysis and prevent typical casting defects for the high pressure die casting process
• Click on Cast part to designate the casting part.
• Define cast material (Aluminum AC-42100) and temperature (718°C).
Step 13: The next step is to define the gravity direction for the casting.
• Define casting gravity.
• Modify direction according to user requirements.
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Step 14
• The select filling system as shown in the picture.
• Click and designate the surface as a gate.
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Step 15
• Define mold material and temperature as shown in the picture.
• Define overflows as additional components.
• Click the Mold icon in the Component process setup to generate mold.
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Step 16
• Under Casting setup icon select High-Pressure Die casting
• Select High-Pressure Die Casting Parameters.
Step 17
• For Analysis, User can select Filling/ Solidification or Both at the same time.
• Here, Element size needs to be defined before going for analysis. This function creates meshing for geometry.
• Click Run.
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Step 18
• Using analysis explorer, user can Access different type of results for both filling and solidification stage.
Note: User can modify the value of min and max temperature within range to see different values at various points.
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Step 19
• Let’s check for one casting defect and Click Last Air.
Note 1: The Last Air option shows you where the air will become trapped against the walls during the filling process in an instant
view. To solve this issue, increase the ingate's angle of attack.
Note 2: As we can see with compare to previous design, air trapped inside casting is almost negligible while there is some air in
the vent system and filling system.
Note 3: User can obtain the desired result and can also analyze different result types to overcome the defects as necessary.
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Step 20 Analyze Velocities
• Besides using velocities during mold filling, you can use callout points to analyze the filling behavior in different areas
and to prevent turbulence due to poor design.
Step 21 Analyze Cold Shuts
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Step 22 Analyze Filling Time
• Analyzing the filling time results, you can determine if you need to modify the design of the right channel to avoid
the isolated front of liquid.
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Step 23 Analyze Solid Fraction
Solid Fraction displays areas where solidification will occur. These multicolored areas will not fill completely and are therefore
prone to a shortage of material. Based on the results, you may need to increase the pressure, increase the velocity, or reduce the
filling time to prevent shortage of material.
Step 24 Analyzing Pressure
• Pressure displays changes in pressure during filling (mbar).
die. Clamping force is used to estimate the machine tonnage. It can be calculated as the metal pressure times the
projected area.
F=PxA
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-0.1
Note: Negative pressure will appear when relative pressure is under atmospherical
Pressure
• Temperature shows changes in temperature during the solidification process. Set the maximum and minimum
temperatures to check the differences at various points.
• If the filling was calculated previously, solidification temperatures will start with the last temperatures of the filling. If
not, it will start at a constant temperature.
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Step 25 Analyze Liquid Fraction
• Liquid Fraction displays the last areas to solidify (liquid material) in red so you can predict shrinkage porosity.
• Click twice to change the solid fraction value, which is set to 0.7 by default (in most cases, this corresponds to the
value at which the liquid stops flowing). In the animation, solidified material (above 0.7) is transparent, while liquid
material (below 0.7) is shown in red. Shrinkage porosity is more likely to occur in isolated red areas.
• Liquid Fraction is useful for analyzing the behavior of the liquid during solidification. Unlike in gravity casting,
overflows and runners won’t feed the part during solidification because of the thin ingate sections.
• Liquid Fraction and Mold Temperature results will provide you with valuable information to help you design cooling
channels.
Step 26 Analyze Porosity Percentage
• Porosity % shows areas where the ratio of voids to solid areas is greater than or equal to the specified value. Click
twice to change the percentage value.
• To remove/reduce/relocate shrinkage defects in high pressure die casting:
• Reduce the area of the critical zone to obtain a faster cooling rate.
• Place runner gates close to the critical zone.
• Enlarge the gate and/or runners to feed the critical zone.
• Add ribs to the cast walls to improve feeding.
• Increase pressure on the metal.
• Place cooling channels to cool the critical zone.
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20% Porosity 60% Porosity 100% Porosity
Step 27 Analyzing Niyama Criteria
Original Niyama Niyama value under 0.3
*Since microporosity results from microporosity, the best way to prevent microporosity is to eliminate solidification shrinkage
• The Niyama criterion function is commonly used by foundries to detect solidification shrinkage defects.
• Click once to display the total values; however, remember that each material has a different range of critical values,
so click again to select the maximum value. In this case, for aluminum, select 0.3.
• Make sections along the geometry to analyze microporosity inside the part.
• Remember that the lower the value, the higher the possibility of microporosity. So, values close to 0 will show areas
with higher porosity.
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Step 28 Analyze Mold Temperature
• Mold Temperature shows temperature changes in the mold during the solidification process.
• Mold temperature, liquid fraction, and porosity can be used to determine where to place cooling channels to cool
down a particular region.
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9 Investment Casting
9.1 Introduction to Investment Casting
The “investment” in investment casting refers to the process of coating the wax pattern in a ceramic slurry. “Investing” is any
process in which an object is dipped into liquid, and a layer of the liquid attaches itself to the object.
• Investment casting is an industrial process based on Lost wax- casting, Today, more advanced waxes, refractory
materials, and specialist alloys are typically used for making patterns. Investment casting is valued for its ability to
produce components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility, and integrity in a variety of metals and high-performance
alloys.
• Much of the wax used in investment casting can be reclaimed and reused. Investment casting derives its name from
the pattern being surrounded by a refractory material. The material is poured into a cavity in a refractory material that
is an exact duplicate of the desired part. Due to the hardness of refractory materials used, investment casting can
produce products with exceptional surface qualities, which can reduce the need for secondary machine processes.
• The process can be used for both small castings of a few ounces and large castings weighing several hundred
pounds. Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with other casting
methods. It can also produce products with exceptional surface qualities and low tolerances with minimal surface
finishing or machining required.
To choose the ingate position in investment casting, use the same criteria as for gravity casting.
Filling Requirements:
• Needs the proper gating system
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9.2 Tutorial: Brake Caliper
130
Step 1
• Click on New Model
• Click on Open Model Exercise8-investment.x_b
Step 2
• Select Cast Material (Aluminum A356) and Temperature (718°C) in the dropdown box.
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Step 3: The next step to define gravity direction for the casting.
• Click on the Gravity icon and Define Casting Gravity.
• User can modify direction by using geometry box
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Step 4
• Click to designate the Filling system.
• Click the add/edit Gate icon to provide ingate.
• Select pre-existing ingate or select surface to generate one or Set size and shape of ingate.
133
Step 5
• Under Casting, setup icon selects Gravity setup casting.
• Select Filling time. Provide Investment Casting setup parameters.
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Note: We do not require mold as we use shell made of sand coating for the investment process.
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Step 6
• Click Run.
• Users can also select Result by clicking the view button.
Step 7
• Using analysis explorer, user can Access different type of results for both the Filling and Solidification stage.
Note: User can modify the value of min and max temperature within range to see different values at various points.
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Step 8
• Click Porosity to observe the defects position and cause in our design.
• The most common investment casting processes are lost wax and lost foam.
• In Inspire Cast, you can simulate the lost wax process once the wax has been removed from the mold (pouring the
liquid in the shell cavity).
Since the mold is destroyed during the process, parts with complex geometries and intricate details can be created in investment
casting.
Investment Casting without Investment casting using inspire

inspire cast cast
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Step 9 Analyzing Velocity
Velocities represent the filling process using vectors, allowing you to detect turbulence and velocities. Click twice to change the
visualization mode and set maximum and minimum values.
Filling Time shows the time it takes the material to reach different areas within the part, according to a color legend.
Analyzing the filling time results, you can determine if you need to modify the design of the component to avoid the isolated front of
liquid.
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Step 11 Analyzing Solid Fraction
Solid Fraction displays areas where solidification will occur. These multicolored areas will not fill completely and are therefore
prone to a shortage of material. Based on the results, you may need to increase the pressure, increase the velocity, or reduce the
filling time to prevent shortage of material.
A value of 0 represents liquid material, while 1 represents solid material
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Step 12 Analyze Pressure
Pressure displays changes in pressure during filling (Pascals).
- 25.55 mbar
Negative Pressure will appear when relative Pressure is under atmospherical Pressure
Step 13 Analyze Niyama Criterion
The Niyama criterion function is commonly used by foundries to detect solidification shrinkage defects. Click once to display the
total values; however, remember that each material has a different range of critical values, so click again to select the maximum
value. In this case, for aluminum, select 0.3. Make sections along the geometry to analyze microporosity inside the part. Remember
that the lower the value, the higher the possibility of microporosity.
140
So, values close to 0 will show areas with higher porosity.
Since microporosity results from microporosity, the best way to prevent microporosity is to eliminate solidification shrinkage.
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10 Gravity Tilt Pouring
10.1 Introducing to Tilt Pouring
Gravity tilt pouring is another permanent mold process where the mold starts horizontal and is gradually tilted into a vertical position
during the filling process, so it is filled in a controlled manner, with low turbulence and a moderate flow rate.
This technique compensates for the effect of free fall at the beginning of the pouring process and helps to avoid air inclusions.
Initial Position
Final Position
• Gravity tilt pouring is a variant of the gravity process where you have better control of the fluid during filling.
• In gravity tilt pouring, a holding cup is commonly used, where the metal is poured while the mold is horizontal. To
select the ingate, just select the surfaces where the liquid enters the mold.
Red indicates the ingate location Holding cup
To simulate gravity tilt pouring, you need to enter a Rotation time, which is equal to the Filling time. The final position is the actual
position of the casting (0º). The Initial position will vary between 90º to 0º.
• To define the rotation, first select the global axis by clicking X, Y, or Z.
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• Click the Rotation Point button and pick a point on the geometry.
Note: Rotation will follow the XYZ coordinate axis order; if you select Y as the axis of rotation, then the rotation will turn Z over X; if
you select Z, then X will rotate over Y.
• Gravity Tilt filling known as tilt casting is an exceptional filling technique where the crucible is attached to the gating
system and both are slowly rotated so that the metal enters the mold cavity with little turbulence.
• The goal is to reduce porosity and inclusions by limiting turbulence. For most uses tilt filling is not feasible because
the following inherent problem: if the system is rotated slow enough to not induce turbulence, the front of the metal
stream begins to solidify, which results in misruns.
• If the system is rotated faster it induces turbulence, which defeats the purpose.
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Pouring
Primary position Finished Pour
Original
Design
Inspire Cast Setup Final Component
with Best Setup!
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10.2 Tutorial: Gear Housing
Step 1
• Click on Open Model Exercise9-TiltPour.x_b
Step 2
Select Cast Material (Aluminum A356) and Temperature (718°C) in the dropdown box.
Length units
Step 3: The next step is to define gravity direction for the casting.
• Click on the Gravity icon and Define Casting Gravity.
• User can modify direction by using geometry box
• According to user requirements.
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Step 4
• Click the Add/Edit Gate icon to provide ingate.
• Select pre-existing ingate or select surface to generate one
• Or Set the size and shape of ingate.
Step 5
• Click on the drop-down box for various material types and define mold material and temperature as shown in the
picture.
• Click the Mold icon in the Component process setup to generate mold.
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Note: User can also add or designate other components as shown
Step 6
• Under Casting, setup icon selects Gravity setup casting.
• Select Filling time. Select tilt pouring and specify rotation axis, rotation point, and angle with respect to rotation time.
Filling Time (s) - Select this option if you have calculated the exact filling time required for your process. Units must be in seconds.
The flow rate will be calculated automatically based on the defined ingate.
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𝑣𝑣
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ∗ 𝜈𝜈
Spoon Height - Use this option when you have totally manual ladle operators. The flow rate depends on the area defined as the
ingate. You can also choose the ladle pouring height (mm) with respect to the mold. Spoon height is the distance between the ladle
and the mold when the liquid is being poured. If you don’t know this value, use a value around 10–30 mm. Inspire cast internally
calculates the velocity based on the spoon height.
𝜈𝜈2
𝐻𝐻 =
2𝑔𝑔
Flow Rate - The flow rate is the poured metal volume in kg divided by the filling time in seconds. This parameter can be calculated
when using an auto pour ladle, bottom pours ladle, or stop and rod ladle, etc.
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃
Time v s angle curve
• Rotation axis: in this simulation our rotation axis is X.
• Rotation Point: rotation Point is shown in the figure.
• Rotation Table: enter a time vs angle curve. To set a positive or negative angle, check the sense of rotation from the
final position to the original position following the right-hand rule to determine the sign.
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Rotation Point
0°
+90°
Step 7
• Click Run.
• Users can also select results by clicking the view button.
Step 8
• Using analysis explorer, user can Access different type of results for both filling and Solidification stage.
* Note: User can modify the value of min and max temperature within range to see different values at various points.
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Step 9 Analyze Porosity
• Click Porosity to observe the position of this defects and cause in our design.
20 % Porosity
60 % Porosity
90 % Porosity
Step 10 Analyze Velocity
• In tilt pouring, the velocity factor is not much important compared to gravity or HPDC. Here, we can see velocity of
flow is close to 0 m/s.
150
Step 11 Analyze Cold Shuts
• Analyzing the filling time results, you can determine if you need to modify the design of the component to avoid the
isolated front of liquid.
151
The minimum value is set to 0.02 second to better analyze the filling difference of the part.
Step 13 Analyze Solid Fraction
High velocity Porosity
Surface Defects
Low velocity
• Solid Fraction displays areas where solidification will occur. These multicolored areas will not fill completely and are
therefore prone to a shortage of material. Based on the results, you may need to increase the pressure, increase the
velocity, or reduce the filling time to prevent shortage of material.
A value of 0 represents liquid material, while 1 represents solid material.
152
Step 14 Analyzing Pressure
die. Clamping force is used to estimate the machine tonnage. It can be calculated as the metal pressure times the
projected area.
Negative Pressure will appear when relative pressure is under atmospherical pressure
Step 15 Analyze Temperature during Solidification
153
Temperature shows changes in temperature during the solidification process. Set the maximum and minimum temperatures to
check the differences at various points.
• If the filling was calculated previously, solidification temperatures will start with the last temperatures of the filling. If
not, it will start at a constant temperature.
Step 16 Analyze Niyama Criteria
• The Niyama criterion function is commonly used by foundries to detect solidification shrinkage defects. Click once to
display the total values; however, remember that each material has a different range of critical values, so click again to
select the maximum value.
• In this case, for aluminum, select 0.3. Make sections along the geometry to analyze microporosity inside the part.
Remember that the lower the value, the higher the possibility of microporosity.
• So, values close to 0 will show areas with higher porosity.
Original Niyama value
Niyama value under 0.3
154
Step 17 Analyzing Mold Temperature
Mold Temperature shows temperature changes in the mold during the solidification process.
Mold Temperature shows temperature changes in the mold during the filling process.
155
11 Get Certified
Provided you carefully studied this guide you should be able to pass our Inspire Certification course:
https://certification.altairuniversity.com/course/index.php?categoryid=23
You will be required to score 80% of the total marks in each quiz, to complete the Examination and receive the certificate, also note
that you are allowed only 3 attempts in each quiz, so if unsuccessful in your first attempt, you should review the learning course or
this study guide again, read the questions more carefully and try do better in the next two attempts, your highest score among all 3
attempts will be considered and if the score is below 80% in all three attempts you cannot complete the examination.
In case this happens please send a mail to [email protected] asking to reset your attempts.
The examination consists of different kind of questions only. Some questions are rather easy to answer,
others are more challenging
or drag and drop the correct word (answer) into the respective blank field.
And finally – please let us know whether this guide helped you. Send a quick note to
[email protected]
THANK YOU very much for your feedback
Your Altair University Team
156
12 Appendix A
Learn Casting and Solidification with Altair Inspire Cast
Powerful and Accurate Casting Simulation without the Complexity
By Sourav Das
157
A 1. Set-Up
Steps
Setup Toolbar
With the Setup Toolbar, you can create different Cast Part, Gate, and Components.
Cast Part - Designate Casting Part
Designate Casting Part
• Select the casting parts and define the material, alloy, and temperature.
• Use the micro dialog options to define the material, alloy, and temperature.
• Micro Dialog Options:
158
• Material Viewer to examine the material's Thermal, Phase-Change, and Fluid properties.
• Material Select from common ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
• Alloy Select from common alloys of the chosen material
• Temperature Enter the temperature of the material.
• Material Viewer:
• Select a material and an alloy for the casting parts and examine its Thermal, Phase-Change, and Fluid
properties.
• Thermal Property:
• Density: the mass divided by the volume (kg/m3).
• Specific Heat: the heat energy required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity (J/kg·K).
• Conductivity: the material's ability to conduct heat (W/m·K).
• Environment HTC: The Heat Transfer Coefficient with the environment (W/m2·K).
• Phase-Change:
• Latent Heat: the amount of energy in the form of heat release (J/kg).
• Liquidus Temp: the temperature above which the material is completely liquid (ºC).
• Solidus Temp: the temperature below which the material is completely solid (ºC).
• Solid Fraction: the graph shows the thermal evolution of the alloy during solidification.
• Fluid:
• Dynamic Viscosity: the graph represents the resistance of the fluid to deformation (Pa ·s)
Designate the Filling System
• Select the runners through which the molten metal flows to enter the mold cavity.
Cast Part - Set Gravity Direction
Orient the model with respect to the direction of gravity (the z-axis) in order to control the flow of the liquid as it enters the mold and
solidifies.
Micro dialog Options
Rotate the model, align the normal of a surface to the direction of gravity, or flip the model vertically.
• Rotate: Rotate the model.
159
• Align: select a surface to align its normal to the direction of gravity (negative z-axis).
• Flip: Flip the model vertically along the direction of gravity (negative z-axis).
Gate
• Identify predesigned gates or create and edit virtual gates.
• A gate, or ingate, is an inlet where the molten metal enters the mold. A well-designed gating system is crucial for
delivering smoothly flowing material and minimizing turbulence.
160
Designate Surfaces as Gates
Identify any gates you've already designed in a CAD tool.
Add/Edit Gate
• If you haven't designed any gates in a CAD tool, you can create and edit virtual gates in Inspire Cast.
• Use the micro dialog options to define the shape, size, and position of the gate:
• For a Rectangular gate, define the Height and Width.
• For a Circular gate, define the Radius.
• Click to use the Move tool.
Component cores
• A core is used to create the interior shape of a model. It is commonly used in sand casting, but it can also be
used in other processes.
• The core is placed into the mold cavity so that when the material is poured, it displaces the pouring metal.
After solidification, the core is removed, revealing the void.
161
• Core - Designate Components
• Identify any cores you've already designed in a CAD tool.
• Add/Edit Core
• If you haven't designed any cores in a CAD tool, you can create and edit virtual cores to Inspire Cast.
• Micro dialog Options
• Material Viewer: to examine the material's Thermal and HTC properties.
• Material: Select the type of sand.
• Temperature: Enter the temperature of the material.
Core creation Select material and temperature Core created
162
A 2. Geometry Modifications
Geometry Setup
• Designs with complex geometry, tight dimensional tolerances, and thin sections tend to require more costly
processes.
• Designs with tight tolerances and minimal draft may require special molding processes.
Modify
Create
Runners, Risers, Overflows, Coolers
163
Geometry information:
• Inspire Cast supports several format files (Parasolid, Step, Catia, Solidworks, ProE, etc.)
• You will find inside the geometry menu several tools to work with in case you need to create or modify your
geometry.
• If the model contains runners, risers, overflows, coolers, they can be imported or created in Inspire Cast.
(a.) File Format
(b) Geometry Creation /Modification
164
• With the Create Toolbar, one can create points, lines, rectangles, circles, and arcs in different ways. We
can patch holes and generate PolyNURBS entities.
Dropdown Contents
Points/Lines Rectangles Circles
• Create Point . • Create Rectangle by • Create Circle by 2

• Create Line . Corners. Diametric Points.
• Create • Create Rectangle by • Create Circle by
Polyline . Center and Corner. Center and Point.
• Create Rectangle by 3 • Create Circle by 3
Points. Points.
165
A
• Create Arc Tangent to End .
• Create Arc by Center and Ends .
• Create Arc by 3 Points .
Trim/Break
• Cut part of the sketch (Trim ).

• Divide your sketch in simpler elements
Trim
Break
(c) Point line (Create and Edit)
Sketch a Point or Line - Sketch, edit, and extrude a point, line, or polyline.
• Geometry ribbon > Create group > Points/Lines tools
• Designate the sketch plane and enter sketch mode:
• If there is already geometry, click a face.
166
• If there is no geometry, you don't need to do anything. The global xy plane is designated as the sketch
plane and you automatically enter sketch mode.
• Optional: Click Create New Part to place the point, line, or polyline into a new part.
• Right-click to exit sketch mode and enter sketch editing mode.
Alternative Shortcut Keys
Action Button
Constrain line to one direction
Enter sketch mode Double click
Enter sketch editing mode
or ESC
Exit tool
Point
• Click
• Use snap points to create a point at a predefined point on your models such as an end, middle, center, or
intersection point.
167
Lines
• Click twice. You can resize the line by entering a length.
• Use snap points to draw a line that is perpendicular or tangent to another line, and snap to predefined
points on your model such as end, middle, center, and intersection points.
Polyline
• Click to create each point of the polyline. Right-click or double-click to end the polyline. You can resize a
line segment by entering a length.
• Use snap points to draw polyline segments that are perpendicular or tangent to other lines, and snap to
predefined points on your model such as end, middle, center, and intersection points.
• First, you need to be in sketch editing mode:
• If a sketch tool is active, right-click.
• If a sketch tool isn't active, double-click a face or sketch curve.
• Choose from the following options:
• Reposition the point or line Drag the point or line
• Resize the line Click the line, and then enter a length. Drag an endpoint
168
• Apply a sketch constraint to the line Right-click the line, and then select a sketch constraint on the context
menu.
• Right-click to exit sketch editing mode and enter push/pull mode.
Note:
• If you sketched the curve on a face, the curve is imprinted onto the face and can no longer be edited when
you exit sketch editing mode.
• If you sketched a curve that doesn't touch a face, faces are created from any closed loops in the sketch.
You can still edit the curve by double clicking a face.
Rectangle Create /Edit
Sketch a Rectangle - Sketch a rectangle by defining two opposite corners, three points, or the center and a corner.
• Geometry ribbon > Create group > Rectangle tools
• Designate the sketch plane and enter sketch mode:
• If there is no geometry, you don't need to do anything. The global xy plane is designated as the sketch
plane and you automatically enter sketch mode.
How to Create Rectangle
• Rectangle by Corners
• Click to define one corner, and then click again to define the opposite corner. You can resize the rectangle by
entering a length and a width.
• Use snap points to draw a rectangle that is perpendicular or tangent to other lines, and snap to predefined
169
• Rectangle by 3 Pts
• Click twice to define one side, and then click a third time to define the opposite side. You can resize the
rectangle by
o entering a length and a width.
points on your
o model such as end, middle, center, and intersection points.
• Rectangle by Center and Corner
• Click to define the center, and then click again define a corner. You can resize the rectangle by entering a
length and a width.
Rectangle - Edit
• Reposition the rectangle Box select the rectangle and drag it.
170
• Reposition a side Drag the side
• Resize the rectangle Click aside and enter a value.
• Apply a sketch constraint to the rectangle Right-click the rectangle, and then select a sketch constraint on
the context menu.
Right-click to exit sketch editing mode and enter push/pull mode.
* Note: If you sketched the curve on a face, the curve is imprinted onto the face and can no longer be edited when
o you exit sketch editing mode.
o If you sketched a curve that doesn't touch a face, faces are created from any closed loops in the sketch.
o You can still edit the curve by double-clicking.
Circle – Create /Edit
Sketch a Circle - Sketch a circle by defining three points, two diametric points, or the center and a point.
• Geometry ribbon > Create group > Circle tools • Designate the sketch plane and enter sketch mode:
• If there is no geometry, you don't need to do anything. The global xy plane is designated as the sketch plane and
you automatically enter sketch mode.
Circle -Create
Circle by 2 Diametric Pts
• Click twice to define the diameter. You can resize the circle by entering a diameter.
• Use snap points to draw a circle that snaps to predefined points on your model such as end, middle, center, and
intersection points.
171
Circle by 3 Pts
• Click three times. You can resize the circle by entering a diameter.
Circle by Center and Corner
• Click to define the center, then click again define the radius. You can resize the circle by entering a diameter.
Circle -Edit
172
• Reposition the circle drag the center point
• Resize the rectangle Click the circle, and then enter a diameter
• Apply a sketch constraint to the circle  Right-click the circle, and then select a sketch constraint on the context
menu.
Right-click to exit sketch editing mode and enter push/pull mode.
Note:
• If you sketched the curve on a face, the curve is imprinted onto the face and can no longer be edited when you exit
sketch editing mode.
• If you sketched a curve that doesn't touch a face, faces are created from any closed loops in the sketch. You can still
edit the curve by double clicking a face.
Arc- Create/Edit
Sketch an Arc - Sketch an arc by defining three points, tangency points and an endpoint, or the center and endpoints.
• Geometry ribbon > Create group > Arc tools • Designate the sketch plane and enter sketch mode:
• If there is no geometry, you don't need to do anything. The global xy plane is designated as the sketch plane and
you automatically enter sketch mode.
173
Keyboard shortcuts:
Action Button
Place points Click
Edit Rectangle\ Circles \ Arc Click while in sketch editing mode
Enter sketch mode Double-click geometry
or Esc
Exit tool
Arc – Create
• Arc Tangent to End
• Click near an endpoint of a curve, and then click again to define the arc. You can resize the arc by entering a radius
or an angle.
• Use snap points to draw an arc that is perpendicular or tangent to other lines, and snap to predefined points on your
model such as end, middle, center, and intersection points.
174
Arc by 3 Pts
• Click to define the center of the arc length, and then click a second and third time define the endpoints. You can
resize the arc by entering a radius or an angle.
• Use snap points to draw an arc that is perpendicular or tangent to other lines, and snap to predefined points on your
model such as end, middle, center, and intersection points.
Arc by Center and Corner
• Click to define the center of the circle that the arc is a part of, and then click a second and third time to define the
endpoints. You can resize the arc by entering a radius or an angle. Use snap points to draw an arc that is
perpendicular or tangent to other lines, and snap
• to predefined points on your model such as end, middle, center, and intersection points.
Arc - Edit
175
• Reposition the arc Drag the center point
• Resize the arc Click the arc, and then enter a diameter
• Apply a sketch constraint to the arc Right-click the arc, and then select a sketch constraint on the context menu.
• Right-click to exit sketch editing mode and enter push/pull mode.
Note:
• If you sketched the curve on a face, the curve is imprinted onto the face and can no longer be edited when you exit
sketch editing mode.
• If you sketched a curve that doesn't touch a face, faces are created from any closed loops in the sketch. You can still
edit the curve by double clicking a face.
Trim / Break
• Trim - Remove a segment of a sketch curve.
• On the Geometry ribbon, in the Create group, in the Trim/Break tool group, click the Trim tool.
• Do one of the following:
176
To trim a segment, click it
• To trim multiple segments simultaneously, use box selection.
177
Break - Break a segment of a sketch curve.
• On the Geometry ribbon, in the Create group, in the Trim/Break tool group, click the Break tool.
• Click a segment: Endpoints are placed at the breaks.
• Optional: To detach the segment from the sketched curve, drag it.
Action Button
Select or remove the segment Click
Detach and move a cut segment + + drag
Copy a cut segment

+ drag
Enter sketch mode Double-click geometry

Esc
178
Sketch Location
The sketch can be done in any XYZ plane, or in the planar faces of solid geometry already done.
While sketching, 6 additional buttons are available:
Create New Part:
• allows you to create a new part before you start sketching. Any sketching curves will be imprinted onto the current
part before the new one is created.
Transfer Sketch:
• allows you to move your current sketch to a new part.
Convert Reference Lines to Sketch:
• allows you to create sketch curves from reference geometry.
Create a New Sketch Plane:
allows you to create a new sketch plane by selecting a new face.
179
Move Plane:
• allows you to move the sketch plane by opening the Move tool.
Sketching Options:
• allows you to modify your grid and snap settings.
Sketch Constraints
In sketch mode, right-click a curve or the connecting point between curves, and then select a constraint on the context menu.
• Fixed Constrain a sketch point, line, or curve so that it maintains a fixed position relative to adjacent sketch curves.
(The object itself is not fixed in 3D space. You can still move it by dragging.)Points, lines, circles, and arcs can all be
fixed. The edges of rectangles are separate entities and can be fixed independently.
• Horizontal Position line segments horizontally with respect to the sketch plane.
• Vertical Position line segments vertically with respect to the sketch plane.
• Collinear Align two or more-line segments.
• Parallel Position two-line segments so they are parallel.
• Perpendicular Position two-line segments so they are perpendicular.
• Targent Position a line segment so that it is tangent to an arc.
• Concentric Align two or more circles so they are concentric.
Patch Tool
• Used to fill in missing surfaces in order to create a solid. Also allows to remove and remake bad or problematic
surfaces
180
Note: To change the continuity of the patch where it meets an adjacent surface, click on the edge. The continuity will toggle
between linear and tangent.
Patch
PolyNURBS
PolyNURBS - PolyNURBS allows you to quickly create free-form solid geometry that is smooth and continuous.
• A PolyNURBS object represents geometry as a NURBS surface surrounded by a transparent, quad-only, polymesh
cage. The shape of the PolyNURBS object is the result of the modifications made to the cage, which can be
manipulated using the cage's faces, edges, and vertices.
• You can create PolyNURBS parts using the PolyNURBS tool and sub tools on the Geometry ribbon.
• Create
• Wrap
• Fit
• Add\Remove blocks to the cage
• Split
181
• Bridge
• Sharpen
Modify Toolbar
With the Modify Toolbar you can push/pull faces, reflect and scale parts, do Boolean operations, cut solids, simplify parts, extract
mid surface, create fillets and chamfer edges.
Push /Pull
This utility can be used to modify faces, curves or radius.
Click and drag a selected face/curve/radius in the direction of the desired location.
Manually input the displacement values is allowed too.
Reference point or base of the push/pull operation can be dragged or modified with respect to another feature.
Revolve a planar face around an edge/line/cylindrical hole is also allowed.
182
Revolve Face
This utility can be used to revolve faces, curves or radii. Click and drag a select d face/curve/radius in the direction of the desired
location.
To designate the rotation axis, click an edge, line, or cylindrical hole. Selecting an edge on another part projects the axis of
revolution to the planar face that will be rotated.
Choose from the following options:
• Drag the face, line, or 2D edge.
• Drag the white arrow on the compass.
• Enter an angle in the micro dialogue.
183
Action Button
Activate the Push/Pull tool P or double click
Make the object a new part
or
Exit tool Esc
Note
• To create a new part, hold down Shift or Ctrl while dragging.
• To reposition the axis of revolution using the Move tool, click in the micro dialogue.
• Drag the rotation arrow by its midpoint to snap points. Clicking elsewhere on the rotation arrow will temporarily
disable snapping.
• Selecting a face from a 2D sheet automatically revolves the face a full 360 degrees. Once you drag the face, the
only way to get back to a full 360 degrees is to change the angle.
184
Move Faces
The Move Faces tool works the same way as the Move Tool but is used to translate and rotate holes, pockets, and surface
features. You can also use it to copy features by holding down the CTRL key while dragging to copy features. Features can be
extended by selecting the surface(s) and dragging them. It does not work on edges.
The tool uses a graphic manipulator to drag features to new
Manipulators can be selected to enter a value

into the field for the movement.
Move Faces – Keyboard Shortcuts Mirror and Scale Tools
185
Mirror
• Reflect selected parts across a symmetry plane.
• Instances are allowed.
Scale
Action Button
Temporarily disable snapping
Add to or remove from the selection
Copy a selected feature

+ drag
Reposition the tool or change its orientation
Reposition the tool or change its orientation Double click
186
Chain select faces

Double- click or +Double-
click
Exit editing mode
Exit the tool ESC
• Resize selected parts .
Boolean Parts
• Combine: when the combine is active, left-clicking any combination of parts in the assembly will combine the
selection.
• Subtract: when subtract is active, the targets are defined as the objects you are wishing to modify. The tools are
defined as the modifiers to these targets. Keep tools option allowed.
• Intersect: when intersect is active, left clicking one part or multiple parts as targets, or the part(s) you are wishing to
modify. Next left clicking the tools icon and select another intersecting part(s) as your tools or modifier(s). Keep
targets/tools/both allowed.
187
Action Button
Select Tools Tab
Exit tool Esc
Combine Subtract Intersect
188
Cut and Simplify Tools
Targets are defined as the parts you are performing the cut on. The plane, or cutting plane, can be defined by selecting a face or
feature based on existing geometry and translating/rotating accordingly with the move tools.
Button
Action
Exit tool Esc
Simplify
• Imprints: finds and removes imprints such as scratches and trimmed points.
• Rounds: finds and removes any rounds (concave) or fillets (convex) in the assembly. Find options and filtering.
• Holes: finds and removes holes and pockets. Find options.
• Plug finds holes and pockets and plugs them by filling the area with a new part. Find options.
189
Imprints Rounds Holes Plug
Note: remove small fillets first, then larger fillets, then rounds
190
Simplify Tools - Partition Parts
• Partition geometry along a hole, a face
Mid-Surface and Fillet Tools
Action
Select a feature Click
Deselect a feature
+ Click
Add to the selection

+ Click
Click a selected (red) feature to preview and edit it. Click

Execute the partition
again to partition it.
Accept the partition and exit
191
Delete or + Click
Delete the partition
Midsurface
• Find and extract 2D sheets from single thickness thin solid geometry.
Action Button
Select thin solid Click
Extract mid surface Click
Restore original part Click
Add/remove from selection

+ Click
Exit tool Ecs
192
Fillets
Fillets tool can round edges. It supports fillets with a constant radius (not variable).
Chamfer tool can create beveled edges.
193

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EBOOK

LEARN CASTING AND

1.2 Software ................................................................................................................................................... 6

1.3 Support ..................................................................................................................................................... 6

1.4 Free eBooks ............................................................................................................................................. 7

1.5 Learning & Certification Program.......................................................................................................... 7

1.7 Disclaimer ................................................................................................................................................ 8

2. HISTORY OF METAL CASTING ............................................................................................ 9

3.2 Design Factors for Metal Casting ........................................................................................................ 12

3.3 Solidification of Metal Casting ............................................................................................................. 16

3.4 Niyama Criterion for Predicting Shrinkage Porosity ......................................................................... 14

3.5 Casting Processes ................................................................................................................................ 16

3.5.1 Sand Casting ................................................................................................................................... 16

3.5.2 Investment Casting.......................................................................................................................... 17

3.5.3 Die Casting ...................................................................................................................................... 18

3.5.4 Gravity Die Casting ......................................................................................................................... 18

3.5.5 High Pressure Die Casting .............................................................................................................. 19

3.5.6 Low-Pressure Die Casting............................................................................................................... 21

3.5.7 Centrifugal Casting (Industrial)........................................................................................................ 21

3.6 Casting Components ............................................................................................................................ 24

3.6.1 Core Plug ........................................................................................................................................ 24

3.6.2 Riser Casting /Feeder ..................................................................................................................... 24

3.6.3 Insulating or Exothermic Sleeve ...................................................................................................... 27

3.6.4 Overflow Risers (Cavity/Passages)................................................................................................. 27

3.6.5 Casting Coolers ............................................................................................................................... 28

3.7 Pouring Techniques .............................................................................................................................. 29

3.8 Molding ................................................................................................................................................... 31

4. DEFECTS ON CASTING ...................................................................................................... 32

4.1.1 Blow Holes ...................................................................................................................................... 32

4.1.2 Pin Hole Porosity ............................................................................................................................. 33

4.1.3 Rat Tails or Vains Defects ............................................................................................................... 33

4.1.4 Dispersed Shrinkage ....................................................................................................................... 34

4.2 Casting Defects Due to Pouring of Melt.............................................................................................. 35

4.2.1 Misrun .............................................................................................................................................. 35

4.2.2 Cold Shut ......................................................................................................................................... 36

4.2.3 Elephant Skin .................................................................................................................................. 37

4.3.1 Solid Inclusions ............................................................................................................................... 38

4.4 Casting Defects Due to Metallurgical Factors .................................................................................... 40

4.4.1 Hot Tears ......................................................................................................................................... 40

4.5 Casting Defects Caused by Molding Materials .................................................................................. 40

4.5.1 Scab ................................................................................................................................................ 40

4.5.2 Metal ................................................................................................................................................ 41

4.5.3 Fusion .............................................................................................................................................. 42

4.5.4 Flash ................................................................................................................................................ 42

4.5.5 Run Out ........................................................................................................................................... 43

4.5.7 Shrinkage Cavity ............................................................................................................................. 44

4.6 Casting Defects Caused by Other Factors ......................................................................................... 44

4.6.1 Mismatch ......................................................................................................................................... 44

4.6.2 Hot Cracking .................................................................................................................................... 45

5. INSPIRE CAST MODULES .................................................................................................. 46

6.2 Defining Ingate Systems ...................................................................................................................... 47

6.3 Gravity Casting Simulation Set-Up...................................................................................................... 48

6.4 Selection of Material ............................................................................................................................. 49

6.5 Pre-Process Parameters (Components)/Basic Set-Up ...................................................................... 50

6.6 Tutorial: Brake Caliper .......................................................................................................................... 52

7. LOW-PRESSURE DIE-CASTING (LPDC) ............................................................................ 90

7.2 Tutorial: Wheel Rim............................................................................................................................... 94

8. HIGH-PRESSURE DIE-CASTING (HPDC) ......................................................................... 106

8.2 Tutorial: Wash Basin........................................................................................................................... 109

9. INVESTMENT CASTING .................................................................................................... 129