Improved Sustainability in Bridge Design through the use of Factory

Produced Pretensioned, Prestressed Concrete Girder and Beam Elements

Duncan French1, Daksh Baweja2, Godfrey Smith1, Julian Borgert1 and Zach Arneil2
1Structural Concrete Industries Pty Ltd, 2BG&E

Abstract: There are several benefits that are associated with precast prestressed concrete including
structural performance, cost, efficiency and improved sustainability. However, to facilitate efficient
manufacture, the concrete needed for daily production cycles tends to have high Portland cement
contents to achieve high early age strength for the transfer of prestress forces. This results in concrete
having a higher embodied carbon per cubic metre when compared with more conventional in-situ
concrete. In recent years a large emphasis has been placed on sustainability and reduction of carbon
emissions in the concrete industry which contributes up to 8% of global emissions [1] [2]. One of the
primary and most effective methods of reducing the embodied carbon in concrete is to increase the use of
supplementary cementitious materials (SCM’s) and reduce the amount of Portland cement. The reduction
in Portland cement content reduces the early age strength, resulting in longer production cycle times,
which reduce the efficiency of precast pretensioned prestressed construction [3]. This paper examines
different girder construction methodologies, processes and materials used to construct a two-lane bridge
in Newcastle NSW spanning 37m and the impacts they have on sustainability.

Keywords: Emission reduction, efficient construction, Sustainable construction

1. Introduction
Concrete is a versatile material and is used in a variety of applications due to its high compressive strength
and durability. Per kilogram, concrete has lower embodied carbon emissions than other construction
materials like steel this is illustrated in Figure 1. Due to the high usage of concrete, the concrete industry
contributes up to 8% of global CO2 emissions, 80-90% of these emissions comes from the manufacture of
Portland cement. With the increase in urbanisation, cement production is forecast to increase by 25-50%
globally [1] [2] [3], therefore there is a need for the construction industry to provide improved sustainability
in design, construction methodologies and asset management.

Figure 1. Embodied Emissions for materials per industry [2]

Initiatives and specifications have focused on improved sustainability performance of in-situ concrete
through the reduction of Portland cement and its partial replacement with SCM’s. While this is probably the
most effective way to reduce CO2 emissions in concrete, this approach has drastic effects on the
sustainability outcome for the precast manufacturing process. The traditional approaches described above
focus largely on material based embodied carbon criteria [4] [5], CO2 per cubic meter / tonne. Studies have
shown that such approaches do not necessarily provide the outcomes sought and further thinking on this is
now required [6] [7] [8]. Consideration of concrete and component material properties need to be coupled
with the engineering outcomes of a project, structure, structural element design, structural element
construction and manufacturing criteria. Relatively little effort has gone into the assessment of different
designs, construction methodologies, and manufacture of concrete and concrete structural elements on the
sustainability (CO2e) of structures. This is particularly the case with the manufacture of precast pretensioned
prestressed concrete planks and girders, where sustainability specifications have applied the same
sustainability criteria to pretensioned concrete as they have to in-situ concrete construction.
The standard precast pretensioned prestressed (PSC) Super-T girder has been widely adopted in
preference to other girder manufacturing methodologies like steel and in-situ concrete in Australia since
their introduction in 1993 due to their well-documented advantages over in-situ construction [7] [9]. The
advantages are generated through the standard precast 24-hour manufacturing cycle and the technology
of applying pretensioned prestressed forces on the structural element.
The design and manufacture of such structural elements is complex with many factors needing to be
considered such as:-
 Optimising concrete and reinforcement volumes to meet load requirements;
 Optimising deflection limit requirements;
 Optimising structural and manufacturing efficiency;
 Ensuring efficient manufacturing processes that require;
o Mould re-use within specific time limits to optimise production shifts and reduce cost;
o Application of heat accelerated curing to ensure early strength requirements are met to
achieve the customary daily production cycle;
o Use of prestressed concrete in design to minimise girder sections;
o Optimised concrete transfer strengths for required performance criteria.
Some of these processes require material properties to be compliant with design and manufacturing-
imposed criteria. Changes in parameters such as reducing the total cementitious binder and/or reducing
cement contents will have negative impacts on the above criteria.
There has been significant work done in Australia and other parts of the world on concrete binders and
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). As examples, fly ash has been used in concrete since 1958
and ground granulated (iron) blast furnace slags have been used since the late 1960s and early 1970s [10].
Silica fume was used in Australia as far back as 1971 [11]. Significant work on durability of concrete and
mechanical properties of concretes containing these materials can be found in the literature and standards
covering these materials are now linked to structural design and construction. Recently, however, the
requirement to reduce carbon on projects has resulted in prescriptive specifications nominating arbitrary
levels (percentage replacement of binder with SCM) in concrete independent of imposed design and
construction requirements.
There has been widespread use of Super-T concrete girders in construction, particularly for the fast and
efficient construction of bridges. Standardised sections have been adopted throughout the industry allowing
for optimisation of mould design and life cycles, plant production, energy, time, and materials [9].
Given current industry initiatives and the adoption of SCMs for in-situ concrete there is pressure for further
consideration of sustainability performance initiatives to be directly adopted for pre-stressed concrete and
in turn, for the manufacture of Super-T concrete girders.
As previously indicated, given the existing disconnect between material properties driven by “specifications
for sustainable concrete” and design, manufacture and construction requirements, unnecessary problems
are being faced in the construction industry. The goal of reducing carbon on projects may not be achieved
unless changes are made in the way specification for sustainability is documented and this is particularly
the case for precast prestressed concrete girders.
Designers, manufacturers, installers/contractors, and asset owners face a number of issues when
considering the adoption of sustainability performance initiatives for prestressed concrete girders including
the following:
 Design considerations required for performance of alternate mix designs such as cracking, creep,
durability, lower concrete strength at transfer (application of prestress during manufacture) and
geometry. These have the potential to depart from standardised sizing creating issues with
manufacture and the known connection between theoretical performance and known performance
of standardised designs.
  Adequate prediction of transfer deflections and service behaviour including crack distribution when
using SCMs.
 Past optimisation of prestressed Super-T girders has considered several factors including efficiency
of materials, reduced construction time (where elements are produced on a daily cycle minimising
formwork and energy for curing), reduced wastage.
 While in-situ beam dimensions can be adjusted there can be issues with even minor geometric
adjustment of prestress girders (i.e., Super-T girders) such as mould dimensions, void dimensions,
tendon layout, etc. This can create issues for coordination between the designer and manufacturer.
 The use of SCMs typically results in lower early age concrete strength which requires additional
curing time to reach the necessary transfer strength. These longer curing times result in higher
energy consumption and reduced efficiencies for equipment (multiple casting beds required to
maintain the required rate of production). The increase in cycle time may affect assumptions made
by the designer.
 Use of geopolymers (and other alkali activated binders) not having a track record of successful use
in the precast industry due to insufficient material (SCM’s) to support widespread use and
specifications like TfNSW B80 do not allow the use in the manufacture of bridges.
 Adoption of special purpose cements with higher performance than general purpose cements which
are currently being used
2. Analysis and Design Procedure
2.1 Details of study
This study performs a comparative assessment of Embodied Carbon for different bridge superstructure
types (construction methodology) for a two lane 38m single span bridge. Specifically, the study compares
bridge girders of prestressed concrete, in-situ concrete and steel and evaluates their impact on sustainability
and whether evaluating a sustainability target per material is appropriate rather than consideration of the
life cycle of the structure.
A bridge of the same configuration (i.e., span, width, etc.) has been utilised for the 3 assessed options, all
of which utilise a 200 mm cast in-situ deck. The assessment is limited to the girder section only (Modules
A1-A3 girder production only) and has not considered the in-situ concrete deck for embodied carbon
calculations. Calculations for strength and deflection have considered composite action of the girder with
the in-situ concrete deck. Table 1 provides a summary of the bridge arrangement for the comparative
assessment.
Table 1. Bridge Information
Structure Type Road Bridge
Track Alignment Straight
Number of Lanes 2
Overall Length 38.5 m
Width 13.6 m
Number of Spans 1
Span Length 37.5 m
Deck Type Concrete Deck
Girder Spacing 2.0 m
Number of Girders 7
Cast In-situ Deck 200 mm

2.2 Girder Configuration

The details of the girder cross sections for the three different construction methodologies investigated in this
study are presented in Figure 2&3.
 1850 Deep Reinforced Concrete 1450 Deep Welded Steel
I Girder I Girder
Figure 2.

1815 Deep Super T-Cross-section 1815 Deep Super T-Reinforcement

& Strand layout
Figure 3.

Factory manufactured Super-Ts provide a very economical and sustainable solution to other forms of
construction because they are able to be manufactured on a 24-hour cycle. To maintain this cycle, however,
there is a need to utilize a concrete technology which is capable of the achievement of high early strength,
nominally 35-40MPa in 12-15 hours. This is achieved by the use of high Portland cement content / low water
cement ratio mix designs coupled with heat accelerated curing. Heat accelerated curing is provided by
applying steam (or other heat source) to the PSC element at a temperature range of 50-70 °C for 8 hours.
To avoid the risk of thermal cracking and DEF (Delayed Ettringite Formation) limits are imposed on the heat
cycle, minimum pre-setting period 2hrs, maximum temperature rise of 24°C / hr and a maximum temperature
of 70 °C. Transfer of prestress can occur when the element has achieved its minimum transfer strength (as
 determined by representative test specimens cured under identical conditions) and the cured maturity of the
concrete is ≥ 350 °C-hrs. Factory manufactured reinforced concrete elements also need to achieve minimum
strengths prior to demoulding sufficient to ensure that the element can support its own weight without
unacceptable cracking due to demoulding and handling forces. In both cases the mix designs are controlled
by the achievement of early strengths necessary to achieve these conditions rather than the ultimate 28-
day strength criterion. [12] [13]
It is for these reasons that the CO2 emission targets imposed on in-situ cannot be fairly compared to the
precast alternatives. Put another way the 50MPa concrete specified for PSC Super T’s is better compared
to a 75MPa high early strength mix on the construction site.

A summary of girder material volumes is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Girder Material Volumes

Parameter Girder Type
In-situ Concrete Welded Steel Girder PSC Super T
Girder Depth (mm) 1,850 1,450 1,815
Concrete Total Volume (m3/girder) 45.2 N/A 31.9
Steel1 Total Mass (kg/girder) N/A 26,815 N/A
Reinforcement2 Total Mass (kg/girder) 15,543 N/A 7,018
Strand3 Total Mass (kg/girder) N/A N/A 2,985

2.3 Design Criteria for Bridge Girders

Design of girders was undertaken in accordance with AS5100 (2017) for deflection and strength. The
deflection criteria is presented in table 3.

Table 3. Deflection Criteria

Girder Type Deflection Limit (Long Tern Permanent Loads) Deflection SLS + DLA
1
Steel L/300 Pre-camber limit No Sag L/600
1
In-situ Concrete L/300 Pre-camber limit No Sag L/600
Super-T Hog L/300 No Sag L/600
1
L/300 pre-camber limit assumed based on AS5100.2 Clause 7.11 requirements for hog deflection limits.

Design was undertaken considering deflection requirements for the girders where calculated pre-
cambers and deflections are presented in table 4.
Table 4. Girder Deflection
Girder Type Pre- DLLong term Permanent LL Total LL +
camber/ Deflection Sag (mm) Deflection Permanent
Hog (mm) (mm) (mm) Sag (mm)
Steel1 -942 Min 94 0 61 61
In-situ Concrete1 -1143 Min 114 0 53 53
Prestressed Concrete -514 24 5
-27 61 34
Super-T
1
Beam pre-cambered to achieve AS5100 requirement for no sag under permanent loads (i.e. minimum
pre-camber to match deflection for DLLongterm).
2
Prior to application of girder self weight and weight of deck slab (i.e. girder fabricated on its side).
3
Slab cast integral with beam.
4
Hog at 28 days without concrete slab.
5
Includes long term creep/hog under permanent loads (100 years).
2.4 Girder Strength
The bending strengths of the girders were calculated in accordance with AS 5100.5 and AS 5100.6. The
capacity of the girders may be compared through the use of a rating factor, which presented in table 5.
Table 5. Girder Load rating Summary
Girder Type Rating Factor (ULS
Bending M1600)

Steel 1.661
In-situ Concrete 1.03
Pre-stressed Concrete Super-T 1.06
1
Steel beam controlled by deflection under live load.
2.5 Emission Analysis
This assessment has focused on the production phase of a product only as outlined in BS EN 15978:2011
(Sustainability of construction works - Assessment of environmental performance of building - Construction
method.) referred to as Module A1-A3 see Figure 4 below.

Figure 4. Carbon Emissions for Life Cycle Stages (BS EN 15978)

2.5 Embodied Carbon Assessment

Embodied Carbon for concrete materials was based on component emission factors and other studies
conducted on concrete materials. Manufacturer supplied Environment Product Declarations (EPDs) were
utilised for elements such as reinforcement, structural steel, strands/tendons, and natural gas; with
emissions calculated for steam generation. Design parameters for embodied carbon assessment are
presented in Table 6. Whilst values for various materials have been provided, it is noted that material
properties impact many manufacturing processes that impact cost and structural efficiency. It is standard
practice in precast girder manufacture to have three staff shifts per day, in part to monitor steam application
and production processes, and thus provide efficiency.

Table 6. Material Emissions Data

Material Emission Factors
Structural Steel 2.0 tCO2e/t
Reinforcement Steel 1.7 tCO2e/t
Strand/Tendons 2.2 tCO2e/t
50 MPa concrete using Portland
0.5 tCO2e/m3
cement only1
TfNSW B80
(including 25% fly ash by mass of 0.5 tCO2e/m3
binder)2
Steam Curing for S60 Grade
0.5 tCO2e
8 hrs @ 70⁰C3, 4
 50 MPa Concrete with 450kg Binder
0.3 tCO2e/m3
with 55% SCMs
Steam for 50 MPa Concrete 450kg
Binder with 55% SCMs 9.1 tCO2e
60 hrs @ 70⁰C4, 5

Results
Embodied Carbon values were calculated for girder components and are presented in Table 7 for a single
girder and the total for seven girders required for the bridge. The analysis presented considers the options
described previously with additional bridge design variations as follows:-
 A steel girder bridge
 A reinforced concrete bridge made with concrete containing 100% GP cement;
 A reinforced concrete bridge with concrete composed of 70% slag by mass of binder;
 A prestressed Super-T bridge with concrete incorporating a binder composed of 25% fly ash by
mass of binder, and
 A prestressed Super-T bridge with concrete incorporating a 450 kg/m3 total ternary binder
composed of 55% SCM by mass of binder.

In addition to the above, bridge options have been assessed for embodied carbon relative to the
prestressed Super-T bridge (from which the embodied carbon values have been normalised to ease
comparisons). Also presented in Table 7 is an estimate of the required production cycle (in days) for
girders manufacture within each bridge option

Table 7. Embodied Carbon Results for A1 to A3

Girder Type
Embodied Carbon Reinforced Reinforced PSC PSC
(tCO2e) Steel
Concrete Concrete Super-T Super-T
Girder
(100% GP) (70% slag) (25% (High SCM1)
Concrete N/A 23 11.3 FA)
14.7 11
Concrete Curing N/A N/A N/A 0.56* 9.1*
Steel 53.6 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Reinforcement N/A 26.4 26.4 11.7 11.7
Strand N/A N/A N/A 6.5 6.5
Total per Girder 53.6 49 37.7 33.5 38.6
Total for 7 Girders 375.4 343.4 264.1 234.2 270.2
Ratio to PSC Super-T (25% FA) 1.6 1.45 1.12 1 1.14
Days Required to Produce
5 142 282 1 33
One Girder Element
1 High SCM concrete investigated had ternary blend binders having 450kg/m3 total binder with minimum 55% SCM content.
2 Estimated time based on achieving a standard 7-day compressive strength.
3 Estimated based on time required to achieve transfer strength criteria.
* Heat accelerated cured in accordance with TfNSW B80

Further analyses on embodied carbon of the various design options were carried out and are summarised
in Figure 5. Embodied carbon results for the bridge have been normalised and compared with the reference
value for the Super-T bridge. The design options are those set out in Table 7 with further analyses presented
for Super-T girder bridges including:-
 Steel with improved properties that are relevant to facilitating optimised girder design;
 Having the ability to improve concrete batching to optimise concrete performance, and
 Enabling higher and improved binder types specific to precast applications and enabling early age
strengths to facilitate more efficient production.
 Relative Embodied Carbon Value Normalised to Super-T Girder

Steel I Girder 1.59

Rienforced Concrete Girder- (100% GP) 1.45

Assessed Bridge Design Option

PSC Super-T (450kg Binder 55%SCM) 1.14

Rienforced Concrete Girder- (70% SCM) 1.12

PSC Super-T (600kg Binder 25%SCM) 1.00

PSC Super-T (Improved Binder) 0.94

PSC Super-T (Improved Batching) 0.94

PSC Super-T (Low CO2 Steel) 0.77

PSC Super-T (All Improvements) 0.70

Figure 5. Evaluation of Bridge Design for Embodied Carbon Normalised to Super-T Girder

3. Discussion & Recommendation

It is noted that the reinforced concrete girders are not a viable solution for a 38m single span bridge, this
option would generally be excluded during the design phase, due to constructability, design difficulties and
cost. Concrete is the primary ingredient in the manufacture of PSC girders making up 90-95% of the mass,
due to its high volume, it generally has the highest embodied carbon value compared to other materials. A
large emphasis has been placed in sustainability specifications on reducing cement in concrete with the aim
to reduce concrete embodied carbon for this reason because in in-situ construction it is the easiest and
most efficient solution. As indicated from previous studies [6] [7] [8], this strategy has shortcomings as the
engineering factors required to produce outcomes covering design (which includes design for durability),
construction and manufacture are not considered which is validated in this study.
In this study where precast prestressed girders have been analysed for their sustainable application in
bridge assets, the following has been observed:-
 Appling a universal CO2 target to materials or material components is not applicable to all design
and construction methods, and more importantly, these can lead to perverse sustainability (carbon)
outcomes;
 For the bridge selected for this study, standard precast pretensioned Super T girders are more
efficient through optimised design and manufacture than is the case for in-situ concrete, steel design
or high SCM precast Super T girder options;
 Extended curing times required with high SCM replacement have design implication such as
relaxation in tendons, thus early loss in prestressing forces resulting in changes in design hogs
 Reducing the cement content of concrete used in the PSC Super-T girders (as is the case with
many current specifications) increases the embodied carbon in the bridge investigated due to the
reduced early age strength thus requiring increased amounts of heat accelerated curing to achieve
the required strength which is not viable from sustainability, cost or program time frame aspects;
 Specifying the concrete mix to solely reduce CO2 emissions does not mean that the bridge girder
will have a lower carbon content. In the cases investigated, the carbon increases in the girder and
the bridge itself even though the concrete mix had a low CO2, and
 Sustainability criteria need to consider design requirements (which includes durability
requirements), manufacturing requirements and construction processes. This is critical for future
design options to be both sustainable and cost effective.
  Sustainability specifications need to be considered prior or during design phase, not during the
construction phase where they can adversely effect engineering outcomes and manufacturing
process.
4. Conclusions
The study concluded that simple cement reduction or maximum binder content limits for concrete
construction can be detrimental to carbon reduction in structures, the direct opposite impact being sought
for infrastructure. Precast pretensioned prestressed concrete has been used successfully in Australia for
some 70 years. The cementitious content limits noted above impact negatively on the optimised design,
manufacture, construction and long-term durability of such components. A new method of assessing carbon
reduction in precast pretensioned prestressed concrete is required. Some suggestions towards achieving
that have been suggested in this work.
5. Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the SCI and BG&E teams who assisted in the concrete trials and structural
designs which were integral to this study

6. References

[1] A. Adesina, “Recent advances in the concrete industry to reduce its carbon dioxide
emissions,” Enviromental Challenges, vol. 1, 2020.
[2] G. Hammond and C. Jones, “Embodied energy and carbon in construction materials,” Proc.
Inst. Civ. Eng. Energy, 2008.
[3] l. Keyte, R. Lloyd, C. Holt, J. Chandler, D. Hocking and T. Thomas, “Low-carbon post-
tensioned concrete,” in Concrete Institute of Australia, Adelaide, 2017.
[4] T. Wiedmann and S. H. Teh, ICM Database – Integrated Carbon Metrics Embodied
Carbon Life cycle Invetory Database, Sydney: UNSW Sydney, 2019, 2019.
[5] L. Huang and G. Krigsvoll, “Carbon emission of global construction sector,” Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 81, no. 2018.
[6] D. Jenkins, J. Portella and D. Baweja, “Optimising Precast Bridge Girders for Sustainability
with the use of High Performance Concrete,” in 8th Australian Bridge Conference, Sydney,
2011.
[7] D. Jenkins and J. Portella, “Optimising Precast Bridge Girders for Sustainability with the
Use of High Performance Concrete,” in Australian Bridge Conference, Sydney, 2011.
[8] A. J. Schteinman, D. Baweja, A. Hajimohammadi and R. Fisher, “Improving Embodied
Emission Rating Tools for Concrete: Design and Constructional Considerations,” in
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2021.
[9] C. I. o. A. a. N. P. C. A. o. Australia, Precast Concrete Handbook, Sydney: Concrete
Institute of Australia, 2002.
[10] V. Sirivivatnanon, D. W. Ho and D. Baweja, The Role of Supplementary Cementitious
Materials in Australian Concrete Construction Practice Supplementary Cementitious
Materials in Concrete, A Practical Seminar on the Specification, Use and Performance of
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, Fly Ash, Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne, Canberra,
Sydney and Brisbane: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia, 1991.
[11] V. Sirivivatnanon, H. T. Cao, D. Baweja and D. Hassell, “Production of Australian Silica
Fume and its Utilisation in Concrete,” in International Conference on Fly Ash, Slag, Silica
Fume and Other Siliceous Materials in Concrete, CIA and CSIRO Division of Building,
Construction and Engineering, Leura, 1990.
[12] Z. Arneil, D. Baweja and E. Capelli, Optimising Steam Curing For Precast Prestressed
Concrete Girders, 2018.
[13] Transport for NSW, “Roads and Waterways - Transport for NSW,” 22 06 2022. [Online].
Available: https://roads-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/business-industry/partners-
suppliers/documents/specifications/nb80.pdf. [Accessed 28 03 2023].
[14] I. L. Larsen, I. G. Aasbakken, R. O’Born and K. Vertes, “Determining the Environmental
Benefits of Ultra High Performance Concrete as a Bridge Construction Material,” IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 245 (2017) 052096, 2021.
[15] G. Habert, D. Arribe, T. Dehove, L. Espinasse and R. L. Roy, “Reducing environmental
impact by increasing the strength of concrete: quantification of the improvement to concrete
bridges,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 35, pp. 250-262, 2012.
[16] F. U. A. Shaikh, S. Luhar, H. S. Arel and I. Luhar, “Performance evaluation of Ultrahigh
performance fibre reinforced concrete – A review,” Construction and Building Materials,
vol. 232, 2020.
[17] A. P. Fantilli, O. Mancinelli and B. Chiaia, “The carbon footprint of normal and high-
strength concrete used in low-rise and high-rise buildings,” Case Studies in Construction
Materials, vol. 11, 2019.
[18] I. L. Larsen, “Determining the Environmental Benefits of Ultra High Performance Concrete
as a Bridge Construction Material,” in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering, 2017.
[19] G. Habert, E. Denarié, A. Šajna and P. Rossi, “Lowering the global warming impact of
bridge rehabilitations by using Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concretes,”
Cement & Concrete Composites, vol. 38, pp. 1-11, 2013.
[20] N. Randl, T. Steiner, S. Ofner, E. Baumgartner and a. T. Mészöly, “Development of UHPC
mixtures from an ecological point of view,” Construction Building Material, vol. 67, pp.
373-378, 2014.
[21] M. Hourigan, R. Heywood, P. Shaw and L. O'Moore, “Assessment and Behaviour of
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Beams in Shear with Less than Minimum Shear
Reinforcement,” in The International Federation for Structural Concrete 5th International
FIB Congress FIB 2018 Better Smarter Stronger, Melbourne, VIC Australia, 2018.