The influence of stemming practice on

ground vibration and air blast

M. Mpofu1, S. Ngobese1, B. Maphalala1, D. Roberts1, and S. Khan1

Affiliation:
1 Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR),

Pretoria, South Africa. Synopsis
This paper details an assessment of stemming practices at a South African opencast coal mine and their
Correspondence to: influence on ground vibration and air blast. Quantitative and qualitative analysis methods were used for
the study. The parameters assessed for the quantitative analyses included stemming length, stemming
S. Khan
material type, blast-hole depth, burden, and spacing. Pre-blast data from the mine was analysed to
determine the deviation between actual and mine design stemming parameters. Mine design stemming
Email: length was also compared to the rule-of-thumb stemming lengths. Peak particle velocity (ground
[email protected] vibration) and air blast data from seismograph stations around the mine was analysed to determine
the correlation between stemming length and excessive ground vibration and air blast. The qualitative
analysis involved observations of blasting procedures at the mine to determine compliance with mine
Dates:
procedures. Some level of non-compliance of actual stemming parameters to design stemming parameters
Received: 30 Apr. 2020
was found, which initially suggested that non-compliance may have contributed to excessive air blast.
Revised: 9 Oct. 2020
Accepted: 18 Nov. 2020 However, further analysis of the seismograph results indicated no direct correlation between stemming
Published: January 2021 length and excessive air blast and ground vibration. Since stemming parameters are interrelated, it is
crucial that all blasting procedures, including stemming, are executed in accordance with best practice,
and recorded accurately. There is a need for digital systems for capturing on-bench blasting parameters,
How to cite: as the currently used manual data recording and reporting systems are inefficient and prone to error.
Mpofu, M., Ngobese, S., Improvements to blast designs are possible through efficient and accurate data recording and reporting
Maphalala, B., Roberts, D., and systems.
Khan, S. 2021
The influence of stemming
Keywords
practice on ground vibration and
air blast. opencast mining, blasting, stemming, ground vibration, air blast.
Journal of the Southern African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
vol. 121, no. 1, pp. 1–10.
DOI ID:
http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2411- Introduction
9717/1204/2021
Rock blasting using explosive energy is an integral part of the mining process. However, poor blasting
ORCID from inefficient blast designs and practices may result in adverse impacts on the environment,
M. Mpofu infrastructure, and the health and safety of people and wildlife in surrounding communities. Some of
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
the negative impacts of inefficient blasting include excessive ground vibrations, air blast, flyrock, noise,
2010-7596
and blasting fumes. Potential causes of these effects include, but are not limited to (Bajpayee, Verakis,
S. Khan
and Lobb, 2004; Mohamed, Armaghani, and Motaghedi, 2013):
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
6362-5361 i. Undercharging or overcharging blast-holes
ii. Overly confined or inadequately confined blast-holes
iii. Inappropriate timing sequence
iv. Unfavourable geological and geotechnical conditions.
A team of researchers at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) undertook a project
for Coaltech on ‘Monitoring of Blasting and Determination of Optimal Stemming’ in 2018. This paper
forms part of the research work that was done to assess stemming practices at a South African opencast
coal mine and the influence of stemming practices on ground vibration and air blast at the mine. The
hypothesis was that excessive ground vibration and air blast are a result of incorrect stemming design
and practice. ‘Incorrect stemming design and practice’ in this context refers to non-compliance of actual
stemming parameters with mine design parameters.
The paper highlights the design guidelines for stemming parameters (length and material type),
compares the actual stemming parameters to mine design stemming parameters (stemming length,
burden, spacing, and hole depth) at the mine; qualitatively assesses the compliance with standard
operating blasting procedures; and discusses the relationship between stemming practices, air blast, and
ground vibration at the mine.

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast
Background [2]

Study site where: T = stemming length (m) and b = burden (m).

Generally, stemming lengths shorter than 0.7b result in air
The study was conducted at an opencast mine located in the
blast, flyrock, noise, and overbreak (Lusk and Worsey, 2013).
Mpumalanga Province of South Africa, in the Witbank Coalfield.
The Witbank Coalfield has five mineable bituminous coal seams Stemming material
numbered consecutively from the oldest (No.1 Seam) to the A stemming material should have high shear strength and high
youngest (No. 5 Seam) (Banks et al., 2011). The Witbank density to improve the effectiveness of a blast (BME, 2018).
Coalfield contains a large and important resource of high-yield, Furthermore, stemming material should be of such a size and
export quality coal (especially in the No. 4 Seam), and an shape that the fragments achieve good interlocking.
estimated 50% of South Africa’s recoverable coal reserves (Banks According to Lusk and Worsey (2013), the following basic
et al., 2011). guideline is applied to stemming material (Equation [3]):
The mine geology consists of alternating layers of sandstone,
shale, and coal seams. The No. 2, 3, 4, and 5 seams are mined by [3]
opencast methods.
Generally, the stemming material type is selected based on
The importance of stemming in relation to ground
availability at the mine. According to Patidar (2017), sand, fly
vibration and air blast
ash, and clay are commonly found at surface coal mines and
Stemming involves placing an inert material on top of explosives may be used separately or mixed to improve stemming efficiency.
in a blast-hole (NPS, 1999; de Graaf, 2013). The stemming Drill chippings, the fine material generated by drilling of blast-
material may include drill chippings, gravel, or sand. Stemming holes, are a readily available type of stemming material. Drill
enables the efficient use of energy for rock breakage and prevents chippings may be used wet or dry, with the wet chippings being
the escape of gases when explosives are detonated (Boshoff less effective than dry chippings due to reduced interlocking
and Webber-Youngman, 2011). Appropriate stemming material ability (BME, 2018). Crushed stone or aggregate is another
also protects the loaded explosives from accidental detonation cost-effective type of stemming material that can be produced
and aids in the generation of a loose muckpile that is easy to at the site to a desirable size (de Graaf, 2013). An alternative to
load (NPS, 1999). The premature ejection of stemming material aggregate is chrome slag, which is the waste material from the
results in the loss of explosive energy and the rapid venting of production of ferrochrome. Its physical and mechanical qualities
gases to the atmosphere. This leads to air blast, a shock wave make it a suitable replacement for natural aggregate as stemming
that results from the detonation of explosives, which is usually material (Moodie, 2016). One of the benefits of using chrome
accompanied by violently ejected flyrock (de Graaf, 2013). Poor slag is that it is otherwise considered as waste material, therefore
stemming practices also contribute to poor fragmentation, surface its use eliminates the cost and issues associated with discarding
overbreak, bad heave or rock displacement, and excessive noise it. The choice between natural aggregate and chrome slag
and ground vibration that affect the surrounding environment depends on stemming material size, availability, and associated
(Sereme et al., 2019). Overconfinement can result in excessive costs.
ground vibration, especially when excessive subdrilling is Stemming accessories used in conjunction with stemming
practiced or larger than recommended burdens are used. materials and which are commercially available include concrete
Unconfined or inadequately confined blast-holes cause air blast, plugs, stemming plugs, Rocklock plugs, tulip plugs, and foam
suggesting that the appropriate stemming length and material plugs (Karakus et al., 2003; Cevizci, 2012).
type is an important factor to consider in blasting practices (de
Graaf, 2013). Stemming-related parameters (burden, spacing, blast-
Aspects to consider in stemming design are stemming length, hole depth)
material type, and stemming-related parameters such as burden, An assessment of stemming practice could not have been done
spacing, and hole depth. The stemming length is dependent on in isolation. Other parameters that affect blast results are closely
various factors that include the power of the explosives, blast- linked to stemming practice. Burden, spacing, and blast-hole
hole diameter, burden, spacing, stemming material, and the length (depth) are some of the interrelated parameters, critical
surrounding rock properties (Neale, 2010; de Graaf, 2013). during drilling, which were assessed for this study (de Graaf,
2013). The other interrelated parameters are hole diameter,
Stemming length
bench height, subdrill, and drilling patterns (NPS, 1999; Lusk &
Generally, stemming parameters are designed for each mine Worsey, 2013). Due to the complex nature of blast design, it was
based on the unique geology and varying conditions such as not possible to evaluate all the parameters mentioned. This may
material thickness (Neale, 2010). The stemming length adopted constitute a limitation of the study. The parameters assessed were
by the mine investigated, as shown in Equation [1] (NPS, 1999; those for which data was readily available and which were critical
de Graaf, 2013; Lusk and Worsey, 2013), is based on best for the research project.
practice guidelines. Sereme et al. (2019) defined spacing as the distance between
[1] adjacent blast-holes, measured perpendicular to the burden.
Spacing is generally measured between holes positioned parallel
where: T = stemming length (m) and D = blast-hole diameter (m). to the cut face of the bench. The relationship for burden and
A different rule-of-thumb recommends that the stemming spacing is a ratio of 1.0 to 1.5. Burdens that are too large produce
length should fall within the range shown in Equation [2] (NPS, inadequate fragmentation, toe problems, and excessive ground
1999; de Graaf, 2013; Lusk and Worsey, 2013). vibrations (NPS, 1999; Lusk & Worsey, 2013; de Graaf, 2013).

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast
The hole length is a function of the bench height and the The post-blast analysis was conducted by assessing fourteen
subdrill combined. The subdrill is the distance drilled below the months of data from eight seismograph stations around the mine
floor level to ensure that the full face of the rock is removed. Hole that record peak particle velocity (PPV ground vibration) and air
depths that are less than 1.5 times the burden cause excessive blast. The seismographs measure data continuously and trigger
air blast and flyrock (NPS, 1999; Lusk & Worsey, 2013; de Graaf, only when a pre-set threshold value is exceeded. The threshold
2013). values set by the mine for ground vibration and air blast
were guided by the international US Bureau of Mines (USBM)
Methodology standards. According to Sereme et al., (2019) these values were
below the threshold of 134 dB typically set for South African coal
The stemming practices at the mine were assessed using
mines. The ground vibration threshold limits set by the mine
quantitative and qualitative methods. The tasks included the
were such that 95% of all blasts should be below
collation of stemming parameters; analyses and comparisons
130 dB and 85% below 125 dB. The air blast threshold limits set
of the stemming parameter (mine design vs. actual vs. rule-of-
by the mine were such that 95% of all blasts should be below
thumb) values; collation and analyses of data indicating the 2 mm/s and 85% below 1 mm/s.
performance of the blasts (ground vibration and air blast); and The pre-blast data and post-blast results were examined
finally a monitoring exercise to determine compliance of the mine and plotted graphically to determine if there was a correlation
blasting practices with their standard operating procedures. between stemming length compliancy and air blast or ground
vibration.
Quantitative analysis
The quantitative analysis included the collation and scrutiny of Qualitative analysis
pre-blast and post-blast data. Pre-blast reports, blast-hole data The qualitative analysis was aimed at monitoring stemming
sheets, and the stemming design guidelines were obtained from practice and compliance with mine standards and procedures
the mine to conduct the pre-blast quantitative analysis. The (Sereme et al., 2019). The researchers observed the drilling,
stemming parameters assessed were stemming length, stemming charging, and blasting procedures at three mining blocks for
material, and stemming-related parameters that included burden, three consecutive weeks. Data gathered during the observations
spacing, and hole depth. included the blast location, bench material, hole condition,
Data on coal (No. 2 and No.4 seams), shale, sandstone, and detonator type, stemming parameters, and comments on the
interburden (mixture of sandstone and torbanite) blasts was observations. Measurements of newly drilled holes, while the
assessed. The majority of the available data was from blasts prior researchers were at the mine, were done by the drill-and-blast
to the researchers’ presence at the study area. team, closely observed by the researchers.
Some of the challenges encountered during the collation Results and discussion
of data from the pre-blast reports included the need for re-
organization of reports in chronological order; illegibility and data Quantitative analysis
capturing errors; incomplete fields of data; and the need to scan Stemming length
the hardcopy reports. These challenges necessitated re-capturing Figure 1 illustrates the general relationship between the actual
of the data on a spreadsheet to facilitate ease of interpretation stemming lengths and the mine design stemming lengths for all
and analysis of the data. the blasts.
The actual stemming lengths recorded in the pre-blast reports The sandstone blasts show the greatest variation in stemming
were compared against the recommended mine design stemming length compared to coal, interburden, and shale. Deviations of
lengths to determine their level of compliance. A total of 70 blasts the actual stemming length from the design for coal, interburden,
(25 coal, 17 interburden, 16 shale, and 12 sandstone) were shale, and sandstone are quantified in Figures 2–5.
analysed. Thereafter, the stemming length variations for actual, As shown in Figure 2 the actual stemming length used on the
mine design, and rule-of-thumb (Equation [1]) stemming lengths mining block differed from the design stemming length for all the
were analysed for coal, interburden, shale, and sandstone. Based 25 coal blasts investigated. Blasts 1 to 12 were No. 2 Seam coal,
on the results, the researchers deemed it necessary to further while blast 13 to 25 were on No. 4 Seam coal. There was also a
analyse how the design stemming length varied with the rule-of- variation between the rule-of-thumb stemming length (20D) and
thumb (Equation [2]). the design stemming length.

Figure 1—A comparison of mine design and actual stemming lengths for all blasts

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast

Figure 2—Stemming length variations for coal blasts

Figure 3—Stemming length variations for interburden

Figure 4—Stemming length variations for shale blasts

The mine design stemming length was greater than the actual the actual stemming length by 1.0 m for blast 11 and was 3.0 m
stemming length for all the analysed coal blasts, as shown by less than the actual stemming length for blast 15 (Figure 3).
the positive differences in Figure 2. The average and maximum The design stemming length was less than or equal to the
differences were 0.78 m and 2.8 m (blast 17), respectively. Hole rule-of-thumb stemming length for all the interburden blasts,
diameters for blasts 1 to 12 and blasts 18 to 25 were 171 mm, with an average difference of 1.0 m. Hole diameters were
while those for blasts 13 to 17 were 250 mm. This equated to designed at 250 mm, which corresponds to a rule-of-thumb
rule-of-thumb stemming lengths of 3.42 m and 5.0 m for stemming length of 5.0 m. The maximum difference between the
171 mm and 250 mm diameter holes, respectively. The variation mine design and rule-of-thumb stemming length was 2.0 m.
between mine design and rule-of-thumb stemming lengths An analysis of shale blasts (Figure 4) showed that the mine
was less than 0.5 m for the first eleven blasts. The mine design design stemming length corresponded with the actual stemming
stemming length was less than the rule-of-thumb values in length for five of the sixteen blasts. The average and maximum
thirteen blasts. The average difference between mine design and differences between the design and actual stemming lengths were
rule-of-thumb stemming length was 0.67 m, with a maximum 0.5 m and 2.0 m, respectively.
difference of 2.20 m (blast 16). The mine design stemming length was less than the rule-
More than half (10 out of 17) of the interburden blasts of-thumb stemming length in all blasts except blasts 1 and 16.
showed compliance between the design stemming length and the The average and maximum deviation from the rule-of-thumb
actual stemming length. The design stemming length exceeded stemming length values was 1.0 m and 2.3 m respectively.

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast
The actual stemming lengths used on the mining block for ix. Collapsed holes may have resulted in inaccurate
sandstone blasts were found to be less than the design stemming stemming length when measured.
length for all 12 blasts investigated, as shown in Figure 5. Non-technical reasons for the variation of actual stemming
The actual stemming length values deviated from the design length from design stemming length may be attributed to non-
stemming length by an average of 3.4 m. Blast number 10 was compliance, hence poor stemming practice.
anomalous, with 10.0 m difference between the design and Due to the variance between the design stemming length
the actual stemming length. The design stemming length was and the rule-of-thumb (20D) stemming length, the researchers
greater than the rule-of-thumb stemming length for eight of the decided to perform further analyses by comparing how the design
12 blasts, with an average difference of 2.7 m and a maximum stemming length varied with the rule-of-thumb: T = 0.7b to 1.2b
difference of 5.1 m. In the sandstone blasts, hole diameters were (Equation [2]). In Figure 6, upper and lower limit stemming
designed at 250 mm. length values were determined using Equation [2]. The majority
Sereme et al. (2019) provided the following possible of the coal blasts used a burden of 6.0 m, which translates to
reasons for the variation of actual stemming length from that upper and lower limit stemming length values of 7.2 m and
recommended in the mine design: 4.2 m. The majority of the stemming length values were found to
i. The blasting team was given some flexibility to alter be less than the lower stemming length limit, as shown in Figure
the blast design according to the block conditions after 6. Only one blast (blast 11) had a design stemming value that
drilling was within the rule-of-thumb bounds.
ii. Inaccurate drilling resulted in shorter or longer holes, For interburden, the upper limit stemming length value of
and therefore in shorter or longer stemming lengths 9 m represents blasts with a burden of 7.5 m and the lowest limit
respectively value of 3.5 m corresponds to those blasts with a burden of
iii. Inaccuracy in charging of holes, with undercharging 5.0 m. The design stemming length was closer to the lower limit.
and overcharging resulting in longer and shorter and less than half of the design stemming length values fell
stemming lengths respectively within the rule-of-thumb bounds (Figure 7).
iv. The presence of cracks may have affected the amount of Design stemming length values for sandstone (Figure 8)
explosives charged blasts differed slightly from the trends shown by the coal and
v. The inaccuracy of the air-gap length interburden blasts. All the sandstone blasts used a burden of
vi. Manual data entry of stemming lengths was inaccurate 6.0 m, which translates to an upper limit stemming length of
and prone to error 7.2 m and a lower bound of 4.2 m. Of the 12 blasts analysed, five
vii. Unverified data before filing design stemming length values fell above the upper limit, two
viii. Distortion of the correct measurement of holes due to values were equal to the upper limit, and the rest were within the
uncleaned hole collars two limits.

Figure 5—Stemming length variations for sandstone blasts

Figure 6—Design stemming length vs. the rule-of-thumb values for coal

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast

Figure 7—Stemming length vs. the rule-of-thumb values for interburden

Figure 8—Stemming length vs. the rule-of-thumb values for sandstone

Figure 9—Stemming length vs. the rule-of-thumb values for shale

The majority of the values were below the lower limit of the mining block. The stemming materials used for the different
4.2 m (which corresponds to a burden of 6 m), and only one blasts were aggregate, chrome slag, and drill chippings (for coal
value was within the rule-of-thumb limit for stemming. It is also blasts). Compliance between the design and actual stemming
noteworthy that the design stemming lengths varied for most of material size with the rule-of-thumb for material size (Equation
the blasts. [3]) could not be ascertained due to the relevant data not being
The mine design stemming lengths for coal varied from the available. However, it should be emphasised that the rule-of-
rule-of-thumb for the majority of the blasts. The differences thumb serves as a guide only. Experience and mine-specific
between the rule-of-thumb stemming length and the design environmental conditions inform the choice of stemming
stemming length may be attributed to the site conditions, which material. Different stemming materials and stemming accessories
necessitated modifications to the design. Fragmentation size had either been trialled by the mine or were trialled or being used
requirements or the need to limit air blast and ground vibration in other operations with similar geology.
may have been factors considered when designing the stemming
Stemming-related parameters
length, resulting in a deviation from the rule-of-thumb stemming
length. Burden and spacing
A comparison between the mine design and actual burden on
Stemming material 122 data-points showed that 78% of the burden values complied
An analysis of stemming material used for all the blasts revealed with the design (Figure 10). Since most of the burden values for
that the designed stemming material was used in practice on different rock types were equal, and thus superimposed on each

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast
other, the number of data-points that are visible on the straight Hole depth analysis
line of the graph is not a true reflection of compliance. Blasts with
An analysis of actual hole depths was conducted to determine
a design burden value of zero may have been one-row or pre-
any variations from mine design hole depths. Figure 12 shows
split blasts. However, actual burden values greater than zero were that there was some variation from designed hole depths, as
recorded for some of these blasts. This may have been because of indicated by the points which lie below or above the x = y
incorrect data capture. trendline. Of the 122 hole depth values, 78% did not correspond
Similarly, for spacing it was found that 22% of the actual with the design hole depth. The average difference between the
spacing values did not comply with the mine design spacing. design and actual hole depth values was 1.6 m, with a maximum
This type of non-compliance may have resulted from inaccurate difference of 13 m.
manual capturing of data and/or a change in the design based Based on the graph, the general trend shows a close grouping
on environmental conditions on the block. The spacing variation of the points around the x = y trendline. There are outliers; the
results are shown in Figure 11. difference between the design and actual hole depths was 10 m
Since burden and spacing are a function of hole diameter, it and 13 m for two blasts, shown within the dotted circle in
is possible that a change in diameter resulted in the deviations Figure 12.
of the actual burden and spacing from the design values. Further Hole depth is a function of bench height and subgrade
discussion on burden and spacing is provided in the qualitative drilling. The deviation between mine design and actual blast-
analysis section. hole depths may possibly be attributed to the actual bench

Figure 10—Variation between design and actual burden for all blasts

Figure 11—Variation between design and actual spacing for all blasts

Figure 12—Variation between design and actual hole depths for all blasts

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast
height being less than or greater than the design bench height. i. The block was not well prepared, e.g. blast-hole collars
Alternatively, some holes may have partially collapsed and were not cleaned
become filled with drill chippings from the crest of the hole. ii. Short holes that required re-drilling were charged
There are currently no guidelines to show the relationship without being re-drilled
between deviations from the design and the corresponding iii. Burden and spacing were mostly inconsistent
impacts on blasting. Hence, it is unclear whether the 1.6 m iv. Blast-hole depths were mostly incorrect and no
average difference in hole depth had a significant impact on corrective measures were implemented
blasting conditions. This statement also applies to the other v. Trucks used for charging and stemming had difficulty
parameters assessed, such as stemming length, burden, and
manoeuvering around the holes due to the uneven and
spacing.
muddy nature of the floor, potentially covering already
Analysis of post-blast data in relation to stemming length drilled holes
As presented in Figure 13, the actual and design stemming vi. Twining procedures were not followed at all times
lengths were compared and assessed against the air blast and vii. The explosive mobile manufacturing unit (MMU)
ground vibration (PPV) results to determine if there was a operator had an assistant that informed him when
correlation. The data for ground vibration and air blast recordings the hole was pumped with sufficient explosives. This
less than and greater than the threshold values are shown. The information was communicated by a whistle blow
distribution of the seismograph results indicates that there is no from the assistant. This manual operation has a high
correlation between non-compliant stemming lengths and ground potential for human error and inconsistency
vibration and air blast. viii. Tying up of shock tubes (initiation systems) was a
This is evident from the fact that some PPV and air blast challenge due to misaligned holes.
results that exceeded the threshold plot on the y = x line. Even Twining is a conventional method of ensuring that sufficient
though the actual stemming length for these blasts complied with space is left in the hole for gassing of explosives, using a string
the design stemming length, the ground vibration and air blast to mark where stemming should start. In some blast-holes
values exceeded the threshold values. Similarly, the two values twining was not done, which increases the likelihood of incorrect
at 7.4 m design stemming length (within the dotted circle), were stemming length. The positioning of blast-holes (burden and
below the PPV-air blast threshold, although the stemming length spacing) was done using a geographical positioning system
was less than designed. (GPS), which is dependent on the network connection. It was
There are, however, two exceptional cases for designed observed that the GPS would often get disconnected from
stemming lengths of 10.0 m in sandstone (within the dashed
the network and blast-holes would be incorrectly positioned.
circle). Non-compliance of actual parameters with the design
Additionally, the qualitative analysis reaffirmed the quantitative
parameters such as stemming length and drill-hole depth may
analysis results by revealing that short holes were not re-drilled,
have resulted in inadequately confined or overconfined blast-
burden and spacing were inconsistent, and incorrect blast-hole
holes, possibly contributing to excessive air blast. Based on the
depths were not corrected.
majority of the results, as discussed above, there is insufficient
Poor stemming practices cannot be attributed to a single
evidence to suggest that poor stemming practice was the only
non-compliant parameter, but may be caused by the knock-on
cause of high PPVs and air blast (Sereme et al., 2019). However,
effect of inconsistencies in any part of the process. For example,
poor stemming practices cannot be completely ruled out as a
contributing factor to these adverse conditions. Further studies if blast-holes were drilled shorter or longer than designed,
may be required to determine the actual causes of excessive the stemming length would be affected. This emphasises the
ground vibration and air blast by timeously analysing data importance of adhering to the design parameters and, in the
associated with blasts exceeding the thresholds. The results, example above, ensuring that incorrectly drilled holes are re-
however, will be highly dependent on the accuracy of data drilled to their correct depth if necessary. In cases where a blast-
recorded by the drill-and-blast team. hole is longer than designed, drill chippings should be used to
refill it to the designed depth.
Qualitative analysis Although all activities in the mining cycle are important and
The following observations were made in relation to stemming interrelated, drilling is the backbone of all processes (Abbaspour
practices, as reported by Sereme et al. (2019): et al., 2018; Messaoud, 2006). Non-compliant drilling

Figure 13—The relationship between stemming lengths and post-blast data

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast
practices directly result in non-compliant stemming practices, Finally, all blasting parameters should be assessed when air
inconsistencies in charging and timing and, consequently, a non- blast and ground vibration values exceed the threshold. This
conformant blast. should be done as soon as such measurements are recorded, so
that the fundamental cause may be determined and appropriate
Recommendations mitigation measures implemented.
Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations
are provided to improve stemming practices, which may References
ultimately contribute to improving the blast conditions at the Abbaspour, H., Drebenstedt, C., Badroddin, M., and Maghaminik, A. 2018. Optimized
mine. design of drilling and blasting operations in open pit mines under technical and
i. Ensure the correct capturing of data and full completion economic uncertainties by system dynamic modelling. International Journal of
of fields with the correct data format before submitting Mining Science and Technology, vol. 28. pp. 839–848.
to the last level of authority for final sign-off Bajpayee, T., Verakis, H., and Lobb, T. 2004. An analysis and prevention of flyrock
ii. Blast reports and charging control sheets should be accidents in surface blasting operations. National Institute for Occupational
thoroughly checked and verified by the various levels of Safety and Health, Washington, DC. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/
authority before final sign-off userfiles/works/pdfs/apfasbo.pdf
iii. The mine standards for quality control and quality
Banks, V.J., Palumbo-Roe, B., van Tonder, D.B., Davies, J., Fleming, C., and Chevrel,
assurance should be strictly followed after drilling of
S. 2011. Conceptual models of Witbank Coalfield, South Africa. Natural
holes, after charging, gassing, and stemming
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mitigation measures BME. 2018. Resources: Blasting Guide.: Bryanston, South Africa. http://demo.bme.
v. The responsible person of authority should update the co.za/downloads/send/2-brochures/2-blasting-guide [accessed 2 April 2018].
blasting plan based on the deviations and feed back the Boshoff, D. and Webber-Youngman, R. 2011. Testing stemming performance, possible
information to the personnel on the block or not?. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
vi. Investigate the development of digital entry and vol. 111, no. 12. pp. 871–874.
recording systems for capturing on-bench blasting
Cevizci, H. 2012. A newly developed plaster stemming method for blasting. Journal
parameters to reduce inefficiency and errors. Digital
of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 112, no. 12.
methods to record data may improve processes and
pp. 1071–1078.
ultimately result in better blasting
vii. Recording of blasting outcomes (e.g., fragmentation, De Graaf, W. 2013. Surface mining explosives. Explosives Engineering: University of
loading times) could be correlated with (digitally Pretoria. pp. 3.10–3.19.
recorded) blasting inputs and used as a tool to improve Karakus, D., Onur, A.H., Konak, G., Köse, H., and Kızılcaağaçlı, M. 2003. Application
blast designs. of stemming plugs and a case study in a limestone quarry. Proceedings of the
Improved information flow between personnel on the block 18th International Mining Congress and Exhibition of Turkey (IMCET 2003).
and those at the mine offices may enhance the overall blast http://www.maden.org.tr/resimler/ekler/107931de60c5a7c_ek.pdf [accessed 6
performance. May 2018].

Lusk, B. and Worsey, P. 2013. Explosives and blasting. SME Mining Engineering
Conclusion
Handbook. Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration, Littleton, CO,
The stemming practices at a South African surface coal mine pp. 443–459.
were investigated to determine if they had a significant influence
on air blast and ground vibration. The investigation revealed Messaoud, L. 2006. Drilling technology in mining industry. Acta Montanistica

that there is a need for digital entry and recording systems for Slovaca, vol. 11. pp. 113–118.

capturing on-bench blasting parameters, as the current data Mohamed, E., Armaghani, D., and Motaghedi, H. 2013. The effect of geological
recording and reporting systems are inefficient and prone to error. structure and powder factor in flyrock accident, Masai, Johor, Malaysia.
Improvements to blasting practices are possible through efficient Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, vol. 18. pp. 5561–5572.
and accurate data recording and reporting systems.
Neale, A.M. 2010. Blast optimization at Kriel Colliery. Journal of the Southern
Non-compliance of actual parameters with the design
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 110, no. 4. pp. 161–168.
parameters such as stemming lengths and drill-hole depths may
have resulted in inadequately confined or overconfined blast- NPS. 1999. Blast design. Handbook for the Transportation, and Use of Explosives.
holes, possibly contributing to excessive ground vibration and National Park Service, US Cepartment of the Interior, Washington, DC. https://
air blast. However, the quantitative analysis indicated that there www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/npsg/explosives/Chapter8.pdf
was no direct correlation between stemming length and excessive [accessed 10 May 2018].
air blast and ground vibration. Since blasting parameters are
Patidar, P. 2017. Role of stemming in open cast mine. https://www.slideshare.net/
interrelated, we may conclude that poor stemming practice was
pankajpatidar15/role-of-stemming-in-open-cast-mine [accessed 17 May 2018].
not the sole cause of excessive air blast and ground vibration, but
may have been a contributing factor to these adverse outcomes. Sereme, B., Mpofu, M., Roberts, D., Ngobese, S. and Lumbwe, T. 2019. Monitoring
It is therefore important that all blasting procedures (including of blasting and determination of optimal stemming. Coaltech Research
stemming) are executed correctly and recorded accurately. Association, Johannesburg. Unpublished report. u

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The influence of stemming practice on ground vibration and air blast

21 South African mining and metallurgy researchers

ranked in the world’s top 2% scientists
A recently published database [1] from Stanford University lists the top 2% of science researchers in
the world. Numerous South African scientists have found a place in the rankings for the sub-discipline
of mining and metallurgy.
The research team, led by Dr John Ioannidis, created a database that includes the best scientists in
the world, using standard citation indicators. The indicators took into account the number of citations,
h-index, co-authorship adjusted hm-index, citations of papers in different authorship positions, and a
composite indicator. The database categorized 160 000 scientists in 22 scientific fields and 176 sub-
fields.
The 21 South African scientists who featured in the Mining and Metallurgy ranking according to
career-long citation impact are as follows:

Name Institution No. of papers Ranking

Frank Crundwell CM Solutions 65 13

Sue Harrison University of Cape Town 156 38
Herman Potgieter University of the Witwatersrand 167 45
John Preston Mintek 51 55
Dick Stacey University of the Witwatersrand 98 108
Jochen Petersen University of Cape Town 84 119
Leon Lorenzen Stellenbosch University 87 123
Dee Bradshaw University of Cape Town 156 128
Michael Moys University of the Witwatersrand 89 135
Cyril O'Connor University of Cape Town 185 151
Kathy Sole University of Pretoria 42 159
Dave Deglon University of Cape Town 50 221
Jan Svoboda De Beers Group 32 225
Mariekie Gericke Mintek 30 272
Geoff Hansford University of Cape Town 54 274
Steven Bradshaw Stellenbosch University 100 286
Sehliselo Ndlovu University of the Witwatersrand 59 316
Salih Ramazan AngloGold Ashanti Limited 16 369
Jean-Paul Franzidis University of Cape Town 97 468
Victor Ross Mintek 22 524
Rob van Hille University of Cape Town 53 572

1. B
 aas, J., Boyack, K., and Ioannidis, J. 2020. Data for ‘Updated science-wide author databases of
standardized citation indicators’. Mendeley Data, vol. 2. doi: 10.17632/btchxktzyw.2. https://data.
mendeley.com/datasets/btchxktzyw/2

▶ 10 JANUARY 2021 VOLUME 121 The Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy