Linking Words

Linking words are essential for your writing to be natural and clear. Linking devices
vary in three ways:

1. Position in the text.

Some linking words normally form a link between clauses WITHIN a sentence. It is
bad style to start a sentence with these words:

and but so because then until such as

Another type of linking device is used to form a link BETWEEN sentences. These
words must start with a capital letter and are usually immediately followed by a comma:

Furthermore, Moreover, However, Nevertheless, Therefore, In conclusion,

Most linking words, however, can either start a sentence or form a link between
sentences. The choice is up to the writer.

2. The function of linking words

Linking devices are neither nouns, nor verbs. They provide a text with cohesion and
illustrate how the parts of the text relate to each other. Here are some of the functions
which linking words provide.

Adding extra information to the main point, contrasting ideas, expressing cause and
effect, showing exactly when something happened (narrating), expressing purpose
(why?) and opinion, listing examples, making conclusions and giving emphasis.

3. Grammatical differences

Some linking words must be followed by a clause (Subject + Verb + Object).

E.g.. while why because although so whereas when

Other linking words should be followed by a noun phrase (Linking word + (the) +
Noun/Pronoun or gerund)

E.g.. because of despite during in spite of

The majority of linking devices can be followed by either a noun phrase or a clause.

Here is a list of the principal linking words in English, their function and if their
position is usually fixed.
 Linking words
Adding and Contrasting Expressing cause /
reason
*and *but because

as well as However, as

besides Although since

Moreover, despite This is why

Furthermore, In spite of because of

What is more, Nevertheless, Due to

In addition, On the contrary, Owing to

not only .... but also on the one hand For this reason,

another point is that on the other hand,

whereas Expressing effect /

result
relative clauses while
*so
who where but while
so....that
that ,which In contrast,
such a...that
whose to whom Neither...nor
Therefore
when what
Thus
why
Consequently,

As a result,

too...for/to

not enough...for/to
Narration Expressing purpose
First (of all) immediately to

At first Once so as to
 At the beginning Suddenly in order that

In the beginning As soon as so that

then on for (Non-specific)

next No sooner....than

Before Hardly...when Expressing opinion

After Finally I would say that

After that Eventually In my opinion,

afterwards At the end I think (that)

When In the end I believe (that)

While At last Personally

during To begin with, Apparently,

Soon until

prior to
Giving examples Summing up / Emphasis
concluding
for example, All in all especially

for instance, overall particularly

For one thing, generally Naturally,

this includes In conclusion, exactly because

such as e.g.. (for on the whole above all

example)
in the main Whatever
i.e. (that is)
To sum up, Whenever

too / enough

The more ....

* Avoid starting a sentence with these words.

The linking words beginning with a capital letter often start a sentence, For those
without, position in a sentence is optional.
Linking words - Difficult cases
So AVOID STARTING A SENTENCE WITH THIS WORD! 'So' can be used in two
ways:

1. To show RESULT.

E.g.. It was raining, so we decided not to go to the beach.

NOTE! 'because' shows the REASON. The above sentence could be expressed like
this:

E.g.. We decided not to go to the beach because it was raining.

NOTE! To show a REASON LINK BETWEEN SENTENCES use 'Therefore,'.

2. So & such used for EMPHASIS.

When used for emphasis, 'So' must be followed by either an adjective or an adverb and
must be linked to an explanation CLAUSE.

E.g.. It was so hot that we decided not to go to the beach.

OR We decided not to go to the beach because it was so hot.

NOTE! 'such' is used in the same way, but must be followed by a NOUN or
ADJECTIVE+NOUN.

E.g.. It was such a hot day that we decided not to go to the beach.

OR We decided not to go to the beach because it was such a hot day.

NOTE! When there is no explanation clause, use 'VERY', unless referring to a present
situation.

E.g.. It was very hot yesterday, wasn't it? It's so nice to see you again!

Enough and too

'enough' goes AFTER ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS but BEFORE NOUNS.

E.g.. You won't pass the exam if you don't work hard enough.

OR He didn't get the job because he didn't have enough experience.

'enough' can also be used alone.

E.g.. I'll lend you some money if you haven't got enough.
'too' means 'more than necessary' and comes BEFORE ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS
ONLY.

E.g.. The coffee was too hot to drink.

But and However,

'but' is used to CONTRAST clauses WITHIN A SENTENCE.

E.g.. I like going to the beach, but I never go at midday.

'However,' has the same function, but is used to show CONTRAST BETWEEN
SENTENCES.

E.g.. I've always enjoyed going to the beach. However, I never go there at midday.

Although, though, even though & In spite of / despite,

'Although' must join two clauses, but it's position can change. It can either start a
sentence or come in the middle.

E.g.. Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday.

OR We enjoyed the holiday although it rained a lot.

In spoken English 'though' can be used instead of 'although' when it is used for the
second clause.

E.g.. "I didn't get the job though I had all the necessary qualifications."

'though' can also come at the end of a sentence.

E.g.. "The house isn't very nice. I like the garden though."

'Even though' is a stronger form of 'although'.

E.g.. Even though I was really tired, I couldn't sleep.

'In spite of' or 'Despite' must be followed by a NOUN, PRONOUN (this, that, what etc.)
or ~ING.

E.g.. In spite of the rain, we went to the beach.

OR We went to the beach in spite of the rain.

It is common to use the expression 'In spite of the fact (that)....' or 'Despite the fact
(that)....'

E.g.. She's quite fit in spite of the fact that she smokes 40 cigarettes a day.
Linking words of time - Still, yet and already

'Still' tells us that an action is continuing, or hasn't happened yet. It has positive,
negative and question forms.

E.g.. It's 10 o'clock and John's still in bed.

or She said that she would be here an hour ago and she still hasn't come.

or Are you still living in London?

'yet' asks if something has happened, or to say that something hasn't happened. It is
mainly used in NEGATIVES & QUESTIONS and comes at the end of a sentence. 'Yet'
is usually used with the present perfect tense.

E.g.. He hasn't finished the report yet.

OR Is dinner ready yet?

'Already' is used to say that something happened before expected, it usually comes in
middle position, but can also come in final position. 'Already' is not used in negatives
and in British English is only used in questions to show considerable surprise.

E.g.. I'll tell her that dinner is ready.

She already knows.

Have you finished already?! I thought it would take you longer!

In order to understand this type of linking word, you must be clear about the concepts
of 'a point in time' and 'a period of time'. A point in time is the answer to a 'when'
question, and a period of time is the answer to a 'how long' question.

E.g.. Points of time = 6pm, Wednesday, she arrived, summer, 1999, Christmas, five
minutes ago.

Periods of time = 3 seconds, 4 days, ages, 100 years, the Christmas holiday, five
minutes.

During and while

Both 'during' and 'while' tell us WHEN something happened. The difference between
them is that 'during' is followed by a noun phrase (no verb), and 'while' is followed by a
clause (subject + verb + object).

E.g.. When did you go to Barcelona?

I went there during my holiday in Europe.

OR I went there while I was on holiday in Europe.

 'By' means 'at some time before' and tells us when something happens. It is followed by
a point in time and can be used for both past and future time.

E.g.. This report must be finished by 6pm.

'By the time' has the same meaning but is followed by a clause. It is common with
perfect tenses.

E.g.. By the time we get there the party will have finished.

For, since and until

These words all tell us how long something happens. 'For' focuses on duration and can
be used in most tenses. It is followed by a period of time.

'Since' is only used with perfect tenses and must be followed by a point in time.

E.g.. They stayed in Barcelona for two weeks.

OR They've been in Barcelona since last Friday. = They are still in Barcelona now.

'Until' also tells us how long something happens, but the focus is on the end of the
action or situation. It is followed by a point in time.

E.g.. They stayed in Barcelona until last Friday. = They left Barcelona last Friday.

Not....any more/longer and no longer

These expressions tell us that a situation has changed. 'not....any more/longer' go at the
end of a sentence and 'no longer' is used in the middle of a sentence.

E.g.. Mr. Jones doesn't work here any longer. OR She no longer works here.

As & like

'As' and 'like' can be used in COMPARISONS.

However, 'As' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY A CLAUSE, and 'like' MUST BE

FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.

E.g.. He worked for the company, as his father had done before him.

OR She acts like a child sometimes.

'As' can also be followed by a preposition

E.g.. In 1998, as in 1997, inflation in Brazil fell steadily.

'(not) as....as ' + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB shows EQUALITY or INEQUALITY.

E.g.. She isn't as tall as her father was. OR The traffic can be as bad in Rio as it
is in São Paulo.

'As' can be used to state the ROLE, JOB or FUNCTION of a person or thing.

E.g.. We all worked together as a team. OR She worked as a manager in the

Human Resources Department. OR He used his handkerchief as a flag to attract
attention.

'As' can be used in the same way as 'because'; however, it gives less emphasis than
'because'.

E.g.. As the weather was so bad, we didn't go to the beach.

OR I bought her some flowers as she had been so kind to me.

'As' tells us that actions occur at the same time.

E.g.. As the door opened, she saw him standing by the wall.

'As' is often used in these common expressions:

As hard as, as soon as, as long as, as well as, as far as, as good as.

E.g.. He can stay here as far as I'm concerned. You can go as long as you come
home early.

'As' is also the preposition used after these verbs:

Regarded as see sth. as be thought of as Be looked on

as.

There are very good practice exercises for linking words in Raymond Murphy's
excellent book 'English Grammar in Use'.

So & Such = Unit 101, Enough & Too = Unit 102, Time = Units 110, 118 & 119,
Contrast = Unit 112,

As = Units 115-117.