Influences of Random Imperfection Distribution On The Compressive Properties of Interlocking Block Wall

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Structures 56 (2023) 104875

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Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/structures

Influences of random imperfection distribution on the compressive


properties of interlocking block wall
Tingwei Shi a, Xihong Zhang a, *, Hong Hao a, b, Guanyu Xie a
a
Centre for Infrastructural Monitoring and Protection, School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
b
Earthquake Engineering Research and Test Centre, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Block imperfections exist inevitably owing to manufacturing and construction quality control. For dry-stacked
Interlocking blocks interlocking block structures, imperfections result in small gaps randomly distributed between blocks, which
Imperfection affect the compressive strength of the wall. In this study, stochastic analysis is conducted to predict the
Monte-Carlo simulations
compressive properties of interlocking block walls with spatially varying randomly distributed block imperfec­
Spatial variability
Seating effect
tions. Monte-Carlo simulation is conducted in the analysis. The number of block imperfections is assumed to
follow the Binominal distribution in massive block production process; the imperfection sizes are assumed to
follow the truncated normal distribution. Based on these hypotheses, the damage development mechanism and
load-path of interlocking block walls with different imperfection distributions are investigated. It is found that
the compressive strength of walls containing blocks with mixed imperfection levels is lower; for walls with a
higher number of imperfections, a larger coefficient of variation of imperfections leads to a significant decrease
in compressive strength, while the seating effect at the initial stage of compression is reduced. The results provide
a guidance to the quality control of mortar-less interlocking block structures.

1. Introduction structural strength, stiffness, and deformation capacities. Therefore, the


influences of imperfections on the performances of interlocking block
Masonry structures are popularly constructed because of their rela­ structures should be investigated. Moreover, as the mechanical prop­
tively low cost and good thermal performance. To improve the structural erties depend on the design of interlocking keys, which varies from one
performance, construction efficiency and quality, interlocking blocks, design to another. There is no design standard or recommended practice
which have interlocking keys resembling the shear keys in prefabricated for the design of mortar-less interlocking block wall in engineering ap­
concrete structures and share similar advantages [1], have been intro­ plications yet.
duced over the past decades and demonstrated outstanding structural In practical applications, masonry structures are mainly subjected to
performance [2–4]. Mortar-less (dry-stacking) and/or thin-bed mortar vertical compressive loading from dead load and live load [7]. There­
joining methods have also been developed for fast-laying block prod­ fore, it is most important to properly and accurately predict the
ucts. Combining interlocking block with mortar-less construction compressive capacity of masonry walls constructed with interlocking
method is very attractive for masonry structures. Nevertheless, unlike blocks using mortar-less method. Some laboratory tests have been car­
prefabricated concrete structures, which have been used for a long time ried out to examine the compressive behaviour of interlocking block
and whose mechanical performance has been studied under varying prisms and wallets with different designs of interlocking blocks. For
circumstances [5,6], the influence of surface roughness or imperfection instance, Sturm et al. [8] experimentally investigated the behaviour of
of interlocking blocks on the structural performance of mortarless prisms and wallets made of stabilized interlocking compressed earth
interlocking block walls has not been properly studied and explicitly blocks. Ngapeya et al. [9] carried out both experimental tests and nu­
understood yet. Unlike the traditional masonry constructions where the merical modelling to investigate the influence of geometrical imper­
imperfections on block surfaces are remedied by mortar that joins the fections on the compressive strength of one type of dry-stacked masonry
adjacent blocks, the imperfections of blocks in mortar-less masonry walls. Jaafar et al. [10] found that contacting behaviour between the dry
structure result in gaps between interlocking blocks, which affect the joints of interlocking blocks presented nonlinear progressive closure

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2023.104875
Received 21 February 2023; Received in revised form 6 June 2023; Accepted 10 July 2023
Available online 25 July 2023
2352-0124/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Institution of Structural Engineers. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

when the wall was subjected to gradually increased compressive load. wall performance and failure mode. Non-spatial simulation was found to
Al-Fakih et al. [11] conducted compressive tests on dry-stacked inter­ overestimate the mean of wall compressive strength compared with
locking masonry prisms, wallets and panels. It was found that the im­ spatial simulation. Some previous studies also investigated the influence
perfections on the contacting interfaces considerably reduced the of workmanship quality on the strength of masonry structures [37,38].
contact stiffness of the bed joints. Dorji et al. [12] found that compres­ For instance, Stewart and Lawrence [38] studied the effect of work­
sive cracks in ungrouted dry-stacked masonry would not be transmitted manship quality, discretising of masonry unit thickness and wall width
to the bottom masonry units due to the mortarless feature and the lower on the reliability index. It was concluded that the structural reliabilities
overall stiffness of the dry-stacked masonry comparing to mortar- are very susceptible to the workmanship quality, discretising of masonry
bonded masonries. Zahra et al. [13] carried out compressive tests on unit thickness and wall width. Martínez et al. [16] discussed the impacts
dry-stacked interlocking masonry panels and found that grouting could of random variation in the rough surfaces of block. Shi et al. [19]
significantly enhance the compressive strength of mortarless masonry investigated that the compressive behavior of interlocking prisms
and reduce the seating effect. Many numerical studies have also been comprised of interlocking block with non-spatially varied imperfections.
carried out based on both the simplified linear analysis and detailed No seating effect was observed in the numerical simulation. Ngapeya
nonlinear finite-element modellings to analyse the compressive capacity et al. [9] estimated the load bearing capacity considering the height
and failure mechanisms of interlocking prisms, wallets and walls imperfection of each block. It was found that the height imperfection of
[14–21]. The influences of some design parameters, such as the block individual block plays a critical role in the failure mechanism and load
material strength, prism/wallet height and block geometry on the bearing performance of a dry-stacked block wall subjected to compres­
compressive capacity and deformation capacity of dry-stacked inter­ sive load. This is because the height imperfection controls the actual
locking prisms and wallets have also been studied. contacting area between the neighbouring masonry courses, and thus it
Imperfection unavoidably exists in dry-stacked interlocking blocks dominates the load percolation system in the wall. Gooch et al. [39]
resulted from block manufacturing error/tolerance and the quality of established finite-element models of masonry structures, and found the
workmanship. For conventional clay blocks or concrete masonry units numerical modellings tend to overestimate the elastic stiffness of labo­
bonded with mortar, these imperfections could be mitigated by the ratory structures. Therefore, it is necessary to properly understand and
mortar layer, which nevertheless does not exist in mortar-less/dry- interpret the numerical modelling results. Till now, only very few
stacking construction of interlocking blocks. It has been found that im­ studies investigated the structural performance of dry-stacked inter­
perfections will not only affect the local strength and stiffness of inter­ locking structures with consideration of the spatial variation of imper­
locking blocks [19] but also influence the overall behaviour of structures fections. Critical structure performance factors such as the stiffness and
made of interlocking blocks [22,23]. Therefore, it is necessary to prop­ compressive strength of dry-stacked interlocking block wall are not
erly evaluate the influence of imperfection on interlocking block struc­ understood well yet.
tures constructed with the mortar-less method. This study presents numerical investigations on the compressive
Previous laboratory tests found that imperfections of block units behaviour of dry-stacked interlocking block wallets using stochastic
could result in seating effect when masonry piers/walls are subjected to analysis considering spatial variability of block imperfection. Monte-
compressive load [24–27]. Some researchers took block imperfection Carlo simulations are carried out to examine the influence of different
into considerations when numerically modelling the compressive number of block imperfections, imperfection locations in a wallet and
behaviour of masonry structures. For instance, Shi et al. [19] employed varying imperfection sizes. The quality of interlocking block walls is
different modelling strategies to consider the gaps at block joints asso­ categorized according to the number of imperfect blocks, while the co­
ciated with the block imperfections for interlocking block prism. It was efficient of variation (COV) of the block imperfection is employed to
found that such imperfections would strongly influence the compressive represent dispersion of imperfections. Stress–strain curves and failure
behavior of interlocking block prisms. Nevertheless, previous studies progression are examined. The variability of load carrying capacity,
only considered non-spatial variability of imperfections in which the stiffness and damage mode are studied for interlocking block walls with
same imperfection was assumed throughout the block pier/wall. This different qualities. It should be noted that this study does not intend to
simplification apparently would not properly represent the real condi­ research on stochastic methods, but uses existing method to investigate
tion of block structures, where the size of imperfection of each block unit the influences of random interlocking block imperfections on masonry
varies; the locations of these imperfections also vary across the structure wall load carrying capacities. The novelty and significance of this study
[28]. Therefore, a proper study that considers the random spatial vari­ reside in its pioneering stochastic analysis of the compressive properties
ations of imperfection of each block and location within a structure of dry-stacked interlocking block walls considering spatially varying
should be performed. block imperfections. This research innovatively models these imper­
Stochastic analysis has been commonly used to investigate the in­ fections using Binominal and truncated normal distributions for the
fluences of random variables on structural performance of masonry number and sizes of imperfections, respectively. The examination of the
structures [29–31]. For example, the influence of material uncertainties influence of imperfection distributions on the damage development
on the axial compressive strength of masonry wallets was investigated mechanism and load-path of interlocking block walls fills a gap in the
through probability analysis based on Monte-Carlo simulations [32]. existing literature. This approach not only enhances the accuracy of
Stewart and Lawrence [33] generated a probabilistic model to assess the compressive strength prediction but also furnishes critical insights for
structural reliability of masonry walls subjected to concentrically improving quality control in mortar-less interlocking block structures.
compressive loading considering variations in mortar type, live-to-dead By bolstering the understanding of the impacts of block imperfections on
load ratio, block material compressive strength and tributary area. The structural performance, this study contributes significantly to the sci­
accuracy of design code, i.e., the Australian masonry design code entific robustness of construction methods involving dry-stacked inter­
AS3700-2001 [34], was examined based on the reliability analysis. Ex­ locking blocks.
istence of spatial variability of block joint flexural bond-wrench
strengths was also studied using stochastic analysis. For example, the 2. Numerical model
influence of spatial correlation among unit block joint flexural bond-
wrench strengths was experimentally studied by Heffler et al. [35]. It 2.1. Block configuration
was found that the flexural bond-wrench strength of each block unit is
statistically independent of its neighbouring unit. Li et al. [36] found Fig. 1 illustrates the interlocking blocks considered in this study.
that there are obvious differences between spatial and non-spatial Inspired by the osteomorphic block [40], the studied block achieves
analysis of the flexural bond-wrench strength of block wall in terms of topological interlocking through concavoconvex surfaces (i.e., the

2
T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 1. Configuration of interlocking blocks.

tenons and mortises on the blocks). Thus, compared with other common 2.2.2. Boundary condition and contact properties
interlocking masonry units that achieve interlocking through special For the interlocking block wall, the bottom surface of the wall is fully
connectors, this type of block can be assembled into complex structures fixed, and the lateral and rotational movements (out-of-plane) at the top
with single or multiple layers [41]. Previous study [41] showed that of the wall are restrained while its vertical degree of freedom is enabled
when structures made of this type of block are damaged, the damage for the application of the vertical loading. Displacement-controlled
tends to be confined to individual blocks, rather than leading to global method is used to load the interlocking block wall till failure.
failure as in solid structures. Also, because the interlocking mechanism A hard contact is employed to model the contact behavior between
between these blocks is achieved through tenons and mortises distrib­ adjacent blocks in the normal direction that the normal stress is trans­
uted in various positions on the blocks, stress concentration at joints can ferred through the two surfaces. The contact surfaces will separate from
be largely avoided [40,41]. each other when subjected to a normal tensile force; hence no tensile
As shown in Fig. 1, the block has a width of 200 mm, a height of 180 stress will be transferred across the contact surfaces. The contact
mm and a thickness of 100 mm. Asymmetric interlocking shear keys are behavior in the tangential direction of the interface is simulated using a
designed for the block, where on the frontal side there is a wide shear finite sliding model following the Coulomb friction law. The tangential
key with a dimension of 70 mm width × 30 mm height × 35 mm, and on movement initiates when the surface traction stress at the connecting
the rear side there are two smaller keys with geometric dimensions of 35 interface reaches the threshold shear strength τ, which is governed by
mm width × 30 mm height × 35 mm. The configuration of interlocking the normal contact pressure p and the coefficient of friction μ (τ = μ p).
blocks is designed to provide improved shear resistance which differs The coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces of neighbouring
from other existing interlocking blocks whose interlocking keys are interlocking blocks is taken as 0.3 following previous studies [16,45].
usually only for self-alignment. The shear keys have inclined surfaces,
which make the block assembly easier and allows the blocks to slide on
2.3. Model validation
each other under high lateral force. The material of blocks is a mixture
composed of sand, cement, gravel, and fly ash, therefore it has properties
To validate the suitability and accuracy of the above numerical
similar to those of concrete.
modelling method, it is used to model the compressive behavior of
interlocking block prisms in the authors’ previous study [19]. As illus­
2.2. Finite element model
trated in Fig. 2a, the specimen is composed of two full-sized interlocking
blocks and two half blocks at both ends. The compressive load is applied
2.2.1. Model detail
using displacement-controlled loading method. The interlocking block
A detailed three dimensional finite element model of interlocking
prism is numerically modelled using the above method in Section 2.2.
wall with dimension 1200 mm × 800 mm × 100 mm (height × width ×
Both perfect contact and imperfect contact are considered to simulate
thickness) is constructed using the commercial software Abaqus [42]. As
block imperfections at the joints. There is no gap between blocks at the
mentioned above, interlocking blocks are modelled using solid element
joint for the perfect model. For the imperfect model, gaps between
C3D8R with the Concrete Damage Plasticity (CDP) material model, in
blocks are modelled. Each surface imperfection height was measured
which both block crushing in compression and cracking in tension can
using a height dial indicator (Fig. 2b), and the measured gap sizes are
be considered. The material properties of the interlocking block are
applied to the numerical model with imperfect contact as shown in
shown in Table 1, where E0 and v denote the Young’s modulus and the
Fig. 2c. An average gap width is 0.29 mm with a standard deviation of
Poisson’s ratio. More detailed modelling of the interlocking block
0.16.
properties and the corresponding verification can be referred to [43].
Fig. 3 compares the compressive force versus axial displacement
The compressive strength of block material is 17.46 MPa [43]. The
curves from the laboratory test and the numerical simulations. As
tensile strength is assumed as ft = 0.1 fc, which is a relationship
shown, in the laboratory test the force increases gradually with the
commonly employed for concrete material [16,44].
imposed displacement because of seating effect. As gaps gradually close,
the force increases quicker until reaching the peak load of 112.8 kN and

Table 1
Material properties of interlocking block.
Mass density (kg/m3) Elasticity Plasticity

Initial Young’s modulus, E0 (GPa) Poisson’s ratio υ Dilatation angle ψ (◦ ) Eccentricity Biaxial stress ratio fbo /fco K Viscosity
Parameter

2565 13.49 0.2 30 0.1 1.16 0.67 0.0001

Note: K is the ratio between the second stress invariant on the tensile meridian and compressive meridian at initial yield.

3
T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 2. Experimental setup and numerical model.

then plummets due to block damage. The numerical model with perfect
contact predicts an ultimate load capacity of 113.8 kN. However, it
could not model the seating effect because there are no pre-existing
gaps. Moreover, an initial stiffness of 71.18 kN/mm is predicted,
which is significantly larger than that of the lab test (61.85 kN/mm). The
numerical model with imperfect contact predicts an ultimate capacity of
105.0 kN indicating less than 7% difference comparing to the lab testing
result, while the predicted initial stiffness of 54.49 kN/mm by the nu­
merical model with imperfect contact is much similar to that of the
laboratory test.
It demonstrates that the numerical model considering block imper­
fection is crucial for proper estimation of the stiffness of mortarless
interlocking block wall under compressive loading.
Fig. 4 compares the failure modes of interlocking block prisms from
laboratory test and numerical simulations. In the laboratory test, wing
cracks are initiated at the corner of the interlocking block key and
extend both up and down. Due to the non-perfect contact conditions
between neighbouring blocks, asymmetric failure mode is observed. The
numerical model with imperfect contact predicts similar damage pattern
where cracks initiate on the keys of the second block, and then extend
vertically. The model with perfect contact predicts typical X-shaped
Fig. 3. Comparison of compressive force versus axial displacement curves from failure because of the damages of shear keys due to symmetry, which
laboratory test and numerical modelling. could reflect the damage pattern of interlocking block but not able to
fully represent the influence of imperfect blocks. Through the above
comparison, it can be found that the developed numerical modelling

Fig. 4. Comparison of prism damage and failure patterns.

4
T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

method could reasonably closely represent the behavior of mortarless are pressed in mould using servo-controlled high-pressurized block
interlocking block wall with consideration of block imperfection under machine, imperfections could occur to the produced blocks with varia­
compressive loading. tion to block heights, i.e., total block height, and shear key height, and
inclined surfaces as shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 6 shows the set-up of inter­
2.4. Size effect locking block wall with spatial imperfections. Because of the asymmetric
shear key layout on each interlocking block unit, the wide shear key and
The modelled wallet size (height 1200 mm, width 800 mm and the small keys on the frontal and rear surfaces are shown respectively in
thickness 100 mm) follows the recommendation of BS1052-1 [46] for Fig. 6a and Fig. 6b. Considering the shape and geometry of the shear
the determination of compressive strength of the interlocking block keys, imperfections could exist on the flat surfaces or the inclined sur­
wall. To examine the potential size effect and to quantify its influence on faces of the shear keys, as seen in Fig. 6c and 6d. It is to note that height
the modelled compressive strength of the mortar-less interlocking block imperfections on the flat surfaces are most common. This is because
wall, a group of masonry walls with different dimensions are numeri­ during the manufacturing process of the interlocking blocks, the weight
cally modelled, i.e. 600 mm × 400 mm × 100 mm, 1200 mm × 800 mm of the material added into the mould and the pressure applied to
× 100 mm, and 2400 mm × 1600 mm × 100 mm (as shown in Fig. 5a). compress the material remain constant for each block. However, due to
For easy engineering application, axial stress and strain are used to variations in the moisture content of the block material, the height of the
quantify the performance of the interlocking block wall in lieu of axial produced blocks may vary slightly, resulting in imperfections on the flat
compressive load and displacement. The axial stress is the averaged surface.
compressive stress in the cross section which is calculated by dividing As shown in Fig. 6c, the imperfection height h means the roughness
the measured axial compressive load by the cross-sectional area of the height normal to the surface of interlocking block. It is to note that the
interlocking block wall; and the strain is calculated by dividing the sizes of the above imperfections are normally small, since blocks with
vertical displacement with the initial height of the interlocking block large imperfections will be filtered out in the quality control process,
wall. Fig. 5b compares the maximum compressive strengths and the and blocks with large imperfections caused during transportation will
initial stiffness, from which it can be found that varying the width and also be identified in construction and usually discarded because they
height of the wall model by four times leads to a maximum variation in will not stack properly.
the compressive strength by 3.40%, and a maximum variation in the
stiffness by 0.23%. It demonstrates that the influence of model size on 3.2. Stochastic analysis with Monte-Carlo simulation
the compressive loading capacity is insignificant and the recommended
wallet dimension by BS1052-1 is appropriate for predicting the The spatial variability of imperfection for interlocking block wall is
compressive strength of mortar-less interlocking block wall. generated using the above-mentioned numerical method in stochastic
analysis based on the Monte-Carlo simulations. Since blocks are manu­
3. Probabilistic models factured in large quantities, binominal distribution is employed to
describe the existence of imperfection on each block unit. The proba­
Compared to conventional masonry where mortar bonds blocks bility of imperfection for the binominal distribution, p, depends on the
together leading to negligible influence of block imperfection, dry- quality control in block manufacture. Following the recommendation of
stacked interlocking blocks are constructed without mortar. Unavoid­ block manufacturer, the probability of imperfection existence during
able imperfections in block could potentially result in significant local manufacturing is stratified into four groups: high quality, high-medium
stress concentration and relative movements of adjacent blocks and thus quality, medium–low quality, and low quality, which correspond to
influence the mechanical performance of the masonry structure. This 0–25%, 25–50%, 50–75%, and 75–100% possibility of each block unit
paper focuses on quantifying the influence of geometric imperfections having imperfections. p is assumed to follow uniform distribution within
on the compressive properties of interlocking block walls, where other each group. It is worth noting that Monte-Carlo simulations usually use
uncertainties such as block material strength, are not explicitly inves­ simple random sampling, which entails a large number of simulations to
tigated. To study the influence of random imperfection of interlocking achieve convergence, therefore is computationally costly. The employed
block on the compressive strength and axial stiffness of the interlocking stratified sampling method could help to achieve an improved conver­
block wall, the above-selected 1200 mm × 800 mm × 100 mm inter­ gence rate. The stratified sampling method is operated by subdividing
locking block wall with spatial block/joint imperfection is modelled. the sample space into smaller regions and sampling within these regions.
In so doing, the produced samples could more effectively fill the sample
3.1. Block and joint imperfection space and therefore reduce the variance of computed statistical esti­
mators. Previous study demonstrated this sampling method could pro­
Considering the manufacturing process of interlocking blocks which vide fast converging analysis for Monte-Carlo simulation with

Fig. 5. Influences of size effect.

5
T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 6. Illustration of interlocking wall with random spatial imperfections.

satisfactory accuracy [47]. The imperfection size of each block unit is compression method till the failure of the wall. The peak
simulated following the truncated normal distribution with a mean of compressive force and stiffness of the wall are determined
0.3 mm, which was determined through statistical analysis on the through the axial load versus axial displacement curve simulated
different batches of block specimens [43]. The truncated normal dis­ by the numerical analysis. The compressive strength of the
tribution rather than the normal distribution is used herein to avoid a interlocking block wall is determined with the peak compressive
negative joint gap value. A python-based program is written to auto­ force.
matically generate interlocking block wall models in batches in Abaqus. (5) Convergence analysis is performed, where the accumulated mean
Despite the complex configuration of blocks due to the random imper­ compressive stress and accumulated compressive stress COV for
fections, in the numerical modelling all the initial locations of the blocks the interlocking wall with different numbers of simulations are
are set at the proper positions as an intact wall without considering the examined to determine the termination of numerical simulations.
imperfection. The generation of spatial variability model can be Repeat the above steps 1 to 4 until the statistical convergence is
expressed as follows: reached, in which the COV varies between 0.1 and 0.5. A COV of
0.1 represents the imperfection size has slight dispersion, while a
(1) For a 1200 mm × 800 mm × 100 mm interlocking block wall, it COV of 0.5 represents the imperfection size has large dispersion.
comprises of 40 blocks (as shown in Fig. 7). Each block is labelled (6) The average compressive stress is calculated by the ratio of the
with a number from 1 to 40 in the sequence from the bottom left total force on the interlocking wall and the total sectional area of
to the top right in layers. the block wall. The average strain is measured by the ratio of the
(2) Depending on the location of the imperfections in one block, the compressed displacement at the top surface of the interlocking
imperfections of a block are classified into four types, i.e., height wall and the height of the interlocking wall. The data are counted
imperfection on the small keys, height imperfection on the large into different groups with different COVs and/or different range
keys, slide (side) imperfection on the front sliding surfaces, and of defect rates (p) and then used for construction of the histo­
slide imperfection on the rear sliding surfaces. The existence of grams of compressive strength, equivalent stiffness and linear
imperfection is randomly determined following the Binominal stiffness. The probability density function is generated and
distribution with a possibility of p. The block quality is classified compared with specific probability density functions to deter­
into four groups, i.e. high quality, high-medium quality, medi­ mine the type of distribution.
um–low quality, and low quality, depending on the value of p.
(3) Once the location of imperfection in a block is determined, the 3.3. Convergence study
imperfection size on the surface of this block is assumed to be
uniform over the entire surface for simplicity. The imperfection Convergence test of Monte-Carlo simulations is performed with the
size follows the truncated normal probability distribution with a numerical model for interlocking block walls of different qualities. Fig. 8
mean hm = 0.3 mm and a specific standard deviation. The char­ presents the variations of the mean compressive strength of interlocking
acteristic value of imperfection height is estimated using h = hm block walls and its corresponding COV acquired from the Monte-Carlo
± 1.645σ. Since there is very limited data on the standard devi­ simulations. It is found that after 60 random cases, the variations on
ation of imperfection size σ, the COV is assumed to vary between the mean compressive strength and the corresponding COV are very
0.1 and 0.5 [48]. small, indicating the simulations converge. Therefore, 60 simulations
(4) Each numerical model is established with the random spatial are needed to achieve the converged results. It is to note that the number
imperfection distribution, after which numerical modelling is of simulations to achieve convergence is small because the stratified
carried out by loading the wall using displacement-controlled sampling method is employed, which helps to unconditionally reduce

6
T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

4.1. Cracking pattern

These imperfections could cause interlocking blocks to not fit tightly


together at local vertical positions. Consequently, when the interlocking
block wall is subjected to compression, the vertical stress is not uni­
formly distributed across the cross-section with stress concentrations at
those contact points, which leads to premature failure of those blocks
and ultimately affect the overall performance of the structure. More­
over, such non-uniform stress distribution could result in eccentric
loading on the interlocking block structure and even cause out-of-plane
buckling. Fig. 9 presents typical block cracking patterns caused by
different types of block imperfections. One single interlocking block is
modelled with its bottom fixed, and compressive load is applied grad­
ually to its top until failure. Imperfection is introduced to different
surfaces of this interlocking block to examine the associated crack pat­
terns of the unit block. It is to note that there are more than dozens of
combinations of imperfections on the different surfaces of an inter­
locking block, which nevertheless yield similar block cracking pattern.
Therefore, only typical cases of block unit with imperfect surfaces are
listed herein with unique cracking patterns. For Case 1, imperfection
exists on the tenons of the rear surface (green highlighted area) while
the other surfaces are all intact. With block imperfections, load can only
be transferred through the contacting surfaces. As a result, two vertical
cracks are initiated propagated downwards on the rear surface because
of the increased stress owing to smaller contact area. When more im­
perfections exist on the rear surface as well as the frontal surface as in
Case 2, cracks also initiate on the frontal surfaces. Moreover, because of
unsymmetric imperfection on the inclined surfaces, unsymmetric dam­
ages can be seen on the block. In Case 3, imperfections exist on the in­
clined surfaces on the front key as well as the flat surfaces of the rear
shear keys. Because of the unsymmetric load distribution on the block,
crack initiates on the right wing of the rear surface.
With more imperfections existing on more surfaces of an interlocking
block as in Case 4 where only the flat surfaces on the front shear key and
one single surface on a rear key are intact, the applied compressive load
can only be transferred through very limited regions in the block. As a
result, crack is developed on the edge of the load-bearing surfaces and
extends from the front of the block to the rear side of the block. In Case 5,
the flat surfaces on the right wing of the front face are intact, through
which load is transferred. Under gradually increased compressive load,
crack is developed on this wing. Because of partial contact on the rear
face of the block, this crack extends towards the rear surface of the block
leading to the eventual failure.
From the above illustrations it can be seen that the existence of
imperfection on dry-stacked interlocking block on different surfaces
could strongly influence the cracking pattern. Those imperfections,
which determines the load transfer path in one single block, would
interact with adjacent blocks when multiple blocks are stacked together
to create an interlocking block wall. The crack development and failure
Fig. 7. Numerical model for the interlocking block wall.
mode of interlocking block walls with different quantity of imperfec­
tions, their spatial distributions and different imperfection sizes would
the variance of statistical estimators when compared with the simple
therefore be different, which will be analyzed and discussed in the
random sampling method [47].
following section.

4. Crack development and failure mode


4.2. Initial crack and crack development in a wall

Imperfection could influence the crack pattern of individual inter­


To demonstrate crack development and wall failure mode of inter­
locking block unit, whose spatial distribution then influence the crack
locking block walls with spatially varying imperfections, without loss of
development and failure mode of the interlocking block wall. In this
generality four typical interlocking block walls made of high-quality,
section, the crack pattern of individual interlocking block units with
high-medium quality, medium–low quality and low-quality blocks are
imperfections on different key surfaces are presented. Then, crack
analysed. Fig. 10a shows the load path, damage/crack patterns. The
initiation and development of walls made of imperfect interlocking
randomly generated imperfection locations and sizes are highlighted in
blocks are presented and analysed. The failure modes of the interlocking
green colour (darker indicates larger imperfection size). The corre­
block wall with spatial distributed imperfections are discussed.
sponding load–displacement curves are shown in Fig. 10b. For the high-
quality wall, the compressive load increases almost linearly with the
axial displacement of the wall until Point A (more than 75% of

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 8. Convergence of Monte-Carlo simulations.

Fig. 9. Crack patterns for interlocking block with different imperfections.

compressive strength is achieved), when crack initiates on the wall. As wall, the compressive load that the wall could withstand increases lin­
can be seen in Fig. 10a, initial cracks are developed on the interlocking early to about half of the maximum compressive strength, which is lower
blocks with large size imperfections. This is because under compressive than that of the high-quality interlocking wall. Being similar to the high-
loading, smaller joint gaps due to block imperfections would close quality wall, cracks initiate around the joints with larger size imper­
earlier than the larger gaps, which enables load transfer at these joints fections. It can be seen from Fig. 10a that for the high-quality and high-
and hence more uniform stress distribution. But it also leads to non- medium quality wall, because relatively less imperfections exist and
uniform joint gaps with large block imperfections, which causes stress smaller imperfections would close under the imposed compressive
concentration and hence crack initiation. For the high-medium quality loading first, the compressive force can then be transferred through

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 10. Initial crack and load path at the stage of OA.

multiple load paths over the interlocking blocks. For the low-quality initial seating movement to close the gap between blocks. This is
wall, because of the widely spread imperfections on blocks, under the because the low quality wall is associated with wider spread imperfec­
initial compressive loading, less contacts are developed between blocks tions. Under compressive loading, the gaps in block wall close relative
resulting in seating effect (as highlighted in yellow). As a result, with the uniformly, whereas the medium–low and high-medium quality walls
increased compressive loading, only less number of load paths are have less number of imperfections. Under compressive loading, closing
developed. Similar to the medium–low quality wall, initial cracks are of the gaps is not uniform and causes stress concentration, hence more
developed around the load path where blocks are bearing high damage to the blocks. Therefore, their compressive loading capacity is
compressive stress. As shown, the low-quality block wall has higher smaller than that of the low-quality wall.
compressive strength than the medium–low and high-medium quality
wall although its equivalent stiffness is small owing to a relatively large

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 10. (continued).

4.3. Failure mode 5.1. Stress–strain curves

As the imposed compressive load continues to increase, these cracks Fig. 12 displays the compressive stress–strain curves for interlocking
extend, and more cracks are developed until the maximum compressive block walls with varying quality and imperfections. Engineering stress
strengths of each wall are reached. Fig. 11 shows the eventual damage and strain are used, which are calculated based on the net cross section
contours of the four interlocking block walls of different qualities. area and the wall height, respectively, offering a clear visual on how the
Because the distribution and size of block imperfections are random, the strength and deformability of the wall are affected by imperfections.
crack pattern are asymmetric and random. Block cracks widely spread The stress–strain curves for high to low-quality walls, with a coeffi­
among the walls. But some common cracking similarities exist in these cient of variation (COV) of 0.1, reveal significant differences. High-
four quality interlocking walls. Cracks initiate from the shear keys with quality walls exhibit a linear elastic behaviour up to 75% of the
vertical cracks indicating tensile damage [19]. Compressive damages maximum compressive capacity, followed by a non-linear increase and
are then developed in the cracked blocks as the wall is subjected to an eventual decrease, indicative of considerable damage. High-medium
further increased compressive loading. It indicates that increasing the quality walls demonstrate a similar pattern, but the linear elastic stage is
post-cracking strength of interlocking blocks would improve the me­ shorter, only lasting to about 50% of compressive capacity. This is
chanical performance of interlocking block wall under compressive because in the high-medium quality wall, there are more imperfections,
loading. In the meanwhile, some differences can be observed on these resulting in a smaller compressive stress distribution area and a more
four different quality interlocking block walls: for the high-quality and uneven distribution pattern on the cross-section of the wall. This, in
high-medium quality walls, since the majority of blocks are intact thus in turn, leads to the earlier arrival of the elastoplastic stage in the high-
full contact for the compressive load to transfer through, the load dis­ medium quality wall. As block quality deteriorates, the influence of
tributes relatively uniformly and thus cracks are also more uniform, block imperfection variation on the initial modulus becomes increas­
which leads to a higher compressive capacity and stiffness than those of ingly evident due to the larger number of imperfections. For low-quality
the walls of the other qualities. For the medium–low quality wall with walls, pronounced seating effects are observed in their stress–strain
more imperfected blocks, load is redistributed after the initial cracking curves, which is a result of the gradual closure of the gaps due to im­
of blocks around the load path. More blocks are thus to bear the perfections under compressive loading.
compressive force. More cracks can be observed on the failed walls when While the compressive strength of the wall decreases as the block
the peak compressive capacity of the wall is reached. For the low-quality quality lowers from high to high-medium and then to medium–low, an
wall with the majority of blocks having imperfections, joint openings increase is observed in the walls with low-quality blocks compared to
due to block imperfection actually would close under the initial the walls with medium–low quality blocks despite a considerable
compressive loading, leading to a more uniform distribution of stress on decrease in initial equivalent stiffness when the COV is 0.1 and 0.3. This
the entire block wall. As a result, on the final damage contour of the low- counterintuitive result can be attributed to the relatively uniform
quality wall, cracks are distributed widely and more uniformly as imperfection distribution in those low-quality blocks with a relatively
compared with the medium–low quality wall. small imperfection variation, causing an apparent seating effect, i.e.,
initial slippage at low compressive load. Upon the closure of imperfec­
5. Results and analysis tion gaps caused by compression, a near-linear behaviour similar to
high-quality walls is observed due to the increased contact area between
The influence of random imperfections of interlocking blocks on the blocks, suggesting that uniform imperfection distribution can compen­
compressive behavior of interlocking block wall is presented and ana­ sate for the lack of block quality to some extent.
lysed in this section. The compressive stress–strain curves are firstly In summary, the probability of block imperfection negatively im­
presented. The compressive strength and axial stiffness of interlocking pacts wall quality and initial compressive stiffness, particularly for the
block wall are summarized and analysed. first three quality levels. However, for low-quality blocks with relatively
low block imperfection variation, as gaps close after the strong seating
effect, the wall behaves similarly to a high-quality block wall. Thus, the

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 11. Damage contours of interlocking block wall at peak compressive loads.

distribution of block imperfections plays a significant role in deter­ compressive strength. Conversely, a larger COV, indicating non-uniform
mining the compressive strength and deformability of interlocking block imperfection distributions, can result in more local damage due to stress
walls. concentrations, thereby reducing the wall’s compressive loading
capacity.
5.2. Compressive strength and probability distribution Fig. 14 presents the histograms of wall compressive strengths, which
are modeled using different probability distribution functions. These
The compressive strengths derived from the stress–strain curves for histograms demonstrate that the increase of COV of imperfection size
the interlocking block walls with varying quality and imperfections are scatters the compressive strength of the interlocking block wall, with a
summarized in Table 2. The table lists mean compressive strength, heavier tail for COV = 0.5, indicating a greater probability of wall failure
standard deviation σ, and the associated coefficient of variation (COVf) before reaching the predicted compressive strength. Particularly for
for each quality category. Fig. 13 depicts the predicted compressive low-quality walls, an increase in COV significantly reduces the wall
strength from the spatial analysis. strength, as explained above.
High-quality walls with fewer imperfect blocks exhibit the highest In summary, these results highlight the role of COV in block imper­
mean compressive strength. The COV of block imperfection sizes only fections in determining wall compressive strength, suggesting that
slightly affects the mean compressive strengths of high and high- neglecting this factor may overestimate the compressive capacity,
medium quality walls due to the limited number of block imperfec­ especially for low-quality walls.
tions. However, for medium–low and low-quality walls, an increase in
COV results in a decline in compressive strength, with low-quality walls 5.3. Equivalent stiffness and probability distribution
seeing a significant drop from 4.00 MPa to 2.72 MPa as COV increases
from 0.1 to 0.5. This is because in low-quality walls, most gaps close To quantify wall stiffness, the equivalent stiffness is introduced,
under compressive loading. A smaller COV results in more uniform gap defined as the slope of the secant line from the origin to the peak
closures and better inter-block contact and hence leads to relatively high compressive force on the modelled stress–strain curves (Fig. 15). Fig. 16

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 12. Stress–strain curves of interlocking block walls with spatially varying imperfections.

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 12. (continued).

Table 2
Summary of wall compressive strengths from Monte-Carlo analysis.
Imperfection High-quality wall High-medium quality wall

COV fMax. fMin (MPa) fMean σ COVf Distribution fMax. fMin. fMean σ COVf Distribution
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

0.1 4.96 3.94 4.47 0.26 0.058 Normal 2.83 3.84 3.38 0.22 0.065 Loglogistic
0.3 5.12 3.88 4.55 0.29 0.064 Loglogistic 3.86 2.63 3.32 0.27 0.080 Weibull
0.5 5.17 3.64 4.40 0.36 0.081 Normal 2.47 3.84 3.27 0.29 0.090 Normal

Imperfection Medium-low quality wall Low-quality wall

COV fMax. fMin. fMean σ COVf Distribution fMax. fMin. fMean σ COVf Distribution
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

0.1 3.16 2.44 2.81 0.18 0.060 Normal 4.65 3.36 4.00 0.34 0.085 Normal
0.3 3.28 2.36 2.79 0.20 0.070 Loglogistic 4.04 2.70 3.33 0.32 0.095 Gamma
0.5 3.41 2.17 2.70 0.23 0.086 Loglogistic 3.12 2.17 2.72 0.22 0.079 Smallest
Extreme

and Table 3 illustrate the distributions and statistics of equivalent decreases in peak load displacements despite minor variations in peak
stiffness for different imperfection size COVs. compressive load. With a wider and non-uniform distribution of block
As expected, the mean equivalent stiffness decreases with increasing imperfections in the wall, local damage from stress concentration will
imperfection quantity, attributable to a corresponding increase in peak occur, reducing the wall displacement at failure. Conversely, low-
compressive load displacement. This highlights the potential for over­ quality walls exhibit a decrease in equivalent stiffness with increasing
estimation of dry-stacked block wall stiffness in numerical models COV, which is a result of the significant drop of the wall’s compressive
neglecting existing imperfections [16,19]. strength with the increase of the COV of block imperfection sizes, as
Interestingly, as COV increases from 0.1 to 0.5, the equivalent stiff­ explained in Section 5.2.
ness of high-quality, high-medium-quality and medium–low-quality These results underscore the strong influence of imperfection size
walls increases. This counterintuitive result could be due to significant distribution (COV) on the equivalent stiffness of interlocking block

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 13. Distribution of wall compressive strengths corresponding to different COVs of block imperfections.

Fig. 14. Histograms of compressive strength for interlocking walls.

walls. It is noted that low-quality walls with COV = 0.1 have higher 5.4. Linear stiffness and probability distribution
equivalent stiffness than medium–low quality walls. This is also due to
the significantly higher compressive strength of low-quality walls with For high-quality and high-medium quality walls, where seating effect
low COV of block imperfection sizes compared to that of the medium­ is negligible, the linear stiffness is defined as the slope of the secant line
–low-quality walls. from the origin to the softening stage’s starting point. For walls of
Fig. 17 presents equivalent stiffness histograms and best-fit proba­ medium–low and low-quality blocks, the seating effect is pronounced.
bility distribution functions, indicating a gradual dispersion of equiva­ Therefore, the linear stiffness is determined as the slope of the
lent stiffness with increasing COV. For high-quality walls, there is a load–displacement curves’ linear portion to reflect the wall’s post-
larger possibility of high equivalent stiffness with the increase of the seating and prior-to-non-linear behavior.
COV of block imperfection sizes, while for low-quality walls, increasing As presented in Table 4 and Fig. 18, a correlation exists between the
COV significantly reduces the equivalent stiffness, which conform to the wall’s quality and its linear stiffness. High quality, high-medium and
above analyses. It is noteworthy that the histograms for low-quality medium–low quality walls have mean linear stiffness values of 511kN/
walls (Fig. 17d) are higher and narrower, which suggests less vari­ mm, 320kN/mm, and 119kN/mm (COV = 0.1), respectively, implying
ability in equivalent stiffness compared to other walls of different that decreasing wall quality (i.e., increasing imperfections and reducing
qualities. This is a consequence of the simultaneous decrease in contact areas) significantly diminishes linear stiffness. The mean linear
compressive strength and the corresponding displacement in low- stiffness for these wall qualities sees a gradual increase as the COV of
quality walls as the COV of block imperfection sizes increases. block imperfection sizes increases. The larger variation of imperfection

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

gaps close uniformly due to similar imperfection sizes, creating a larger


contact area and, thus, a greater linear stiffness.
The histograms of linear stiffness (Fig. 19) indicate that for high-
quality, high-medium quality, and medium–low quality walls, the dis­
tribution of linear stiffness remains relatively stable as COV increases.
Conversely, the linear stiffness of low-quality walls becomes more
scattered as COV decreases. An increase in the COV of imperfection size
generally results in a decrease in linear stiffness and a narrower range of
variation, whose reasons are explicated above. The findings underscore
the significant influence of wall quality and imperfection distribution on
the linear stiffness of interlocking block walls, particularly in low-
quality walls.

6. Limitations and implications

The imperfections in the numerical model used in this study is based


on the measurement data of blocks from a specific manufacturing ma­
chine. Since the block imperfection data could vary between machines
and using different mixture recipe, the statistical data and analysis re­
sults could also vary. Nevertheless, the presented research method and
Fig. 15. The definition of equivalent stiffness and linear stiffness. the validated numerical model could find direct applications in future
analysis and/or other type of dry-stacking interlocking block structures.
size allows some blocks to touch each other at lower displacements, Despite the above limitations, the results of this study will find direct
leading to stress concentration at those contact points. Hence, the walls applications in the engineering design of interlocking brick structures
enter the elastic–plastic stage at lower displacements, causing the in­ and make the assessment of their compressive load-bearing capacity
crease of the linear stiffness considering the relatively small change of more accurate. Secondly, this study could help to evaluate the structural
compressive strength with the increase of the COV of imperfection sizes safety of dry-stacking interlocking block structure, thereby reducing the
for these quality levels. This phenomenon, however, is not observed for risk of potential failures. Last but not the least, the results of this study
low-quality walls, where increasing COV leads to a decrease in linear help to improve the quality control of brick manufacture, which
stiffness from 231kN/mm (COV = 0.1) to 113.5kN/mm (COV = 0.5). demonstrate that the rigorous monitoring of imperfections during the
This can be attributed to the prevalent imperfections in low-quality brick production process is of utmost importance but consistency of
walls that result in a significant seating effect. As COV = 0.1, most quality and imperfection size could be more important. While low-

Fig. 16. Distribution of wall equivalent stiffness corresponding to the different COVs of block imperfection size distributions.

Table 3
Summary of wall equivalent compressive stiffness from Monte-Carlo analysis.
Imperfection High-quality wall High-medium quality wall

COV EMax. (kN/ EMin (kN/ EMean (kN/ σ (kN/ COVE Distribution EMax. (kN/ EMin. (kN/ EMean (kN/ σ (kN/ COVE Distribution
mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm)

0.1 342.64 185.64 247.94 40.45 0.163 Loglogistic 206.20 114.20 148.31 23.30 0.157 Gamma
0.3 442.85 190.09 265.00 51.09 0.193 Loglogistic 211.30 101.80 151.70 28.68 0.189 Loglogistic
0.5 460.04 170.72 291.38 66.70 0.229 Loglogistic 262.00 108.30 163.77 35.10 0.214 Gamma

Imperfection Medium-low quality wall Low-quality wall

COV EMax. (kN/ EMin. (kN/ EMean (kN/ σ (kN/ COVE Distribution EMax. (kN/ EMin. (kN/ EMean (kN/ σ (kN/ COVE Distribution
mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm)

0.1 107.73 72.05 87.75 9.25 0.105 Normal 103.60 80.71 92.90 5.49 0.059 Normal
0.3 123.20 73.79 92.21 11.65 0.126 Loglogistic 93.34 67.43 80.47 5.76 0.072 Normal
0.5 147.86 68.49 97.68 15.39 0.16 Loglogistic 90.93 60.12 72.61 7.04 0.097 Normal

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 17. Histograms of equivalent stiffness for interlocking block walls.

Table 4
Summary of wall linear stiffness from Monte-Carlo analysis.
Imperfection High-quality wall High-medium quality wall

COV EMax. (kN/ EMin (kN/ EMean (kN/ σE (kN/ COVE Distribution EMax. (kN/ EMin (kN/ EMean (kN/ σE (kN/ COVE Distribution
mm) mm). mm) mm) mm) mm). mm) mm).

0.1 575.04 439.63 511.44 28.34 0.055 Normal 439.79 212.16 320.30 48.57 0.152 Normal
0.3 590.62 439.95 521.99 29.75 0.057 Normal 415.77 216.33 324.09 49.42 0.153 Normal
0.5 604.49 474.61 533.24 30.11 0.056 Normal 418.84 258.70 334.76 40.41 0.121 Normal

Imperfection Medium-low quality wall Low-quality wall

COV EMax. (kN/ EMin (kN/ EMean (kN/ σE (kN/ COVE Distribution EMax. (kN/ EMin (kN/ EMean (kN/ σE (kN/ COVE Distribution
mm) mm). mm) mm) mm) mm). mm) mm).

0.1 158.78 79.97 119.35 19.59 0.164 Loglogistic 350 121.79 231.04 51.35 0.22 Lognormal
0.3 184.63 90.99 126.03 20.83 0.165 Loglogistic 181.37 93.85 132.87 20.24 0.15 Normal
0.5 217.41 104.82 148.51 24.66 0.166 Gamma 142.68 81.37 113.53 15.01 0.13 Normal

quality walls may even exhibit higher compressive strength than walls 7. Conclusion
made of blocks with mixed qualities due to the more uniform
compression of gaps if the imperfections are of similar sized, however, it This study performs stochastic analysis to investigate the compres­
would have significant seating effect even if the wall is subjected to sive properties of dry-stacked interlocking block walls with spatially
relatively low compressive loading, causing the subsidence of the whole varying block imperfections. A detailed numerical model of interlocking
structure. More generally, the number and severity of localised block block walls with block imperfection is generated. The number of block
damage and failures increase with decreasing block quality, leading to a imperfections is assumed to follow the Binominal distribution in massive
lower compressive strength and axial stiffness. This signifies that to block production process. The imperfection sizes are assumed to follow
maintain the structural performance and compressive load-bearing ca­ the truncated normal distribution. the imperfection size on the surface of
pacity of interlocking block walls, it is necessary to minimize the this block is assumed to be uniform over the entire surface for simplicity.
quantity of imperfect blocks and control the sizes of imperfections as The influences of imperfection on the compressive strength, equivalent
much as possible during production. stiffness, linear stiffness of interlocking block wall are studied. The
following conclusions are derived from this study:

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

Fig. 18. Distribution of wall linear stiffness corresponding to different COVs of block imperfection size distributions.

Fig. 19. Histograms of linear stiffness for interlocking walls.

1. Typical crack patterns on imperfect block units are presented, which being 4.00 MPa, 3.38 MPa and 2.81 MPa, respectively. This phe­
demonstrates strong influence of imperfection on the crack patterns. nomenon is attributed to the more uniform closure of gaps under
It is also found that block imperfections could strongly influence the compressive loading in the low-quality walls. In contrast, medium-
crack initiation and development, as well as the load path of dry- quality walls suffer from non-uniform deformation and stress con­
stacked interlocking block walls. centration, leading to lower compressive strengths.
2. The quantity and distribution of imperfect blocks greatly impact an 3. The COV of block imperfection size has a marginal influence on the
interlocking block wall’s mean compressive strength. A high-quality mean compressive strengths of high-quality and high-medium
wall, with fewer imperfect blocks, shows the highest mean quality walls. Specifically, when COV increases from 0.1 to 0.5, the
compressive strength of 4.47 MPa at a COV of 0.1. Interestingly, a mean compressive strengths decrease slightly from 4.47 MPa to 4.40
low-quality wall with more imperfect blocks could still outperform MPa for high-quality walls, and from 3.38 MPa to 3.27 MPa for high-
high-medium and medium–low quality walls in terms of compressive medium quality walls. In contrast, the mean compressive strength of
strength, especially when COV = 0.1, with the compressive strengths

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T. Shi et al. Structures 56 (2023) 104875

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