CRAFT AND STUDIO TECHNOLOGY

ELEMENT OF ART & DESIGN

Elements of art and design are guidelines followed during the construction and
appreciation of a given work of art. They are the building blocks or the tools of the visual
arts in order to succeed in making and appreciating art and design, one needs to be
familiar with the elements of art because in order to observe and utilize them, one has to
utilize the human sense of sight to a great extent.

Importance of elements of art.

The elements of art and design are considered important in the following ways:
1. It helps in the production of an art work by organizing the elements of art together.
2. Elements of art help us describe the characteristics of a given work of art.
3. Elements of art help us to analyse the success or failure of a particular work of art.
4. Elements of art help us to speak a common language as we communicate through
art.
Simpson (2000) explains eight elements of Art and Design which include space, line, shape,
tone, form, structure, texture and colour.

1. Space. While making a given work of art, one needs an area in which to express
him/ herself. Such an area is technically called space. In two-dimensional art, space
is the creation of visual perspective. This gives the illusion of depth. Space can be
negative or positive, three dimensional or two dimensional.
Jacobs (1999) defines negative space, in art as the space around and between the
subject(s) of an image.

2. Line. In two dimensional art such as drawing, painting, graphics and textile
designing, line can be defined as the mark made by a moving point, or a path made
by a sharp instrument when lines point of contact is made to move on a given
surface. However, in three dimensional art such as sculpture, ceramics and weaving
line can be defined as a contour created when two planes meet.
Line can be used in the following ways:

➢ To create shape.

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 ➢ To show the effect of light and shade in drawing.
➢ To indicate weight on a given farm
➢ To create pattern
➢ To create texture on a given surface.
➢ To show character or mood of a given object or surface.
➢ To show movement s and direction.

The different ways of using lines suggested above can be a achieved by exploiting the
different characteristics of a line.
Lines can be exploited in different ways to create different meanings such as movement,
rigidity, roughness and direction.
Below are the different examples of lines

Straight or rigid lines Zigzaged lines Thick or heavy

lines

Circled lines Broken or dashed lines

3. Shape. Shape is a flat, enclosed line or simply an area with well design boundaries.
When lines form together, they form shapes, shapes can be geometrical, rectangles,
ovals and squares, or organic
Examples

Geometric shapes

B-organic shapes

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 4. Tone. Tone is also referred to as light and shade the lightness or darkness of an
object due to the light effect. It can also be defined as the variation from light to
dark on the surface of an object as light falls on it. When tones are applied on a
given shape, their form can be achieved.
In two dimensional art, tones are got by manipulating a given medium to show the dark
and light parts caused by the light effect on a given object.
When there are several objects in a composition, their variations in depth can be achieved
by controlling the value of their tone. Value refers to the degree of lightness or darkness of
a given object.

5. Form. Form is the roundness of a given object, three dimensional space, or mass
volume. Form in two-dimensional art creates a three-dimensional aspect (height,
width and depth)
by using tones, texture and colour.
The figures below demonstrate how the shape of a triangle can developed into a form of a
pyramid, a rectangular shape is developed into a cuboid form and a circular shape is
developed into a cylindrical form. The relationship in three objects is created by adding
together two or more shapes to come up with the form shapes.
Illustrations

6. Structure.
Structure simply refers to the general appearance of an object according to it’s
inner mass. It is the buildup of a given object. Structure is formed by a combination
of different forms to forms the entirely of a given art piece.
7. Texture.
Texture can be defined as the surface quality of a given object or simply the
roughness or smoothness of a given surface of an object.

Texture enriches the surface of the given form by adding to its value. One can describe the
surface of a given art piece as rough, smooth, pricky or course. However, in
three-dimensional art, texture can be categorized in the following ways:

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 i. Artificial texture. This is the type of texture created and designed by human
being beings using a given tool for a specific purpose to give a sense of volume.
ii. Naturalistic texture. This type of texture that relates to the natural appearance
of the object being represented in the given article. It also called simulated
texture.

iii. Abstract texture. This is the type of texture created to make patterns on a given
article but such texture may not be related to the natural appearance on the
object represented. This type of texture is also referred to as invented texture.
iv. Glyptic texture. This is the texture which appears on a given article in relation to
the material in which it was made. It is also referred to as actual texture.
Colour.
Colour refers to how the eye perceives reflected light from the surface of an object. It can
also be defined as the sensation caused in a viewer’s eyes as he/she observes a particular
object.
The colour of an object depends on how it absorbs and or reflects light. Colour can be
categorized as being warm or hot (such as yellow, orange, and red) or cool or dull (such as
blue, green, purple and brown).

When the original colour of the material is not manipulated the final work appears in the
same colour. Such colours is referred to as glyptic. In sculpture, one is encouraged to
maintain the glyptic colour. While choosing the colour of the materials to use in a
particular craft, care should be taken to use those which harmonise with each other.
Remember, black and white are not colours, but a shade and tint respectively.

Types of colours
Colours are categorized according to how they react with each other to form other groups
of colours. The followings are the types of colours:-

• Primary colours.
These are the types of colours that are obtained without mixing any colours.
Examples are yellow, blue and red.
• Secondary colours.
These are colours that are obtained by mixing any two primary colours. Eg. Orange,
purple, and green. BLUE + YELLOW = GREEN
BLUE + RED = PURPLE
RED +YELLOW = ORANGE
• Tertiary colours.
These are colours that are obtained by mixing any one primary colour and any one
secondary colour Eg, Red + Purple = Red-purple or Purple-red
Blue + Green = Greenish-blue or bluish-green

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 Yellow + orange = yellowish-orange etc.

• Complimentary colours.
These are colours that are directly opposite each other in the colour wheel

Illustration

Properties of colours
These are qualities of colours as determined by its dominant wavelength. The
followings are some of the properties of colours.
• Hue. This is the colour family or colour name e.g. pink, red, purple etc.
• Tint. This is a result of lighting colour using light colours.
• Shade. This is the result of darkening colous by adding in dark colours.
• Brightness. Is the quality or state of giving out or reflecting light.
• Chroma. This is the degree of strength of particular colour from its natural form.
Colours with low Chroma are referred to as weak colours , while colours with high
chroma are referred to as strong colours.
• Saturation. This refers to the intensity of colour in an image. As the saturation
increases, the colour appear to be more pure

PRINCIPLES OF ART AND DESIGN

Principle of art and design are rules, or guidelines that artists use to organize elements of
art in an art work to make it pleasant to look at.

IMPORTANCE OF PRINCIPLES OF ART

The principles of art are considered important in the following ways:

1. They help us organize the elements of art and design during the process of making
an art work.
2. Principles of art and design help an artist in the planning of his art work in order to
covey message.

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 3. Principles of art help to establish a way for other people to react towards, or
appreciate a given work of art.
4. Principles add to the technical language used in art and design.

FORMS OF PRINCIPLES OF ART AND DESIGN

There are eight forms of principles of art and design. These include: -

Balance, Rhythm, contrast, proportions, unity, Emphasis, variety and Harmony. These
principles of art and design can be explained as follows:

1. Balance. This refers to a state of equilibrium of an art work obtained by using the
elements of art. A state of equilibrium is achieved when no part of a given art work
over powers or seems to be heavier than the other part.
Balance can either be symmetrical, asymmetrical or radial.
(a) Symmetrical balance (also called formal balance) or passive. This is achieved
when the opposite parts of a given art work in respect to a vertical or horizontal
axis are exactly or nearly the same.
(b) A symmetrical balance (also known as informal balance) is the type of balance
that does not weigh equally on both sides of the given art work.
Asymmetrical balance in a given art work can be assessed by looking at the work
in totality. Such balance I used in order to create variety in a given at piece.
(c) Radial balance. This is a type of balance where the elements are equally
distributed from a center point of given article. Radial balance is commonly
followed in weaving baskets such as a basket won from canes.

2. Contrast. This refers to a striking difference between two or more elements of art
in a given art work. Contrast creates excitement and interest, and often draws the
eye to certain areas in an art work.
3. Proportion. This refers to the relationship in size amount and location of something
compared to another.
4. Rhythm – Rhythm refers to the visual movement observed in a work or art. This
can be achieved by repetition of the elements of art (such as line, form, texture and
colour)
Rhythm can be achieved in the following ways.
(i) By repeating shapes, lines, colour and texture in a given art work.
(ii) By varying the sizes of the shapes and line used in a given at work.
(iii) By using shapes and lines that suggest movement, for instance curved lines are
more rhythmic compared to straight lines.

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(iv) By manipulating the pose portrayed in a given art work, especially if, the forms
relate to the dynamism of the objects in the natural setting.
5. Unity. This refers to the wholeness that is achieved through the effective use of the
elements and principles of art. It focuses on the arrangement of the elements in a
work of art in accordance with a single overall design or purpose. This is achieved
when everything in a given art work seems to be working together.
When a work of art has unity, one views it as a whole but not as separate
items. Unity creates a cohesive quality that makes an art work look complete
and finished.
Unity can be achieved in the following ways:
(i) Repetition of lines, shapes and colour to make a composition.
(ii) Continuation of lines or patterns to achieve a whole.
(iii) Proximity, when forms are placed together in a composition they tend to appear
unified.
6. Pattern. This is a principle of art in which an artist repeats colour, shape or a line
over and over again to create an impressive work of art.

Pattern increases visual excitement by enriching surface interest in a given art work
.
7. Emphasis
This is a principle of art used to create dominance and focus in a given art work.
Emphasis can be referred to as developing points of interest in a given art work to
pull the viewer’s attention to those particular parts in a work of art.
Emphasis can be achieved in the following ways:
(i) Using shapes (visual emphasis) bigger shapes always dominate the smaller ones,
(ii) Value. A stronger contrast between light and dark tones dominate areas with a
weaker contrast.
(iii) Using colour: brighter colours tend to dominate the cool colours.
(iv) Lines: Thick ad dark lines dominant the thin and lighter lines.
8. Variety: This refers to the use of differences in our wok in terms of shapes, texture,
colour, lines etc. variety creates interest in all art work and as such reduces
boredom. One should be careful as he or she creates variety in order to create
harmony in an art work.
9. Harmony. Harmony refers to the use of similar element throughout the given art
work. A work of art is considered to be harmonious if similar lines, shapes, colours
and texture appear simple and tend to agree with each other.

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 Harmony results from the use related but often different elements of art to create an
interesting art work.
Harmony can be achieved by combining the principles of pattern and rhythm
together in a given art work.
SKETCHING FOR ART AND DESIGN
It is a general believe that in order to produce a carefully planned art work, one needs to be
guided by a sketch or sketches.
A sketch is a thinking instrument which undergoes several changes in order to suit the
artist’s imagination.
There are no specific styles of sketching, the styles are as deserve as there are artists in a
given area.
However, sketching for textile designing may differ from the sketches for fashion designing
and sculpture.
Importance of sketching
The sole purpose of the sketch is to guide the artist’s creative thinking towards his/her goal.
Particularly, sketching is considered important in the following ways: -
(1) Making basic lay out, sketching help one to obtained the basic appearance of the
desired art work.
(2) Concept development. During the creativity process, many ideas keep coming to
one’s mind and in the same way they keep escaping if not captured first. Therefore,
it is always a good idea to keep sketching these ideas as they cross one’s mind. It is
Such ideas which get developed into something tangible at a later stage.
(3) In-depth thinking. When an idea is captured by sketching, it is such an idea that one
makes additions and subtractions which would result into a brilliant idea. It is such
a sketching process that would keep you more involved in the creative process of
your art work.
(4) Communicating with clients. Sketches provide a quick and easier way of
presenting an idea to the client. Eg if you were to make a sculpture piece in cement
following the client’s demands. You may go through several adjustments before
reaching the final agreed upon idea. You may have to break the whole or parts of
the sculpture every time you meet the client.
(5) Creativity mobility, working with a pencil and a sketch book is very convenient and
flexible to the extent that you can sketch from anywhere any time. this wouldn’t be
possible if you were to work on the final art work at once.
(6) Getting to know your work, the more you make trials with sketch work, the more
you become part of it and therefore you stand a better chance of explaining your
work to your client in a better way.

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(7) Adding to your portfolio, making several sketches towards your final work shows
how committed you are to your work and if you present this to your client, it gives
you a basis upon which to explain your ideas.

AN ART ROOM
An art room is a room set aside for learning art. Such a room has to be with enough
light, working space, storage facilities, sink, furniture (such as tables, tools and
drawing boards) and a provision for visual displays.
Unfortunately, not all schools in Uganda are privileged with this facility. Yet they
continue to teach art. In some school, art is taught in the same classroom as other
subjects, and in some other schools, art lessons are conducted under the trees.
Whatever the situation may be for teaching and learning art, there are some basic
requirements to be in place.
These include a provision for storing materials and students’ art works as well as a
display facility. (Such as a movable display board)
The art teacher is encouraged to be innovative enough to collect and keep various
materials from the local environment that would help in the teaching and. learning
of art.

An art room should have the following qualities

(1) Clean enough to give an inspiring atmosphere.
(2) Art tools and materials for students to practice.
(3) Enough working space.
(4) Storage facility for materials and students works.
(5) Display board for displaying works of students.
(6) Enough light.
(7) Furniture such as tables, stools, and drawing boards.

MATERIALS FOR ART AND DESIGN

Art and design is a skill-based subject which greatly demands hand on

practice with materials. Therefore, materials are always part of learning art and
design. Indeed, it is difficult if not impossible to learn art without them. In simple
term. A material is something used to make a given article. It is through materials
that artists express themselves.

There are several materials available for artists on the market today. These include
both natural and artificial.

For one to select which materials to use, he or she has to be careful about their
propagation, limitations, possibilities and how they can be kept safely. Materials can
affect the quality of art work if not properly used. Therefore, they have to be
carefully prepared and creatively used for self-expression.

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 In this section we shall discuss some of the natural materials that can be used in
three-dimensional art such as clay.

Importance of materials in art and design

In summary materials are important in art and design in the following ways:
1. Materials provide hands on practice which helps learners to develop their
practical skills in art and design.
2. Learners develop their senses of touch as they practice with different materials
in art and design.
3. Learners’ creativity is heightened as they experiment with different materials in
art and design.
4. Materials act as a medium of expression in art and design.
5. Learners appreciate nature as they explore and experiment with different
materials from nature.
6. Learners develop a sense of belonging to a society as they share materials with
each other.
CLAY
Clay is a fine – grained, firm earthly material that is plastic when wet and hardens when
heated.

Clay consist primarily of hydrated silicates of aluminum and is widely used in making
bricks, tiles and pottery.
Gold, Cavell and Smith (1983) stated five chemicals that form the composition of clay.
These include silicon, aluminum, magnesium, potassium and Iron.
Clay generally appears grey in colour and when it is fired, its colour ranges between grey
white and brick red depending on its chemical composition.
Fired clay is referred to as terra cotta.
Clay is recyclable material but when fired, it becomes permanent and irreversible.
POSSIBILITIES OF CLAY
1. Clay is a cheap material.
2. Clay is a flexible material which can be easily manipulated with hands and therefore
can be early used by learners.
3. It is a common material in many swamps in Uganda.
4. It can be recycled if not fired.
5. It can be a permanent material when fired.
LIMITATIONS OF CLAY

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 1. It takes one a long process to prepare clay for use especially for pottery.
2. It is not reversible if fired.
3. Clay articles can easily break.
CLAY PREPARATION
Clay preparation consist of mixing materials, removal of large stones, roots, crushing of
large particles etc.
There are 4 major methods of clay preparation which include: the plastic method, the wet
method, the dry method and the semi-dry method.
1. The plastic method
This method is used extensively on the brick industry and pottery. It makes use of the
moisture available in the clay as delivered if the clay is too dry, water is added.
The process is simple and cheap and requires no equipment. The mixed clay can be used
directly for forming products by hand throwing, rolling, pressing, extrusion etc.
Disadvantages of plastic method:
1. Mixing different types of clay or other materials is time consuming.
2. It results in unevenly mixed clay.
3. The method is less well suited for clay types which do not slake easily.
4. Hard and dry lumps do need a lot of time to soak up the water, dissolve and become
plastic.

2. The wet method

In this method, clay is dissolved in water to form slurry or slip. A very homogeneous
mixture can be prepared and is more suitable for casting, and slip can also be used to join
parts of clay together.
3. The dry method. In this method, clay is dried, pounded and crashed into a powder
form but can only be used for dry pressing, such as in the making of tiles.
4. The semi dry method. This method is basically a combination of the dry and plastic
method.
It consists of drying and crashing the clay until the powder is obtained.
Additive such as grog can be added and mixed with the clay powder. Once properly mixed
and sieved in order to remove large particles, water is added and mixed into powder till a
plastic mixture is obtained with a consistency suitable for further processing, such as hand
throwing, coiling, pressing, extrusion etc.

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 STEPS FOR CLAY PREPARATION
1. Clay preparation starts with the mining of the clay from the swamp and damping it
into a clay bin or any other available storage facility. Such clay is usually full of
impurities such as stones, plant roots etc.
2. The second step includes sorting out the impurities out of clay when it is still moist.
3. Spread out the clay to dry, depending on the moisture content of the clay as delivered,
normally, if left in an uncovered stock, wind and sun will be sufficient to dry the clay.
4. When the clay is dry, it is crashed into powder form, dust in this case is inevitable.
5. Sieve the powder clay to get rid of large particles and impurities such as plant roots
and stones.
6. Soak the powder clay in water for some time(preferably overnight)
7. Add grog to the clay. Grog is prepared by crashing already fired clay into powder
form and sieve it to remove large particles.
8. Mix the clay, knead and wedge it to a level when it becomes plastic. You can test the
plasticity of clay by making a coil and wrapping around your finger. If it does not
develop cracks then it is plastic.
9. Store the clay, after the clay has been mixed kneaded properly to right consistency, it
should be stored properly before being used. Whenever possible, the clay should be
covered with plastic sheeting or some other materials which keeps the moisture inside
such as a bucket.
A finished article in clay can be recycled by crashing and soaking it in water and then the
clay is weighed and kneaded for other use, however, if a permanent is needed from clay, it
has to be fired into terracotta.
Properties of clay
There are three major properties of clay and these include clay plasticity, clay vitrification
and clay porosity
• Clay plasticity, this is the ability for clay to withstand manipulation/shaping
without cracking.
• Clay vitrification, this is the ability for clay to withstand high temperature or
heating without getting damage.
• Clay porosity, this is the ability for clay to absorb and retain water.

Types of clay
There are three main types of clay, namely Earthenware clay, stoneware and
Kaolin clay.
• Earthenware clay, this is secondary clay that has been transported by moving
water from some distance, picking up materials and other materials before setting
in a river bed.

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 • Stoneware clay. Is a hard and durable clay that is fired to temperature between
2100 and 2300 (1205-126 c), its natural colour vary from light gray or tan to
dark gray.
• Kaolin, kaolin clay is also called primary clay. This is a type of clay that is found
very near its source, with very few impurities.

PAPIER-MACHE
This is a material that is made from paper pulp and glue, which can be molded when wet
and painted when dry. Waste papers can be put to use inform of Papier-Mache.
Papier-mache can be used alone for small pieces of both ceramics and sculpture or
reinforced with an armature for big pieces and for areas of tension, or casted, this material
can be painted or polished in the interest of the artist and can produce interesting art work
such as mask, but it can be used in the outside environment.
Possibilities of Papier-Mache
• It is a cheap material since it can be prepared from waste papers which can be easily
accessed.
• It is a light material, it can be used for pots, vases, bowels etc.
• Finished work in papier Mache can be painted.
Limitations of papier Mache

• It requires a long preparation process in order to be used.

• It cannot survive in a moist environment.
• It requires enforcement for big pieces and areas of tension.
• Paper pulp cannot be used alone, one needs glue as well and armature sometimes.

How to prepare papier Mache

• Tear the available papers (such as newspapers, magazines or toilet papers) into
smaller strips.
• Soak the strip in water for some time until it softens. The time depend on the quality
of paper used, the harder the longer it takes. (if the paper used is so hard you can
boil it water first).
• When the paper softens it is crashed into paper pulp. You can use a piece of wood or
hand blender to crash the paper in a container into paper pulp.
• Squeeze out the excess water and leave the pulp with just enough moisture, not too
dry and not too moist. The colour of the paper pulp largely depends on the type of
paper used. Papers with more wordings and pictures will create coloured pulp
compared to papers with no words.
• Then the pulp can be mixed with glue ready to be used. One may use cassava flour,
but it takes longer to dry, wood glue can be used for better results.
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• When working with papier Mache, add one layer at a time and let it dry before
adding another layer.
LEATHER WORK
Leather is a material made from hides and skins of animals by removing flesh, hair
and tanning to render it soft and flexible when drying.

Materials and tools used in leather work

• Ruler
• Work Board
• Rotary punch
• Divider
• Wood stamp
• Knives
• Raw hide mallet
• Grooving and edging tools
• Stitching tools
• Thong
LEATHER PROCESSING
This is the process of changing skin, hides and kip from its original raw
material to leather. The followings are some of the steps taken to process
leather: -
• Skinning. This is the removal of the outer protective covering of the animal’s
hides and skin. This should be done carefully to avoid cutting through and
some damages.
• Washing. This is done to remove blood stains, dirt and other impurities.
• Liming. The skin is soaked in lime to soften it and loosen the hair.
• Dehairing and flashing. This is the process of scrapping hair off the skin and
removal of unwanted flesh.
• Cleaning bath. This is the stage where the skin is soaked in a solution of
chemical to neutralize traces of lime and any other impurities.
• Washing. This is the second washing for a thorough cleaning by use of
fibrous brush that marks the end of cleaning process.
• Cunning (tanning). This is the process of soaking hide and skin in a chemical
substance called tannin or chromium in a large container for some time until
the tanned material gained a stable state.
• Drying and compressing. After cunning, the skin becomes spongy during
drying and compressing process, it is aired in a drying room with free
circulation of air and temperature. When it’s partly dry, skin is passed
through rollers to compress and give it firmness of texture.
• Finishing. This is a process where leather is given an artificial grain. A cow
hide may be given the grain of reptile skin. Such leather is referred to as
corrected grain leather.

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 • Dying. Finished leather which is ready for use is measured as required taking
in consideration areas with scars, blemishes and irregular shapes and to
avoid wastage.
Techniques used for decorating leather
There are several techniques used for decorating leather and these include: -
1. Stippling, this is the technique of leather decoration where patterns are
created by use of small dots placed in different parts using a single point
tool.
2. Malting, this is a technique similar to stippling but differs in that tools
with different points are used to place the dots that form the pattern.
3. Stumping, this is a technique of leather decoration where patterns are
made on leather piece by pressing a dump leather piece with patterned
metal on a flat surface
4. Incising, this is a decorating technique where pattern are incised on the
surface of a leather piece.
5. Modeling, this is a decorative technique made by raising parts of on the
leather surface.
6. Embossing, this is a decorative technique made by raising parts of leather
from the underneath.
7. Tooling, this is a decorative technique made by pressing lines on the
surface of leather.
Possibilities of leather
• Leather is a flexible material
• Leather is strong and durable material
• Leather is available every where
• Leather resist rough weather condition
• Article made from leather like shoes and bags are expensive hence
fetching more cash for craft industries.
• Skin and hide are cheap to obtain

CEMENT
Cement is a fine, soft powdery type substance which is made from a mixture of elements
that are found in natural materials such as limestone, clay, sand and shale. When cement is
mixed with water, it can bind some and gravel into a hard-solid mass concrete. In order for
cement to be used in three-dimensional art (such as sculpture). Cement has to be mixed
with sand and water, stones and needs an armature in order to stand stronger.

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 Possibilities of cement

• Articles made in cement last for a long period.

• It is a strong material which can withstand different weather conditions.
• It requires much time for one to make an art work in cement.
• If cement is not mixed in the right ratios, art work in cement can easily break or
develop cracks.
WOOD
Wood is a hard-fibrous material that forms the main substance of the trunk or branches of
a tree or shrub. Wood is used in various ways as furniture, to make masks, musical
instruments or canoes but it can also be used as a material in sculpture. Wood has a
pattern that largely depends on the nature of the tree from which it has been got.
There are many other materials from the environment that can be used in three
dimensional arts such as plant fibers. But always remember that such material have to be
prepared well before the process of forming a given art work. Each material, such as plant
leaves and fibers may have to be dried or soaked in water in order to be used in a
particular article.

COLLAGE
Collage was developed from an old French word “coller” which means “to stick”, or to
paste down. In our context, collage refers to creation of an original art work, build up by
gluing together pieces of originally unrelated images and text. (or parts of images and text).
The sources of text and images use for collage are typically called from commercial printed
materials. Most often magazines, newspapers and books.

Materials and tools

To make an art work in collage, you need the following materials in place,
1. Papers (magazines, newspapers and posters etc.)
2. Glue (this can be prepared from cassava flour or plant sup)
3. A hard surface (such as old boxes, card boards and plywood)
4. Pencils and rubbers.
5. Coloured pencils.
Technique
• Collect different newspapers, magazines and posters.

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 • Like any other form of art, it is a good idea to begin with making sketches for the
suggested idea on paper. You can go ahead to suggest the tones or colours to be used
in the collage.
• Using a pencil, transfer the sketches on to the hard support, such as a cardboard or
plywood.
• Tear small pieces of papers according to the required tones and/or colour. Tearing
is preferred to cutting the pieces of paper with a pair of scissors in order to create
an interesting texture in the art work.
• Carefully apply glue to the hard surface as you apply the torn pieces of paper,
following the composition you have already sketched on paper. Apply glue to small
areas as you paste the pieces of paper, never apply glue to the entire hard surface.
• When you complete the composition, trim the unwanted parts off your article, you
may go ahead and frame it in order to look more impressive.

MOSAIC
A mosaic is a picture or pattern produced by arranging together small colored pieces and
hard materials, such as stone, tile, or glasses.
Materials and tools used in mosaic
Historically, it is clear that broken stones and glasses commonly known as tesserae were
the basic materials used in the mosaic during the early Christian period and the Middle
Ages.
However, the basic materials needed include: -

1. A hard surface such as a block of wood, ply wood or a wall surface is the work is
big.
2. Glue, wood glue or any other tough glue.
3. Knives / razor blade or cutters.
4. Pencil and rubber.
5. The hummer to crush the stone or glasses into smaller particles.
6. Paper for sketching.
7. Assorted objects (tesserae) such as broken glasses, stone, seeds, plant fiber etc.
(sometimes tesserae is pre-painted)
8. Frames
9. Nails.
Technique
1. Collect and prepare the necessary materials.
2. Make sketches of the composition for your mosaic on paper and suggest the
colors you are going to follow.
3. Using a pencil, transfer the hard support, such as cardboard and ply wood.

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 4. Carefully apply glue to the hard surface as you paste the tesserae following your
sketch.
5. When you complete the composition, trim off the unwanted parts from your
article.
6. You may go ahead and frame the art work using wooden or plastic frame in
order to look more impressive.

Key factors to consider in collage and mosaic

The approach used in both collage and mosaic are basically the same, however, in mosaic,
hard and heavy materials are used compared to the papers used in collage,
The following aspects should be considered when making either a collage or mosaic.
(1) Creativity. Ability for someone to come up with something new. Creativity is judged
by the way one combines the elements and principles of art together to create a
unique or impressive composition in a given art work.
(2) Composition. The ability to put together, to arrange or organize the elements of art
in a coherent manner, following the principles of art. A composition is more
impressive if it has got some dramatic qualities in the way subjects are arranged to
create unity and variety.
(3) Colour / tone. The colour and tone in collage and mosaic depend on the materials
used.

The art work can be monochromic or produced in several colours, the ability for one to
create contrast, perspective and building forms using the available colours contribute to
proper use of colour / tone.
(4) Use of materials. Materials are unique and can produce different effects in a given
art work depending on how they have been used in both collage and mosaic, the
tesserae used create a unique texture and its consistence depend on how pieces have
been glued together on a hard surface.
(5) Finishing. What makes an art work look complete, in craft, there must be some
unwanted features that have to be got rid of before one declares the work complete.
These may be extensions outside the work space or overflows of glue etc. in simple
terms, finishing may simply be referred to as neatness in a given art work.
(6) Individual style. Quite often there are general and acceptable ways of using of a
given materials depending on its possibilities and limitations. However, one may
come up with a unique way to make his or her work stand out more prominently
compared to others, this is sometimes referred to us personal quality.
SCULPTURE
Sculpture is the art or practice of shaping representatives or abstracts forms. In the round
or in relief, especially by modeling clay, chiseling stone, carving wood or by casting metal
or plaster, or casting in metal.

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Sculpture has existed from the pre-historic period, through the ancient civilizations, the
middle ages, to the modern and contemporary period. Throughout the different
civilizations, sculpture has served utilitarian and religious purposes, as well as abstracts
and decorative functions.
Sculpture belongs to the three-dimensional arts, following the definition of sculpture, it is
clear that there are many materials that can be used in this area and as such there are
several methods and techniques that can be used in sculpture,
The materials include clay, wood, stone, paper, cement, plaster, soap, fiber, glass among
others, choosing a material to use should largely depend on the possibilities and limitations.
Types of sculptures
1. Relief sculpture. This refers to the type of sculpture that is partially carved into or
out of another surface; these sculptures rely on a base or plane to support them and
are two-dimensional art forms. Therefore, relief sculpture is not two dimensional
because in order to see the images properly, there has to be variations in depth,
although at a lower scale compared to sculpture in the round.
There are three types of relief sculptures alto, bas, and sunken.
(i) Alto relief (high relief). This is a type of relief sculpture that is almost
completely carved from its surface, its highly shaped, with very little of the
structure touching the base or plane. In fact, it could possibly stand-alone if
the base or plane were removed.
(ii) Bas relief (low relief) this is the type of relief sculpture that barely extends
past the base, for examples the images reflected on the coins (fish, cow, and
crested crane)
(iii) Sunken relief (intaglio) is the type of relief sculpture that is carved into the
surface, rather than out of it. This type of sculpture was greatly practiced by
Ancient Egyptians.
2. Architectural sculpture. This is the type of sculpture shaped by an architect or
sculptor in the design of a building, bridge, mausoleum or others.
3. Sculpture in the round. This is a type of a free- standing sculpture in which the
figures are presented in complete three-dimensional forms and are not attached to a
flat background.

Functions of sculptures
The major functions that sculptures serve include: - spiritual, cultural, monumental,
academics, and these can be discussed as follows.
1. Spiritual. Sculptures that have religious related themes or sacred things are the
types that are used in churches and mosques for religious beliefs and functions.
2. Cultural. Sculptures often depict themes related to the beliefs, customs,
practices, and social behaviors of a particular nation or group of people.

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3. Monumental. This is when sculpture is made to commemorate an event or the
existence of some one great. Such sculptures are usually big in size and
significantly seen in the area where it is placed.
4. Academics. This is when sculpture is made for studies, simplified to suit the
artist’s interpretation of elements and principles of art and design. Such
sculptures may be either in abstract or expressionistic.

Making a sculpture piece in clay

There are two methods you can use, additive and subtractive methods.
The hand is the basic tool you can use in clay sculpture.
However, other tools can also be used and these are tools that can be made
locally using wires, and small sticks.
(a) Additive method. This is a method commonly used in sculpture where you
begin with a small piece of clay and you keep on adding other pieces as you
form the require composition.
(b) Subtractive method. The subtractive method can be used in clay by first
pilling up a lump of clay and letting it to harden for some time. Then you
start carving the clay until you obtain the required form.
However, it may not be easy to use one method strictly, but rather to use
both additive and subtractive methods. Clay is a flexible material that allows
both additive and subtractive methods to be used.
Subtractive method can be used alone when working on wood, wax, stone
and soap.

KEY FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHILE MAKING SCULPTURE

Making sculpture is such an interesting activity. But one needs to be

acquainted with the basic factors to consider besides the elements and
principles of art and design.
These factors include:-
1. Message to be communicated through the sculpture piece.
2. Creativity, the ability to put in new ideas.
3. Composition, proper arrangement of parts or different objects.
4. Structure.
5. Materials.
6. Style.
7. Individual technique.

CERAMICS

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Ceramics refers to the art of making and decorating pottery, technically,
ceramics are those things made from materials which are permanently
changed when heated.
Pottery is generally considered to be containers made from clay. In this
context our emphasis is going to be put on pottery, where clay is the main
material.
Pottery can be made using pinch, coil, slab or by using a wheel method.
(a) Pinch method.
This is a method where one uses a thumb and forefinger in the process
of forming the clay shape, pinch pottery is the most basic clay
assembling method which can be used by students with ease and
interest.

Steps to follow when using pinch method

(i) Begin with a small ball of clay, wedge and knead it to make
sure that it is plastic enough (with no cracks), then insert your
thumb in the middle of the clay ball.
(ii) Then carefully pinch up the walls of your pot as you keep
turning the pot around. Keep the thickness of the walls
consistent as you slowly make your way to the top.
(iii) You can work on the brim of your pot by making it protrude
more than the rest of the pot. You can flatten the bottom of the
pot in order to give it support.
(iv) You can adjust on the shape of your pot according to your
interest and add decorations when your port is still wet. When
you are through with the forming activity. Your article should
be kept covered to dry slowly before the firing process.
(b) The coil method.
This is a method in which you make coil and keep joining them until
the required form is got. Make sure your clay is plastic and flexible;
make sure that you work on a smooth surface.

Steps to follow in coil method

(i) Begin by making a uniform slab, and cut it into a circular
shape that forms the base of your pot.
(ii) Roll clay in your hands and on a flat surface into small coils of
the same thickness.
(iii) Add the coils to the base of pot and press the inner sides of the
coil to merge them on the base of the pot.
(iv) Add more coils to the article as you form the walls of your pot.
Seal all the gaps from the inner side of the pot with your finger.
This is done at this stage because it would be difficult to seal
these gaps when the pot is completed.

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 (v) When the required shape and height of the pot has been
obtained, smoothen the outer surface with a tool. You may add
a decoration when the pot is still wet.
(c) The slab method.
This is a method in which slabs are used to make pottery. Angular
and cylindrical shapes suit this method better than any other
methods.
Assuming you have already prepared clay, make slip (liquid clay)
which is used to bind the slabs together.

Steps to follow in slab method

(i) Sketch the shape of the pot you want to make on a paper, using a pencil and ruler.
(ii) Prepare a flat surface to work from and lay it with a polythene material. Get a small
lump of clay and flatten it in your hands. Then place on it the flat surface and
smoothen it further with a roller. The consistence of the clay can be achieved by
placing long ruler on either side of the slab and rolled.
(iii) Using a ruler and a knife, cut the slab in the different sizes you want. The ruler
helps you to get straight edges of the slab. Make sure the slabs are right angled.
(iv) Let the slab harden a bit by disposing them for some time, then add slip to the edges
of the slab you want to join. At this level you should have got all the slabs you need
for your ceramic article.
(v) Assemble the slabs together to form your article. And then lay a coil over the inner
joints of the slabs to seal off the gaps.
(vi) When you are finished with the article. Smooth out the edges with a wet paper towel
or a piece of cloth. then you can add handles and decorations on the sides of your
articles.

Once you have completed your hand built slab piece, you will need to dry it thoroughly
before firing it.

It is important to dry the piece slowly and evenly in order to avoid wrapping and cracking.
A good way to dry your piece is to cover it evenly with newspaper tent this will allow the
moisture to escape slowly.

The slower the piece dries the better. At this level your article is referred to as “green
ware”

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 How to fire ceramics articles

Before firing your article, make sure that it dries completely as a green ware, you can fire
your article using either of the following ways:-

➢ Fire your pottery in a kiln, this can be electric,

firewood, or oil kiln.
➢ Using a pit fire clay, a traditional method of
firing pots.
➢ Smoke firing in a dust bin.

Firing pottery using a pit fire clay

➢ Begin by digging a pit large enough to accommodate your pots and all the materials
you will use as fuel.
➢ Fill the bottom of the pit with a thick layer of saw dust.
➢ Add your pots facing different directions.
➢ Build up layers of saw dust paper and dry wood around your pots.
➢ Light your fire from the top and allow to burn. Then allow your pots to cool the
same amount or longer as the heating process.
➢ When everything is cool, you can dig up the fired pots and clean them up. This level
is often referred to bisque level.

PRINTING

Printing refers to the surface resist process of reproducing texts and images, typically with
ink on paper, cloth, or any other material, on the local market, printing is done on paper,
metal, walls, t-shirts, clothes, caps and many other materials.

There are many types of printing, but in this topic, we are going to look at stencil
printing, screen printing, and photo emulsion as means of printing patterns on clo

Preparation (the design process)

➢ The preparation of patterns begins with identifying the source of inspiration, which
may be from objects picked from nature and artificial word. You may be inspired
by the textural patterns, shapes and colure on these objects.
➢ The object is simplified, rearranged to make a pattern clearly showing positive and
negative. In so doing one follows balance and rhythm in order to make interesting
patterns. The patterns are enclosed in square or rectangular shapes with right
angles to form a motif. The edges of the motif have to be carefully balanced in order
to ease the printing process.
➢ It is such a great idea for you to go through various stages of sketching and planning
before coming up with the final motif. This helps you to produce an interesting

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 pattern that is well though about and skillfully rendered. It also reflects you as an
organized person.
➢ When you are sure about the pattern you have developed (with positives and
negatives well balanced). You should think about how you are going to transfer the
design on to the fabric. Transfer may be either by use of a stencil, a graphic film, or
by photo emulsion.
A. Stencil and screen printing

Stencil printing is an art technique used to transfer a design to a surface by cutting shapes
or patterns in paper (as stencil), and printing it on another surface.

To print a pattern on a given surface, the designer applies paints or inks through the open
areas of the stencil.

Materials and tools required

➢ A motif
➢ A stencil (a hard paper such as manila, transparence) etc.
➢ Razor blades or cutters.
➢ Sponge /squeegee.
➢ Screen (a fine mesh stretched on a rigid frame).
➢ Cloth washed and ironed or any other surface to be printed on.
➢ Printing paste or ink.
➢ Masking tape.

Technique

(a) Place the paper with your motif on a flat surface table.
(b) On top of the motif, place your stencil ( in case of a transparence is used) or simply
trace the pattern on the stencil (in case the a hard paper is used)
(c) Cut out the positives on the stencil using a cutter or razor blade, the stencil should
be wider than the size of the motif in order for it to be easily handled. Intricate (very
complicated) designs may be more complex to cut, in such a case use suspenders if
you are going to use a mesh.
(d) Place the stencil on the cloth on a flat surface.
(e) Put some printing paste on the sponge and press it on to the stencil so that the ink
passes through the gaps.
(f) Continue printing (side by side of the motif) until the entire cloth is covered.
(g) Fix the stencil (upside down) on the back side of the screen on the mesh using a
masking tape.
(h) Place the screen on the cloth and print with printing paste and squeegee.
(i) After printing, get the stencil off the screen and wash it immediately.

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 Photo Emulsion
Instead of a stencil or a graphic film, one can use photo emulsion. Photographic
emulsion is a fine suspension of insoluble light-sensitive crystals in a colloid, usually
containing gelatin.
After preparing you motif on paper and making your screen ready. You can
prepare positives on a transparency using photo-copier.
Prepare a solution of photo emulsion and spread a thin layer on the screen. Let the
solution dry in a dark place.

Put the screen upside down, on top of a block surface, then put your transparency with
positives on screen and cover it with a glass block.
At this stage expose the screen to light. The light causes the emulsion to harden and bind to
the screen. Where the light strikes the screen, the emulsion will bind making a solid layer
and where the light is blocked (under the positives) the emulsion remains water soluble.
After exposing the screen, you spray down the screen with water, washing off the emulsion
only in area of positives, this clear area is where ink will be passed through the screen when
you print.
Colour separation
Multi-colour designs look interesting if all the colours are well balanced and harmoniously
organized. If you plan to print with more than one colour you need to prepare more than
one stencil or graphic film on photo emulsion screen, depending on the number of colours.

The same material can be printed with different colours on the same cloth (double
printing) to create an interesting pattern. The second printing can be placed upside down,
or displaced by a few millimeters. In double printing, the second colour has to be stronger
than the first and harmonious with each other.

FACTORS CONSIDERED IN TEXTILE PRINTING

- Creativity how the design develops from a given source of inspiration.

- Line and shape. The organization and simplicity of shapes and the use of several
qualities of lines to create a pattern colour: This includes choice and harmony.
- Balance in terms of space, shapes and colour.
- Rhythm(flow) ability to create movement in the design.
- Craftsmanship. The registration of the motif without creating unnecessary lines in
the design and neatness.
- Usage, printed patterns may be suitable for dresses/shirts, curtains, curpets etc.
SUMMARY

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In the printing exercise, one may use a stencil, a graphic film or photo emulsion, stencil
printing is beside, but for more complicated designs a graphic film and photo emulsion
would produce wonderful results. It would be a great idea for the learner to practice with
the three methods of printing for textile decoration in order to complete favourably in the
cut field.

TIE AND DYE

Tie and dye refers to a bound resist process of dyeing textiles which are made from woven
fabric usually cotton typically using bright colours.

It is a modern version of traditional dyeing methods used in many countries throughout the
world.

METHODS USED IN TIE AND DYE

These are basically two methods that are used in tie and dye and these include gathering
and folding stitchery/sewing.

A Gathering and folding

This is a method in which the cloth is folded, tied and dipped in the dyes. The cloth can be
folded to form pleats, stripes, circles, or spirals. These can be discussed as follows:

(i) Pleats
Lay the cloth on a flat surface and fold it into small folds (pleats). This can be done
following the length of the cloth on diagonally from one corner of the cloth.
Then tie the cloth accordingly

Leave space

(ii) Stripes
Lay the cloth on the flat surface, gather the cloth following its length and tie it.

Leave space

(iv) Circles
Leave space

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Pull up a point on your cloth and twist it clock wise. It forms an ant hill form. Then tie it
from the base upwards. This can be done at several points on the cloth according to your
interest.
Leave space

(iv) Spirals
At the middle of the cloth pinch a point and twist it to form a cut as shown. The tie the
entire cloth.
Leave space

Circular patterns can also be created using found objects such as stones and bottle tops. If
you are to use this method. Collect assorted objects and wash them with water. Arrange the
found objects on a flat surface according to their different sizes. Creating an
interesting/pattern. Then put a cloth on top of the objects and tie them.

Leave space

B-stitchery/sewing
For this method you begin y sketching the required pattern on paper with a pencil, and
then you trace the sketch on to the cloth with the help of either a carbon paper or tracing
paper and pencil.

Leave space

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Get a sizeable needle with a thread and saw the pattern, the threads should be left hanging
at the beginning and the end of each stitch. Big threads such as nylon threads create better
effects in the pattern.
These stitches can be pulled and tied at different intervals.

Materials and tools needed

- Cloth/cotton cloth is considered more suitable for tie and dye.
- Flat iron or iron box.
- Found objects such a clean stones or bottle tops.
- Sauce pans.
- Dyes such as dylons.
- Nylon threads or rubber bands or raffia.
- Needles
- Salt

TECHNIQUE

(a) Wash the cotton cloth to get rid of starch and dirt.
(b) Dry the cloth and iron it to get rid of unwanted folds.
(c) Follow a method of your choice from those already discussed and tie your cloth,
make sure the knots are tight.
(d) Mix dye with water in a sauce pan according to the instructions on the packet of the
dyes.
(e) Boil the water and add the mixture of dyes.
(f) Dip the cloth in the water and boil for about 30 minutes
(g) Remove the cloth and dry it in a cool place, avoid drying the cloth under sunshine.
(h) When the cloth dry tie it further in the areas you want to retain the dye and dip it in
another dye.
(i) Dry the cloth again and go through the same process for the third colour
(j) Finally, when the cloth is totally dry, untie it carefully and rinse it in water to get rif
of excess dye.
(k) Dry the cloth, iron it and then your cloth will be considered ready.
Take Note:
Always begin with light colours such as yellow and orange if you are going to use
more than one colour in your design. Follow the right colour combinations for
brilliant designs.
BATIK

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 The word batik originates from the Javanese “tik” and means to dot. Batik is both
an art and a craft, which is becoming more popular and well known in the west as a
wonderfully creative medium. The art of decorating cloth in this way, using wax and
dye, has been practiced for centuries.

Batik is a “wax resist” process for making designs or patterns on fabric.

Hot wax is applied to portions of the fabric and penetrates the cloth. After the wax
dries, dye is applied to the fabric. Wax prevents (resists) the dye from spreading to
those areas of the fabric that have been waxed.
Method

To make a batik article, selected areas of the cloth are blocked out by brushing or
drawing hot wax over them and the cloth is then dyed.
The parts covered in wax resist the dye and remain the original colour. The process
of waxing and dyeing can be repeated to create more elaborate and colourful
designs. After the final dyeing the wax is removed and the cloth is ready for wearing
or showing.
Materials and tools

The materials needed for batik include some or all the following:
(a) Cloth
(b) Basin , water and soap
(c) Brushes (in different sizes)
(d) Tjanting tool
(e) Wax blocks
(f) Sauce pan
(g) Heat source
(h) Dyes (such as dylons)
(i) A flat surface as a work area
(j) Papers such as old news papers
(k) Flat iron or iron box
(l) Pencil, rubber and papers for drawing

TECHNIQUE

Remember the importance of making sketches in all forms of art. Hence always begin with
a sketch or sketch representing the composition for your batik article.

(a) Lay your cloth on a flat surface.

(b) Transfer your sketch on the cloth by use of a pencil.
(c) Melt wax in a container using the heat source.
(d) Using a brush or tjanting tool apply wax to all lines you would like to maintain white.
(e) Using a big brush, apply a light colour to the entire cloth.

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(f) Spread out the cloth to dry. Do not expose the cloth to direct sunshine to avoid the wax
from melting during the drying process.
(g) When the cloth is dry, apply more wax to places where you would like to retain the
second colour .
(h) Follow step (e) and (f) for the the third colure, remember to follow the right clour
combination as the case for tie and dye.
(i) When you are done with the design you want, apply wax to the whole cloth and then
crackle the article when the wax cools . crackling is when you create cracks in the wax
on the cloth and paint the cloth with a dark colour.
(j) Remove the wax from the cloth by squeezing and cresting the cloth and then follow the
next step to get rid of the excess wax.
(k) Lay several papers on a flat surface and put the cloth on top. Then cover the cloth with
other papers and iron it, keep changing the papers until all the wax is removed.

WEAVING
Weaving is the art of interlacing yarn (thread) to make a piece of fabric called a web.
In this case, the lengthwise yarns are known as Warp Threads and the crosswise yarns
are called Weft Threads. The warp is strung under tension. Yarn used for weaving
may be of a number of fibers such as wool, cotton, silk, metallic, plastic, synthetic
threads.
Frame or ground loom are usually used for weaving and are either horizontal or
vertical.
Weaving can be done by hand or by machines, machines used for weaving are called
Looms.
Eg. A spring loom, electrical looms and weaving frame.

METHODS
There are many types of weaves you can be familiar with. But at this level we are going
to focus on the plain weave, satin weave, and the jacquard weave.
(a) Plain weave. This is the simplest of all weaves, each weft yarn goes alternately
over and under one warp yarn. Each warp yarn goes alternately over and under
each weft yarn.

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 (b) Basket weave. A basket weave is the amplification in height and width of a plain
weave. Two or more yarns have to be lifted or lowered over and under two or more
picks for each plain weave point.
(c) Twill weaves. Twill weave is characterized by diagonal ridges formed by the
yarns which are exposed on the surface.
This may vary in angle from a low slope. To a very steep slope. Twill weaves are
more closely woven, heavier and stronger than weaves of comparable fiber and
yarn size.
(d) Satin weave. In satin weave, one warp yarn is folded over four or more weft yarns.
Then tied down with one thread resulting in a smooth face.
(e) Jacquard weave. The jacquard weave combines aspects of the plain, twill, and satin
weaves. Many decorative fabrics are made by the jacquard technique.

Materials
(a) A loom or weaving frame.
(b) Strip of paper (these can be used by learners as a substitute for yarn for for
purposes of practice)
(c) Yarn such as threads sold in shops, raffia, sisal etc
(d) Nails
(e) pair

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