590283

research-article2015
POM0010.1177/0305735615590283Psychology of MusicSwart

Article

Psychology of Music

Ego boundaries and self-esteem:

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DOI: 10.1177/0305735615590283
of performing musicians pom.sagepub.com

Inette Swart

Abstract
This article presents a heuristic inquiry into ego boundary development and functioning in aspiring
musicians. In their role as communicators in society, challenging and stretching existing boundaries
form an integral aspect of the work of artists. This has an impact on ego boundary functioning. The
relevance of both aspiring musicians and their mentors understanding psychodynamic processes
at work in musical relations is explained, and implications of technological advancements briefly
highlighted. The article shows how Alice Miller’s definition of self-esteem – as being based on
the authenticity of one’s own feelings and not on the possession of certain qualities – is narrowly
related to ego boundary functioning. The processes involved in ego boundary formation, the
development of self and the development of musical identity are shown to be closely related, also
neurologically, and a mutual interrelationship between self-esteem, identity and the effectiveness
of musical communication was discovered. Writers who portray ego boundary thickness as existing
along a continuum are referred to, and possible implications for pathology in musicians are briefly
highlighted. The article illustrates that great pedagogues have an intuitive grasp of the importance
of these concepts; it makes suggestions for future research and highlights the need for developing a
measuring instrument.

Keywords
artists, aspiring performers, developing self, ego boundaries, self-esteem

The importance of understanding ego boundary and self-esteem development

The concept of ego boundaries is an aspect of individual consciousness that is integral to, and
lies at the basis of, human experience. Yet its functioning is rarely considered and analysed by
aspiring music performers and music pedagogues. ‘Ego boundaries’ is an accepted concept in
psychotherapeutic circles. Building on work by Freud, Federn could be seen as the father of the
concept as it is currently accepted by psychology and psychiatry. Initially, ego boundaries form

North-West University (Potchefstroom campus), South Africa

Corresponding author:
Inette Swart, School of Music, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
Email: [email protected]

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2 Psychology of Music 

the point at which the infant’s control of his world ceases (Federn, 1952b, p. 331). Freud was
the first to describe the concept, which was later further refined by Federn (1928, 1952a),
Klein (Spillius, 2003), Hamilton (1996, 1990), Hartmann (1991, 2011) and others (see e.g.
Peck, 1978). However, ego boundaries have never been expounded in music performers, includ-
ing identifying and understanding aspects important in its development and operation in per-
formers. While much has been written about self-esteem (see e.g. Branden, 1994; Coopersmith,
1967; Hietolathi-Ansten & Kalliopuska, 1991; Miller, 1997), in this article its relevance to ego
boundaries is highlighted and an integrated understanding of both concepts communicated to
aspiring artists and pedagogues. In a world that is changing rapidly due to digital technology,
there are also constant changes to modes of artistic expression, creation, production, distribu-
tion and marketing, as well as feedback processes, and support of the arts (Bailey, 2008; Poole
& Ho, 2011). However, human beings have not changed fundamentally, increasing the impor-
tance of understanding how these psychodynamic constructs operate in a changing
environment.
In essence, this article attempts to explain something which, while often taken for granted,
can also be at the root of pathology and which can present formidable challenges to aspiring
performers (Bergman & Harpaz-Rotem, 2004; Gabbard & Lester, 1995; Miller, 1997). In a
young child, ego boundaries form before the ego can then safely develop. Around this, esteem
forms (E. Allers, personal communication, May 20, 2014). While the ego forms the operating
aspect of the self, the ego boundaries form the interface between the individual and his or her
experience with the outside world (Federn, 1952a). Without our being aware of it, ego
boundaries lie at the root of most philosophical as well as scientific attempts to understand
the world and the functioning of humans in the world and in society. We can only begin to
debate from within our sphere of experience; anything outside of that is indeed outside our
ego boundaries.

Aim and methodology

The aim of this article is to examine the theoretical underpinnings of two important concepts
operating in the psychic functioning of performing artists. The concept of ‘ego boundaries’ is
introduced to pedagogues and artists as an understandable and modifiable psychodynamic
construct closely related to the concept that is loosely known as ‘self-esteem.’ Through engaging
in dialogue with experts in the field and linking particular psychic operatives at work in artists
to the available literature on ego boundaries and self-esteem, this article aims to establish a
heuristic against which further research questions can be formulated and tested (Hiles, 2001;
Kleining & Witt, 2000; Patton, 2004).
Stein (2012) identified three general categories in the available literature on psychoanalysis
and music, namely attempts to understand compositions through linking them to the bio-
graphy and life events of the composer; presentations of psychoanalytic treatment studies or
‘psychobiographies’ (p. 553) of composers and musicians; and studies which attempt a meta-
psychological approach to the understanding of the psychological meaning of music. This
article adds to the available literature by exploring the concept of ego boundaries in a way
that may have both practical and theoretical value. The discussion of concepts is not limited
to intrapsychic phenomena only but also explores interpsychic relationships (Bolognini,
2004) pertaining to ego boundaries at work in the environment of professional music perfor-
mance. The article is in keeping with Stein’s assertion that the goal of research should be to
generate an ‘interdisciplinary psychoanalysis’ (Stein, 2012, p. 555).

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Swart 3

Regarding the methodology underlying heuristic enquiry, Patton states that it constitutes a
process of internal search which brings to the fore the personal experience and insights of the
researcher, and through this the nature and meaning of existence are discovered and methods
and procedures for further investigation developed (Patton, 2004). Patton (2004) emphasizes
that the researcher must have an intense interest in the phenomenon being studied, and the
importance of in-depth interviewing of co-researchers who share an intensity of experience of
the phenomenon. Moustakas (1990) elucidates that heuristic processes assimilate creative
self-processes and self-discoveries.
Previous work on trauma and the consistency of its association with low self-esteem (Swart,
2010) led to deeper investigation of the nature of traumatic emotional injury causing a chal-
lenge to self-perception and ego structure. In addition, current work on the benefits of music
tuition to previously disadvantaged learners, as well as the often affirmed observation that one
of the most apparent changes seen is a rise in self-esteem levels as a consequence of receiving
music tuition, alerted the researcher to important links between ego boundaries, self-esteem
and musical development.
It is vitally important that aspiring performers understand the significance and functioning
of healthy ego boundaries and the factors involved in the development of self-esteem. The article
discusses elements in the development of aspiring artists that are important for the development
of healthy ego boundaries and successful functioning in a career which involves much competi-
tion and, because of its very nature, in which the participants often find themselves subject to
public scrutiny. The article does not claim that the factors identified and explicated are the only
avenues to success, but it does contend that, if one or more important elements are absent in an
individual’s circumstances or make-up, many possibilities for compensation to strengthen weak
areas exist. In addition to informing aspiring artists themselves, the article also aims to instill in
pedagogues and teachers an understanding of the importance of two processes, individuation
and ego boundary development, since they are faced with the important task of guiding the
development of their students and helping them learn to match their perceptions with reality,
and to compare reality with the perceptions of critics and parents alike. Beck, Emery & Greenberg
(1985) articulate this nicely by stating that anxiety can be managed by comparing one’s own
perceptions and the perceptions of others with the facts of reality.

The role of the artist

The role of the artist is to communicate with society. Through sound, music in particular com-
municates moods as emotional responses accompanying facts and ideas (Sándor, 1981).
While music is described by Stein (2012), from a psychoanalytical perspective, as symbolically
communicating aspects of mental life through sound, Perry (1999, p. 18) states that creative
artists ‘have always played the role of emotional memory for a culture.’
The cornerstone of the arguments in this article on ego boundary development in artists is
the presupposition that, in their socio-emotional and even socio-political role as communicators
in society, artists challenge and stretch established boundaries and norms, and address social
issues and questions (E. Allers, personal communication, December 2, 2013). This applies to
musicians as well in the sense that they address the emotional heritage and reactions of people;
they attempt to move people, but their art is also appreciated across social and national borders,
things which have traditionally divided people.
The processes discussed apply equally to musicians involved in styles of music-making other
than classical music. Quincy Jones is an example of a musician who has not associated his

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4 Psychology of Music 

identity with any one kind of music which he learnt whilst his identity was still forming (Early,
2005). Early describes him as a musician who possessed a sufficient amount of ego ‘to speak to
new audiences in their own tongue.’ While never using the term ‘ego boundary’ but referring
to Jones as a musician who dares to ‘break down barriers,’ the processes described are indeed
the extension of ego boundaries and the cathexis of new styles (a term denoting the investment
in and commitment to a person, idea or object other than the self: Peck, 1978). Jones not only
extended styles of music-making but also genres of music production including film and
television writing. Some of the principles discussed in this article might also have an impact on
other types of artistic expression. However, the important distinction should be noted that
while technological advances such as the internet and social media have enabled the ‘crystal-
lization’ and preservation of musical performances, the visual and digital arts are becoming
increasingly less static (Gever, 2012).
A prerequisite for success and unhindered communication is that an aspiring artist becomes
a master of his or her craft and attains not only a thorough understanding of the medium but
also impeccable technique. At the same time, artists must acquire a thorough understanding of
the prevailing rules, norms, customs, and boundaries accepted by society – and in the case of
musicians, the emotional heritage of groups of people – and the reasons behind them. Only
then can they endeavor to stretch those boundaries (E. Allers, personal communication,
December 2, 2013), to bring their message and their viewpoint across, or to entertain others.
The power of the influence of a performing artist on a society can be such that it is consid-
ered a threat by the authorities, particularly those of regimes where societal freedoms have
been suspended to promote and protect an authoritarian regime. A well-known example is
Stalin, who imposed artificial boundaries on the musical expression and message of composers
such as Shostakovich (Fay, 2000). The role of artists was described above and, unlike politi-
cians, they have the luxury of acting in a non-confronting manner and are also generally con-
sidered exempt from certain forms of censorship (E. Allers, personal communication, December
2, 2013). This is why it is often accepted that artists are a little eccentric or
different – they are almost expected to be ‘interesting’ or unconventional, and might otherwise
be judged as not having a sufficiently important message to convey to their audience. The article
explains that successfully conveying their message without jeopardy to their own psychic integ-
rity cannot be achieved if artists have not first developed strong and healthy ego boundaries.

The performing artist’s dilemma

Art is open to interpretation; it is never absolute and no two people appreciate a performance or
a work of art in exactly the same way. Budd (1992) argues that just as linguistic utterances can
be misapprehended, so can the performance of a musical work. Juslin (2005) explains that in
order for music to communicate, the minimum necessary requirement is acoustic performance
perceived by a listener, and maximal artistic communication can be achieved when the listener’s
affective response matches the composer’s expressive intention. Given its communicative
nature, the interaction between music and auditor can be construed as an object relation (Stein,
2007). Theories explaining how people develop and function are built on the premise that they
are born into relationships to each other and that they evolve through these relations to others
as well as their environment. Therefore, ‘object relations patterns’ exist between people –
patterns which are heavily influenced by early experiences (Hamilton, 1996). In addition,
Stein (2007) acknowledges that psychic operatives such as transference and projection, as
originally described by Freud, can be at work within this dynamic between music, or performer,
and auditor. ‘Transference’ is the process through which feelings relevant to early relationships

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Swart 5

in an individual’s life and ways of perceiving and responding to the world appropriate to
an individual’s particular childhood environment are inappropriately redirected to interac-
tions between people and situations in the adult environment (Andersen and Berk, 1998;
Peck, 1978). Attributing unwanted characteristics present in the self to people outside of one-
self is a defense mechanism called ‘projection’ (Perron, 2005).
The scenario every performing artist faces to a greater or lesser degree is having to reconcile
their experience of their own self and their own art with the opinions, criticisms, interpreta-
tions, and even fantasies which are reflected back at them through various forms of feedback.
This all occurs in the realm of the subjective perceptions of art. The artist tries to make sense of
them and compares them, tries to see what he or she might never have considered to be real or
to exist, and tries to maintain the integrity of their own self (Beck, Emery & Greenberg, 1985;
E. Wolff, personal communication, January 20, 2014). Ways of communication and of per-
ceiving and interacting with the world have changed dramatically with technological advances
and changes in digital technology. Digital transmissions of live performances have the conse-
quence that a musician’s main competition, or the standard according to which he or she is
compared, is no longer only local, but that live performance has become part of a global
marketplace (Poole & Ho, 2011). Digital simulcasts of productions into cinemas, such as those
by the Metropolitan Opera, New York, are an example of how the professional sector is chang-
ing rapidly (Bailey, 2008). However, through using MySpace and YouTube, any musician, pro-
fessional or not, can now upload videos of their performances to these sites and also receive
feedback, often from anonymous sources. Therefore, while in the digital environment a message
can reach a far larger audience much faster than it could in the past, such performances can
potentially also remain in cyberspace indefinitely and be accessed at a later time. This is
markedly different from traditional ‘concert relations,’ a term used here with reference to the
psychic operatives at work in object relations which take place in a moment in time not unlike
the normal real-time relationships between people. In this overflow of information, the stakes
of ‘pushing the envelope of what has been done before’ (Gever, 2012) have become increas-
ingly higher, making it ever more difficult for artists to make original contributions.
Paradoxically, while the challenge of making original contributions has become tougher,
through technological advances there is now the potential to expand one’s influence exponen-
tially through the possibility of reaching a much wider audience in a shorter space of time. Yet
the extent of this is modified by the amount of competing information existing in this new
global arena.
A person without sufficient ego strength or healthy ego boundaries does not know what
they want in life (E. Allers, personal communication, May 20, 2014), or if they do, they lack
the assertiveness to attain their own goals, and are at the mercy of becoming subjugated to
the more assertive wills of others. They include, among others, pedagogues, talent scouts,
managers, connoisseurs and parents. Complicating the situation is the fact that young artists
are already in the public eye sometimes long before the age at which ego boundary development
is expected to be complete – which is around mid-adolescence (E. Allers, personal communi-
cation, May 20, 2014). In this arena they are frequently exposed to challenges to their still
developing ego boundaries and might lack the higher cognitive reasoning and discernment
required to realistically appreciate these issues. They have to be adept at recognizing whether
and when the problem does not lie with them but outside themselves (Caplan, 1995, p. 115).
Presenting another challenge to young developing artists is the fact that the traditional role
of the artist as communicator now comes with new strings attached: this is because the rite of
passage to a performance career now almost invariably goes along the route of competitions.
This shifted the focus from identifying talent and developing talent, with an emphasis on

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6 Psychology of Music 

individuality and personality, to first having to please a jury to win a competition in order to be
granted a chance to become a recognized artist. Juries consist of people with their own person-
alities and preferences, and all too frequently competitors aim to appease the majority of jury
members on any given panel in order to gain the best average vote, sacrificing their individuality
in the process.
This article hypothesizes that artists can become vulnerable because of their role in society,
namely to stretch existing boundaries. Once the process of ego boundary development is
understood, it becomes possible to identify where there may be shortcomings and appropriate
interventions may be sought. Before essential processes for aspiring artists can be explicated,
traditional views on ego boundary and self-esteem are discussed as background.

Introducing the concepts

The development of ego boundaries
A major factor in the level of success achieved by prospective concert artists is the development
of healthy ego boundaries and self-esteem. The latter is much more familiar to most people than
the former, and I shall therefore first define the former, a concept which must not be confused
with a common understanding of ‘ego.’ Federn, following in Freud’s footsteps, was the father of
this concept as it is generally understood today. The development of both ego boundaries and
self-esteem is fundamental in shaping identity, including artistic identity. In Singer’s definitive
work (1994) on Jung’s psychology, the individuation process is described as the differentiation
of the self from the constraints of conditioning imposed by family and external influences, and
the development of the ability to discriminate between the self and the not-self. Individuation
enables people to find their own direction and live according to their own sense of purpose. Peck
(1978) affirms that it is necessary for ego boundaries to be hardened before they can be sof-
tened and relates this to the importance of establishing an identity before it can be
transcended.
Babies are born with few ego boundaries, their primary concerns being food and safety (E.
Allers, personal communication, December 2, 2013). It is the brain of an infant which registers
and interprets incoming stimuli from its environment and, with the knowledge of old experi-
ences, learns to respond appropriately. It is almost impossible to separate ego boundaries from
ego – both function together in integrating new feedback from the environment with old experi-
ence (E. Allers, personal communication, December 2, 2013). To work through the initial
symbiotic existence with the mother and function as an increasingly autonomous individual,
the infant commences the process of ego boundary formation by progressively starting to
differentiate the point at which his or her control of the world ceases (Federn, 1952b). Federn
states that ego boundaries do not always coincide with the body boundaries. Hurvich (2005)
points out that Federn’s use of the term ‘ego’ refers to an individual’s ongoing bodily and psy-
chic experience, and that Federn’s concept of ‘ego boundaries’ forms a basis for distinguishing
real from not real by differentiating the experience of parts of the ego at any point in time from
other psychic elements (Hurvich, 2005). In the infant, this sense develops through differenti-
ating self from other through body movements, and also through the response or
mirroring in the mother’s face. Healthy mirroring validates the infant’s experience of his or her
world (Cloud & Townsend, 1992). In artists, the functioning of ego boundaries can manifest in
very complex ways. These include the process of testing the artist’s sphere of control or influ-
ence over his or her surroundings and on others, as well as the process of testing and expanding
the extent of the power of the artist’s message to influence others.

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Swart 7

Although so fundamentally ingrained in human existence and functioning, ego boundaries

remain an abstract construct and will be defined in various ways, including operationally.
Defining scientific theories operationally is an idea that originated in the work of Bridgman
(Chang, 2009). The way an individual develops ego boundaries depends heavily on their earliest
influences, in the family as well as outside, including the influence of music teachers on the
lives and art of performers. Ego boundaries enable us to function effectively in the world, both
to maintain our autonomy and to interact with others constructively. Perls, Hefferline, and
Goodman (1951) explain that the function of the ego boundary is twofold: it contains and pro-
tects the organism, and it forms the point of contact with the external environment, forming an
interface between the organism and the external environment. It is responsible for our sense of
reality and can be further contrasted by comparing it to the ego boundaries of animals which
can be considered to be very strong, since hierarchies are so important in their social structures
(E. Allers, personal communication, December 2, 2013). Psychologists’ use of the term
‘ego strength’ refers to this reality orientation, the latter operating in conjunction with self-
discipline and self-management (Branden, 1994). Secure infant attachment and bonding to a
primary care-giver is a prerequisite for the development of healthy boundaries (Cloud &
Townsend, 1992) and the facilitation of differentiation. Healthy ego boundaries are synony-
mous with appropriate conduct in any given situation and are needed in life on a conscious and
subconscious level in order to defend one’s position or stance on any given subject (E. Allers,
personal communication, December 2, 2013). The author’s own operational definition of an
important aspect of the functioning of ego boundaries is that ego boundaries involve the aware-
ness of and resistance to the discrepancy between one’s true nature and the moulding attempted and
qualities attributed by others and by society. In arriving at an operational definition of ego bound-
aries, Wolff explains that there are two kinds of behaviour, namely, ego consonant and ego
dissonant behaviour, or behaviour which is consistent or inconsistent with the ego. The func-
tioning of one’s ego boundaries determines whether one will allow one’s own or someone else’s
behaviour to exceed the limits of acceptability which one has set for any given behaviour
(E. Wolff, personal communication, January 20, 2014). This article does not test these concepts
on real subjects, for reasons explained in the final section, but puts forward strategies for the
implementation of testable theories.
There is growing recognition and debate about ego boundaries existing on a continuum,
representing various degrees of thickness or thinness (Harrison & Singer, 2014; Hartmann,
1991, 2011). In addition, the formerly enshrined position of strong ego boundaries upheld as
an ideal by psychoanalytic theory, and the association of ego boundary defects with psychopa-
thology, is increasingly being challenged by researchers (Giovacchini, 1991; Hartmann, 1991).
Federn himself (1952c) explains that these boundaries are always changing since they incor-
porate the range of functions of the ego, are invested with ego feeling and still belong to the ego.
This is not the place to debate these issues, but it needs to be stated that artists are widely viewed
as possessing ‘thinner’ ego boundary structures than average. It is argued here that first attain-
ing firm ego boundaries is a prerequisite for sustaining successful careers. Yet artists stretch
existing boundaries. In very young aspiring artists, these processes often overlap, or the next
one commences before the completion of the first, and this is where greater awareness is
needed. Giovacchini aptly states:

The creative process involves a broad range of functioning and traverses various levels of the psyche,
frequently reaching down to the very earliest, primary-process-oriented parts of the self. Ego
boundaries, in turn, can become quite fluid and permeable, even though they are ordinarily firmly
established and well structured. It is this broad spectrum, a prominent feature of the creative process

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8 Psychology of Music 

(Giovacchini, 1965, 1971, 1981), that has been often confused with psychopathology. (Giovacchini,
1991, p. 187).

With developments in neuroscience, what could once only be described in psychic terms is
now increasingly being explained on a physical basis as well, narrowing the links between the
psychic and the physical or the embodied. Biogenic amines play a role in boundaries. It has
been suggested that increased epinephrine and dopamine in the cortex can produce a thicken-
ing of boundaries and lack of these neurotransmitters in the cortex can produce thinner
boundaries (Hartmann, Harrison, & Zborowski, 2001). Beal (1989) and Hartmann (1991)
found significantly thinner boundaries in art students compared to control groups. Their
research investigated general boundaries, which they specify to include Federn’s ‘ego bounda-
ries.’ In addition, they found that although students have thinner boundaries, professionals
and established artists scored in the normal range on their Boundary Questionnaire (BQ). This
underscores the central argument of this article of the importance of guiding
aspiring artists to develop healthy ego boundaries.
Two scenarios can make an artistic patient decide to enter psychotherapy: perceived psycho-
logical dysfunction and an existential crisis in their lives, or the desire to reach their full poten-
tial, to gain the mental strength to compete at their best in artistic contests, and to attain
optimal focus and enter a state of ‘flow’ (Gorrie, 2009). In Horner’s (1973) article about the
role of ego boundaries in psychological resistance to therapy, it appears that a secure sense of
identity needs to be developed first in order to allow for future constructive change to take place
after input is received. In Horner’s context, this input refers to psychotherapy, while for aspiring
artists it would refer to the feedback received from teachers and others who critique their per-
formances. For change to happen in this continuous feedback process, the ego boundaries have
to become temporarily malleable, allowing the artist to accept input, internalize change and to
grow. In addition, young artists face the possibility that their efforts will be met with indiffer-
ence in the maze of existing contests, eisteddfods and the like. Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson
(1967) point out that disconfirmation is a form of impingement, negating the reality of the
artist (in this context), prevalent in narcissistic types of teachers. In determining the validity of
criticism and placing the reaction of others to one’s art in a realistic context, one’s ego bounda-
ries would form the protective shield on which the performer relies for psychological integrity
and defence against attack. Parents and first teachers play a tremendous role in instilling
strength and belief in themselves in future artists, since they interact with young artists at a
time when ego boundary formation is still taking place.
It is the mutual interrelation between the ego and the world (Federn, 1952d) which the artist
tries to influence, even manipulate. In the process, by definition as much as by proximity, artists
can therefore become vulnerable to disturbances that were traditionally thought of and defined
as ego boundary disturbances. In stretching existing boundaries, creative people could be sus-
ceptible to losing touch with conventional reality if they have not first fully developed and inte-
grated existing current boundaries particular to their time. Hershman and Lieb (1998) spent an
entire volume arguing why they believe the frequency of manic depression in creative people is
very high. Although ego boundaries form a metaphorical construct, their manifestation can be
extended to the physiological level through the alteration of neurotransmitters and, in the case
of the breakdown of ego boundaries, particularly the secretion of too much dopamine within
the limbic system of the brain (E. Allers, personal communication, December 2, 2013). Yet
Giovacchini (1991) explains how integrated ‘creative mavericks’ compensate for these pitfalls in
ingenious ways. He explicitly states that the populations he had worked with all included crea-
tive people from very nurturing and healthy early environments. Perhaps the opposite condition

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Swart 9

should also be investigated in order to allow for comparisons, since ego boundary disturbances
are associated with maladaptive early environments and early psychic injury.

The development of self-esteem

Self-esteem is a person’s perception of their own worth. Defined by Michel and Farrell as ‘the
judgmental evaluation an individual makes of himself . . . related not only to early home envi-
ronment but also to achievement, including skills development’ (1973, p. 80), its development
always occurs in relation to a person’s community (E. Allers, personal communication,
December 2, 2013). Healthy comparisons serve as motivation for the individual to stretch their
own ego boundaries by expanding their capabilities (E. Allers, personal communication,
December 2, 2013). In a discussion about the relationship between ego boundaries and self-
esteem from a psychodynamic point of view, Alice Miller’s definition of self-esteem is notewor-
thy. Miller (1997) maintains that an individual gains strength and self-esteem through the
natural contact with his or her own emotions and needs. Healthy self-esteem is based on the
authenticity of one’s own feelings and not on the possession of certain qualities as well as on
‘the unquestioned certainty that the feelings and needs one experiences are a part of one’s self ’
(Miller, 1997, p. 28). It is clear that self-esteem is narrowly related to the experiencing ego, as
enveloped by the ego boundaries. Here we are speaking of the authenticity of our own feelings
– with respect to ego boundaries, we were describing the authenticity, the beginning and the
ending, of our own experience. Thus it is important that aspiring young artists learn to value
their own feelings and to trust their own experience. Then they can adjust to seek out new expe-
riences or to literally try new interpretations of a work of music, but belief in themselves should
not be dependent upon outside affirmation. A child who has, through healthy mirroring and
responsiveness from the mother and from the immediate environment, received validation of
his or her existence and individuality, is unlikely to find himself or herself at the mercy of
unpredictable changes in the outside environment.
The emotional nature of music presents a very particular problem to young artists: when
one’s own feelings become the entity which is traded in competitions and concerts for evalua-
tion and sometimes even for money, certain implicit messages are sent in these contexts about
the validity of one’s own feelings in relation to those of our peers. If we accept Miller’s definition
of self-esteem as valid, this then implies that judgement of their own worth is constantly
reflected back to them by individuals outside of themselves through their feelings being dis-
played either to be accepted or rejected, or perhaps worse, to be met with indifference. Horner
(1973) explains how disconfirmation destroys the person’s own perception of his or her reality,
the exact thing which Miller terms as essential to the development of self-esteem. Protected by
healthy ego boundaries and self-esteem formation, the aspiring artist can encounter the outside
world with a sense of safety. Branden (1994, p. 174) points out that only if a young child’s
needs for safety and security are met, can the process of separation and individuation unfold
and a mind ‘that can later learn to trust itself ’ emerge.

The developing self, ego boundaries, and musical identity

Through drawing links between the work of various experts in the field, it can be argued that
the developing self and as such the development of ego boundaries through mirroring and
responsiveness between caregiver and infant are closely intertwined with the development of
musical identity. Colwyn Trevarthen (1999) describes early human development and interac-
tion as a ‘communicative musicality’ which forms the foundations of musical self-identity.

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10 Psychology of Music 

While Trevarthen describes the infant as learning his or her position and role, or early musical
identities, in relation to the reaction of others interacting with the infant, Allan Schore calls
these processes affective transactions, asserting that attachment can be defined as ‘the interac-
tive regulation of biological synchronicity between organisms’ (Schore, 2000, p. 23). Schore
also explains how stressful negative affect or moments of ‘asynchrony’ (2000, p. 34) are regu-
lated by the mother, who modulates these moments of misattunement through interactive
repair (Schore, 1997b). For Trevarthen, there appears to be an inborn psychobiological rhyth-
mic purpose to infant communication (Trevarthen, 1999). He states that the foundations of
intersubjectivity and musicality in humans lie in rhythmic narrative expression being both
regulated by and regulating innate emotional processes and the metric nature of such
exchanges (Trevarthen, 1999). Identity development and the development of the self occur in
an intersubjective manner; they are mediated by other humans as well as early musical expres-
sions and singing (Trevarthen, 2011). The process of identity development is fluid, subject to
renegotiation and change (Trevarthen, 1999), and mediated by complex processes which are
increasingly being understood through developments in neuroscience. Based on my interpreta-
tion of the available literature on the subject, I argue that the solution to understanding these
processes does not lie in the outwardly observable formed identity, but in understanding how
right-brain to right-brain communication between two people occurs, understanding intersub-
jective regulation of affect (Schore, 1997b; 2009) and music’s potential role in this, under-
standing how subconscious relational elements play a role in forming this musical identity and
how music itself interacts with the structures in the orbitofrontal cortex. Music’s influence on
the latter is perhaps the only significant area which Schore does not touch upon in his compre-
hensive work on the neuroscience of human attachment and trauma.
The role of music in an ‘object relations patterns’ (Hamilton, 1996) view of human develop-
ment and interaction can be extended to the development of the self and the formation of iden-
tity. Alexander Stein describes primary developmental processes in terms of sound, identifying
sound as the ‘first psychic space’ and explaining how, at birth, the ‘intrauterine audiophonic
skin’ becomes replaced by the sounds of the outer world (Stein, 2012, p. 559). Furthermore,
Stein attests that this early sound environment ‘potently contributes to the formation and
establishment of the self ’ (Stein, 2012, p. 559). Of relevance to musicians is the notion that
music influences mood and as such influences the development of mind on a subconscious
level (E. Allers, personal communication, May 20, 2014). Music bypasses cortical functioning
and enters the emotional centres of the brain directly before being processed by the conscious
mind (Montello, 2002, p. 124). It was seen above how artists influence values in society and
stretch boundaries, and communicate with audiences in subconscious ways. In this regard,
Jung believed that true works of art have their origin in the collective unconscious and could
possibly bring balance to the conscious values of a society (Marshman, 2003).
The abovementioned processes can be explained in neurological terms. In these processing
pathways in the brain, the entorhinal cortex connects the orbitofrontal cortex with the tempo-
ral pole, acting as a switch which converts sensory input into emotions (E. Allers, personal
communication, January 9, 2015). As such, it acts as the switch between hearing sound and
where sounds create a specific mood (E. Allers, personal communication, January 9, 2015). In
turn, Schore (1998) explains that the orbitofrontal cortex refines emotions and allows for
switching of internal bodily states in response to those alterations in the external environment
which are interpreted as having personal significance. It is in the entorhinal cortex where the
past significance of information regarding objects perceived by the senses is determined, while
future implications of perceived information are elaborated in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
(Viamontes & Beitman, 2009, p. 984). Neuroscience tells us that there is a change from the

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Swart 11

pure sound to creating an internal mood. Moods conjure up memories from the past – it is these
memories which the artist wants to shift, but cannot do so effectively if they themselves are not
clear on the particular mood (and the associations it elicits) that they wish to create (E. Allers,
personal communication, January 9, 2015).
Boyce-Tillman (2014) explains that identity lies in the domain of expression and that the link
between identity formation and the arts lies in the meaning-making character of both (Boyce-
Tillman, 2014; Turino, 1999). DeNora (2000) points out that musical identities can be influ-
enced by a range of stimuli in addition to music itself providing a resource in and through which
identity can be formed. Stating that the time for a rapprochement between neuroscience and
psychoanalysis has arrived, Schore (1997a) explains how the theoretical core of psychoanalysis
is undergoing a reformulation from an understanding of an intrapsychic unconscious towards
that of a relational unconscious (Schore, 2009). He states that the self-organization of the brain
of a developing infant occurs in relationship with (the brain of) the caregiver (Schore, 2009). In
the infant the right brain is the first to develop, and this unconscious relational communication
happens between two right brains; attunement and affect regulation modify neural circuits,
which are to become the foundation of future patterns of relating employed by the individual
(Schore, 1997b; 2009). Ego boundaries and a sense of self are established through mirroring in
the mother-infant dyad (Schore, 1997b; 2009), the validation of the infant’s experience having
a profound influence on his or her sense of identity (Miller, 1997). The confidence to express
one’s own feelings and ideas is dependent on self-esteem, showing a mutual interrelationship
between self-esteem, identity and the effectiveness of musical communication.
Lamont (2002) observed that the development of self-understanding and of self-other
understanding in young children appears to advance in parallel. Understanding what charac-
teristics belong to the ‘other’ and what can be attributed to the ‘self ’ is central in developing a
sense of separate identity and ego boundaries. Lamont (2002) also states that it is around the
age of 7, together with a concomitant increase in social comparisons, that children can master
the understanding of a differentiated identity and suggests that only then are they able to
develop a specific identity as a musician. In developmental terms, this is consistent with the
emphasis in this article on the importance of allowing the process of individuation to take place
first, letting children’s personal identities be influenced during the early years by features of
self-understanding not specifically related to music (Lamont, 2002), before any attempt is
made to stretch boundaries in their capacity as music performers and artists. After that, the
eventual extension of boundaries causes the sense of identity to expand as well (Boyce-Tillman,
2014).
While biological and social influences jointly shape musical development (Hargreaves, Miell,
& MacDonald, 2002), development of identity is also affected by digital advancements.
Hargreaves et al. state that rapid technological advancements have had the effect of making
available vastly more diverse ways and contexts in which people experience music than were
available in the past, a result of this being that music has become increasingly more important
as a way in which people invent and express their identity and present themselves to others
(Hargreaves et al., 2002). While Susan Greenfield is doing work on the influence of digital tech-
nology on the brain (Greenfield, 2014), it is yet to be determined how the changing dynamics
brought about by technological advances can influence the time-based emotional responses of
the brain to ensuing changes in interrelatedness as they pertain to the changing nature of
engagement in music, including musical communication taking place in the virtual world.
The conceptual model outlined in Figure 1 summarizes the processes explained in this
article.

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12 Psychology of Music 

Development of ego boundaries & self-esteem Stretch/extend exisng boundaries

SELF OTHER

naonal / internaonal
family culture
/ music culture

= point of intersec on ar st influences

ego boundary
between ego & world interrela on conven onal reality
between ego &
the world
intersubjec ve
affec ve
transac ons societal structures;
iden ty forma on, customs, norms,
self-esteem
individua on* feelings,
emo ons, memories
forma on of self, ego communicate
validity of own
modifica on of feelings message to
neural circuitry audience/society#

iden ty (lies in the confidence to

valida on, domain of expression) communicate own
forma on of self-
feelings depends
esteem and communica on,
ego boundary ego boundaries = limits of own on self-esteem
experience and
challenging established
percep on
norms/boundaries/ideas

Figure 1. Conceptual model of the interrelated operation of ego boundaries, self-esteem and identity.
* (strengthening of ego boundaries).
# (softening of ego boundaries to transmit message).

Stretching existing boundaries: Insights from pedagogues

It has been noted that the role of artists, including performing artists, is to stretch or challenge
existing norms and boundaries in society, to bring new perspectives on old designs and concep-
tions. We know this on many levels – for example, from Beethoven, who was not to be restrained
by the limitations of the pianos of his day and who, with his fiery temperament, did not refrain
from breaking the instrument and inspiring piano manufacturers to make stronger instru-
ments with a wider range (Gordon, 1996), to Liszt who extended the limits of the influence of
the solo pianist, starting the tradition of playing full recitals from memory and of transcribing
works written for other genres for the piano to be included in this new showcase called the ‘solo
piano recital’ (Lebrecht, 1996; Wu, 2007). Wagner extended the limits of musical form and
opera through his conception of the Gesamtkunstwerk (Grey, 2009).
Statements left behind bear testimony to the fact that great artists and great pedagogues
often had an intuitive understanding of these issues. The great Russian piano pedagogue,
Neuhaus, made the following statement:

Every powerful personality tries to spread, like an elemental force, over the whole world, but happily it
encounters other personalities, just as strong, and this gives rise to conflicts just as Heraclitus: struggle
is the father and master of everything on earth. (Neuhaus 1993, p. 221)

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Swart 13

Neuhaus also understood the importance of ego boundary development and individuation.
He said:

I think that every experienced teacher considers his pupil first and foremost as a personality in spite of
the many characteristics he may have in common with others. And the clearer the individual element,
the clearer the general whole. (Neuhaus, 1993, p. 203)

This is in stark contrast to the very damaging mistake characteristically made by narcissistic
teachers, namely the teacher seeing the student as an extension of themselves (Miller, 1997)
and in this way forcefully imposing their own style and wishes to the extent that the student
does not have the space to develop an identity of his or her own. Miller (1997) argues that there
exists an elevated prevalence of narcissism amongst the performing artists, and that the cycle
is often perpetuated intergenerationally.
An example of how the process of ego boundary development can be successfully navigated
in young artists can be found through studying the example of the legendary violin pedagogue
De Lay. In her book Teaching Genius, Sand describes De Lay as

. . . hardly just a nice lady who teaches the fiddle. Where her students are concerned this motherly
woman is capable of behaving more like a lioness, defending them from outside predators, such as
overambitious parents or managers; insisting that they listen to their own musical instincts; and
finally, making sure that they gain the skills and independence they will need to survive in the jungle
of the professional concert world that awaits them. (Sand, 2000, book cover)

Methods for compensation in instances where ego boundary and self-esteem development
deficits are suspected include the cognitive awareness and appraisal of these otherwise largely
unconscious processes, as well as psychotherapy. In an article about the transformation of
early object relations into new objects, Downey states:

Therapeutic change is analogous to developmental change in that both involve the crucial presence of
another to release energies. In therapeutic change these are energies that have been repressed beyond
the reach of developmental dynamics. (2001, p. 56)

Both the nature of the pedagogical situation and the nature of communication between artist
and audience create a dynamic in which energies could potentially be released, enabled by the
presence of another. However, the therapeutic encounter is the only one in which the response
is modified by a trained professional in order to address the specific attributes and deficits with
which the patient-artist may present.

Conclusion and implications

This article has shown how ego boundary development and self-esteem are closely related con-
cepts. The role of artists in stretching existing boundaries was discussed, and the importance of
the development of strong ego boundaries and the thorough assimilation of one’s own society’s
rules and norms before the artist can attempt to influence or change them, were highlighted. It
was shown how traditional psychodynamic constructs are at work within the environment of,
and relations involved in, music-making. As an important aspect of relationships between
people, music plays a role in the development of the self and as such forms an aspect of the
development of musical identity. It traces how self-esteem and identity formation impact on the
ability of aspiring artists to convey their message.

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14 Psychology of Music 

Whilst these processes are operating beyond the awareness of the artist, they run their
course on an unconscious level. The ability to exercise conscious control over intra- and inter-
psychic, as well as interpersonal processes, begins when an individual is first made aware of the
existence and operation of such processes. Only when these are brought into awareness and
observed by the artist can he or she begin to modify these processes, with or without the help of
others, if he or she wishes to do so. Katz (2014) also states that it is only when the enacted
dimension in psychotherapy (as well as our lives) becomes conscious that experiential insight
can lead to transformation.
For those artists, aspiring artists and their teachers who have not given the development of,
and interplay between, ego boundaries, self-esteem and musical identity conscious thought
before, this knowledge can have far-reaching implications for the choices they make regarding
their role as artists and the ways in which they choose to practice their musicianship in the
future. In addition, it has the potential to guide music teachers and pedagogues in overseeing
the process of musical maturation of their students. In the psychotherapeutic process, it is the
interplay in the transference-countertransference scenario (countertransference being the
redirection of the therapist’s feelings towards the client: Etchegoyen, 2005) which brings to
consciousness previously unconscious patterns of relating (Katz, 2014). Hamilton states that
people can change in meaningful ways through utilizing the transference and countertransfer-
ence in the therapeutic relationship to gain insight into the functioning of the individual
(Hamilton, 1996) and to guide him or her towards more adaptive functioning relevant to the
present and not the past by revising their ‘outdated maps of reality’ and relearning new ways
of relating (Peck, 1978, p. 48). An artist aware of the psychic operatives at work in music-
making, and equipped to identify these in themselves and others, is empowered to communi-
cate more effectively. The close relation to the music profession of the concepts highlighted has
implications for the responsibility of individuals functioning within that environment to educate
themselves about processes so integral to their art and their functioning as human beings.

Suggestions for future research

The challenge remains to devise a measuring instrument which is deemed by professionals in
the field to have the capability to satisfactorily measure or describe an individual’s ego boundaries.
The author piloted a questionnaire, sent to successful pianists and singers, but after receiving
the results was not convinced that the questions could penetrate to the heart of the matter of
exactly what the main influences on ego boundary development are.
There are a number of studies on language ego boundaries and the operation of ego bound-
aries in foreign language acquisition (see e.g. Baran-Lucarz, 2012; Ehrman, 1993). Like language,
music is a means of communication, considered by some as a universal language which can
extend across national divides, yet it had been shown that the neurological processing avenues
of music and language are not the same (Peretz & Hebert, 1995). Therefore, studies comparing
and contrasting both could prove to be of great scientific interest. Achieving a better under-
standing of how music and sound relate to ego boundary function and formation is a very
complicated endeavor which still needs to be undertaken in greater detail than explicated above,
with the insights of Stein (2012) providing a good starting point.
Hartmann (1991, 2011) refers to the work of Blatt and Ritzler (1974) as making strides in
devising a way of measuring ego boundaries, something which he states psychoanalysts have
failed to do. While researchers have formulated questionnaires measuring boundaries as person-
ality variables in the past (see e.g. Hartmann, 1991; Schredl, Bocklage, Engelhart, & Mingebach,
2008), Hartmann’s pioneering work was strongly inspired by and tested on individuals reporting

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Swart 15

frequent nightmares (Hartmann, 1989). In Hartmann’s original boundary questionnaires

(1991), items 8, 106, and 127 deal with music. Since, as was explicated in this article, the
nature of the performing arts presents very particular challenges to ego boundary function-
ing, there is a need for a questionnaire to be specifically developed for performing artists. It
appears that both qualitative as well as quantitative investigations are needed. Perhaps the
theory that artists generally have thinner ego boundary structures could be tested to deter-
mine whether this is compatible with successful, sustained careers (see e.g. Hartmann et al.,
2001; Giovacchini, 1991). While it would be challenging to create a double-blinded setting,
the findings of such pioneering testing could be followed up by repeating such investigations
in a different setting and rigorously testing hypotheses and results of preliminary findings
against additional scientific measuring instruments devised by or decided upon by future pan-
els of investigators. Ross (1990) set an example in testing Hartmann’s theories in this way.
It is not impossible that the most suitable measuring instrument might perhaps be through
neuroimaging techniques rather than verbal and subjective study participant feedback. It is
important to note that, while it is the malfunctioning of the temporal lobe of the brain which is
the seat of diseases associated with ego boundary disturbances, most notably psychotic disorders
(Ostow, 1995; Thalbourne & Maltby, 2008), music is processed by the temporal lobe (Zungu-
Dirwayi, Hugo, Van Heerden, & Stein, 1999). Perhaps studying musicians could be particularly
valuable in bringing new insights into this area of psychoanalytic inquiry. A similar dissolution
of boundaries in the mind is illustrated by Taylor (2008) who, being a neuroscientist herself,
describes how she suffered a stroke which caused left-brain function to be severely hampered.
When right-brain functions took over, she describes total blurring of boundaries between mental
constructs which under normal circumstances are clearly demarcated, leading to executive
function impairments yet also to a feeling of peace and serenity. This throws interesting light on
the question of exactly how and in which structures these psychological constructs, these
maturational milestones, are represented in the brain and how functions associated with them
are executed by the brain. Certainly, much interdisciplinary collaboration is needed in this domain.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for pointing out further implications that could be
considered in relation to the original ideas presented, including the impact of technological advances
and social media and their effects on musicians, as well as the relationship of the ideas presented to the
literature on the developing self and musical identity. I am very grateful to Dr. Eugene Allers, former
President of the South African Society of Psychiatrists (SASOP), and Prof. Edward Wolff, PhD, member
of the South African Neuropsychological Association, for sharing their insights and expertise with me in
writing this manuscript, as well as for checking the accuracy of the arguments presented from a neuro-
scientific perspective.

Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-
profit sectors.

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